Covid 19 Treatmentguidelines

COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Treatment Guidelines
Credit NIAID-RML
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Visit https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/ to access the most up-to-date guideline.
How to Cite the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines:

COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Guidelines. National Institutes of
Health. Available at https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/. Accessed [insert date].
The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel regularly updates the recommendations in these guidelines as new information
on the management of COVID-19 becomes available. The most recent version of the guidelines can be found on the
COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines website (https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/).

Table of Contents
What’s New in the Guidelines................................................................................................... 5
Guidelines Development........................................................................................................... 6
Overview
Overview of COVID-19.......................................................................................................... 9
Testing for SARS-CoV-2 Infection....................................................................................... 14
Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 Infection.................................................................................. 18
Clinical Spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 Infection....................................................................... 22
Prioritization of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Therapies for the Treatment of COVID-19 in
Nonhospitalized Patients When There Are Logistical Constraints...................................... 32
Clinical Management of Adults
Clinical Management of Adults Summary........................................................................... 35
General Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With Acute COVID-19........................... 39
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19............................... 46
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19..................................... 57
Clinical Management of Children
Clinical Management of Children Summary....................................................................... 72
Special Considerations in Children..................................................................................... 79
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19............................ 92
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19................................ 102
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a
Discussion on MIS-A........................................................................................................ 113
Critical Care for Adults
Care of Critically Ill Adults With COVID-19 (Summary Recommendations)...................... 125
Introduction to Critical Care Management of Adults With COVID-19............................... 127
Hemodynamics for Adults................................................................................................ 134
Oxygenation and Ventilation for Adults............................................................................. 138
Pharmacologic Interventions for Critically Ill Patients....................................................... 147
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for Adults.......................................................... 149
Critical Care for Children
Introduction to Critical Care Management of Children With COVID-19............................ 151
Hemodynamic Considerations for Children...................................................................... 155
Oxygenation and Ventilation for Children......................................................................... 160
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for Children....................................................... 170
Antiviral Agents, Including Antibody Products
Antiviral Agents, Including Antibody Products (Summary Recommendations)................ 173
COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines 2

Remdesivir........................................................................................................................ 175
Table 4a. Remdesivir: Selected Clinical Trial Data....................................................... 178
Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid)......................................................................... 186
Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid)
and Concomitant Medications.................................................................................... 193
Molnupiravir...................................................................................................................... 200
Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Monoclonal Antibodies........................................................................ 205
Table 4b. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Monoclonal Antibodies: Selected Clinical Trial Data...... 207
COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma...................................................................................... 211
Table 4c. COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma: Selected Clinical Trial Data.................... 218
Interferons......................................................................................................................... 228
Table 4d. Interferons: Selected Clinical Trial Data ...................................................... 231
Table 4e. Characteristics of Antiviral Agents, Including Antibody Products..................... 238
Immunomodulators
Immunomodulators (Summary Recommendations)......................................................... 243
Systemic Corticosteroids.................................................................................................. 244
Table 5a. Systemic Corticosteroids: Selected Clinical Trial Data................................ 250
Inhaled Corticosteroids..................................................................................................... 260
Table 5b. Inhaled Corticosteroids: Selected Clinical Trial Data................................... 263
Interleukin-6 Inhibitors...................................................................................................... 270
Table 5c. Interleukin-6 Inhibitors: Selected Clinical Trial Data..................................... 275
Janus Kinase Inhibitors..................................................................................................... 283
Table 5d: Janus Kinase Inhibitors: Selected Clinical Trial Data................................... 286
Abatacept.......................................................................................................................... 293
Inflixamab.......................................................................................................................... 296
Interleukin-1 Inhibitors...................................................................................................... 299
Vilobelimab....................................................................................................................... 308
Table 5e. Characteristics of Immunomodulators.............................................................. 311
Antithrombotic Therapy in Patients With COVID-19............................................................ 321
Table 6a. Anticoagulant Therapy: Selected Clinical Trial Data.......................................... 336
Table 6b. Antiplatelet Therapy: Selected Clinical Trial Data.............................................. 351
Miscellaneous Drugs
Miscellaneous Drugs (Summary Recommendations)....................................................... 356
Fluvoxamine...................................................................................................................... 357
Table 7a. Fluvoxamine: Selected Clinical Trial Data.................................................... 360
Intravenous Immunoglobin............................................................................................... 368
Ivermectin......................................................................................................................... 371
Table 7b. Ivermectin: Selected Clinical Trial Data........................................................ 374
Metformin.......................................................................................................................... 389

Table 7c. Metformin: Selected Clinical Trial Data........................................................ 392
Table 7d. Characteristics of Miscellaneous Drugs............................................................ 395
Supplements
Supplements (Summary Recommendations)................................................................... 397
Vitamin C........................................................................................................................... 398
Vitamin D........................................................................................................................... 401
Zinc................................................................................................................................... 404
Considerations for Using Concomitant Medications in Patients With COVID-19.............. 407
Special Populations
Special Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised.................................. 409
Special Considerations in Adults and Children With Cancer............................................ 427
Special Considerations in Solid Organ Transplant, Hematopoietic Cell Transplant,
and Cellular Immunotherapy Candidates, Donors, and Recipients.................................. 435
Special Considerations During Pregnancy and After Delivery.......................................... 444
Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics.................................................... 452
Influenza and COVID-19................................................................................................... 460
Special Considerations in People With HIV...................................................................... 466
Appendix A, Table 1. COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel Roster................................. 474
Appendix A, Table 2. Panel on COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Financial Disclosure
for Companies Related to COVID-19 Treatment or Diagnostics......................................... 476

What’s New in the Guidelines
Last Updated: February 29, 2024
In response to the rapidly evolving COVID-19 pandemic, the National Institutes of Health assembled
a panel of experts to provide practical recommendations for health care providers and issued the first
version of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Guidelines on April 21, 2020. For
close to 4 years, the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) has critically reviewed the
growing body of research data on COVID-19 and used that information to develop and revise their
recommendations for treating patients with this disease. The Panel has released a total of 72 versions of
the Guidelines.
The federal COVID-19 Public Health Emergency ended in May 2023, and several professional societies
currently provide COVID-19 treatment guidelines for their medical specialties or subspecialties.
Accordingly, this will be the final update of the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines.
The Panel members hope these Guidelines have been of value to health care providers, and they
appreciate the support and input they have received over the past 4 years.
The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines website will remain available until August 16, 2024, and will
provide a downloadable PDF of the final version of the Guidelines.
February 29, 2024

In preparation for this final version of the Guidelines, the Panel reviewed all the sections that were not
updated on December 20, 2023. The information in these sections is current as of February 2024.
The Viral Rebound and Symptom Recurrence subsections in Therapeutic Management of
Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 and Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) have been
updated with new references. The Panel noted that concerns about the recurrence of symptoms or viral
rebound should not be a reason to avoid using antiviral therapy when indicated.
The Panel updated the discussion on the role of remdesivir in adults with COVID-19 who require
mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in Therapeutic Management of
Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
In Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19, the vaccination status
categories that determine a child’s risk level for progression to severe disease have been changed from
“Unvaccinated,” “Primary Series,” and “Up to Date” to “Not Up to Date” and “Up to Date.” Chronic
kidney disease and pregnancy were added to the list of risk factors that are associated with progression
to severe COVID-19.
Other sections that were reviewed for this final version of the Guidelines can be found in:
• Clinical Management of Adults
• Clinical Management of Children
• Critical Care for Adults
• Critical Care for Children
• Antivirals, Including Antibody Products
• Immunomodulators
• Special Populations

Guidelines Development
The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines were developed in response to the COVID-19 Public Health
Emergency declared by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services in late January 2020. The
goal of the Guidelines was to provide clinicians with guidance on caring for patients with COVID-19.
Because clinical information about the optimal management of COVID-19 evolved quickly, a
multidisciplinary panel of experts frequently updated the Guidelines based on their assessments of the
emerging evidence on treatments for this disease.
Panel Composition
The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) co-chairs appointed Panel members with clinical
experience and expertise in adult or pediatric patient management, translational and clinical science, or
the development of treatment guidelines. Panel members included representatives from federal agencies,
health care organizations, academic institutions, professional societies, and the community. Federal
agencies and professional societies represented on the Panel include:
• American Association for Respiratory Care
• American Association of Critical-Care Nurses
• American College of Chest Physicians
• American College of Emergency Physicians
• American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
• American Society of Hematology
• American Thoracic Society
• Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Department of Defense
• Department of Veterans Affairs
• Food and Drug Administration
• Infectious Diseases Society of America
• National Institutes of Health
• Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society
• Society of Critical Care Medicine
• Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists
The inclusion of representatives from professional societies does not imply that these societies endorsed
all elements of the Guidelines.
Appendix A, Table 1, provides the names and affiliations of the Panel members, ex officio members,
consultants, and support team members on the Panel roster as of the final update of the Guidelines.
Financial disclosures for the Panel members can be found in Appendix A, Table 2.

Development of the Guidelines
Each section of the Guidelines was developed by a working group of Panel members who had expertise
in the area addressed in that section. Each working group was responsible for identifying relevant
information and published scientific literature and for conducting a systematic, comprehensive review
of that information and literature. The working groups proposed updates to the Guidelines based on the
latest published research findings and clinical information.
Voting members of the Panel reviewed and voted on new Guidelines sections and recommendations.
A majority of voting members endorsed each recommendation statement before it was included in the
Guidelines. This requirement applied to recommendations for and against treatments and in cases when
there was insufficient evidence to recommend either for or against treatments. Section updates that did
not affect rated recommendations were approved by the Panel co-chairs without a Panel vote. During
the development of the Guidelines, Panel members were required to keep all Panel deliberations and
evaluations of unpublished data confidential.
Method of Synthesizing Data and Formulating Recommendations

The working groups critically reviewed and synthesized the available data to develop recommendations.
During this process, the Panel evaluated the data, including the source of the data, the type of study
(e.g., randomized controlled trial, prospective or retrospective cohort study, case series, in vitro study),
the quality and suitability of the methods, the number of participants, and the effect sizes observed. In
addition to evaluating data and reviewing clinical research on COVID-19, Panel members used clinical
experiences with COVID-19 and other diseases to develop recommendations.
The recommendations in these Guidelines are based on scientific evidence and expert opinion. Each
recommendation includes 2 ratings: an uppercase letter (A, B, or C) that indicates the strength of the
recommendation and a Roman numeral with or without a lowercase letter (I, IIa, IIb, or III) that
indicates the quality of the evidence that supports the recommendation (see Table 1).
The ratings for the quality of the evidence reflect both the likelihood of bias in the treatment effect
estimate and the precision of the estimate. A rating of I corresponds to a low likelihood of bias and a
high precision, a rating of IIa (for randomized trials) or IIb (for observational studies) corresponds to a
moderate likelihood of bias and a moderate or high precision, and a rating of III corresponds to a high
likelihood of bias (for any type of study).
Table 1. Recommendation Rating Scheme
Strength of Recommendation Evidence for Recommendation

A: Strong recommendation for the statement I: High quality of evidence: 1 or more randomized trials
B: Moderate recommendation for the statement without major limitations,a well-powered subgroup
analyses of such trials, or meta-analyses without major
C: Weak recommendation for the statement limitations
IIa: Moderate quality of evidence: Randomized trials and
subgroup analyses of randomized trials that do not
meet the criteria for a I rating
IIb: Moderate quality of evidence: Observational studies
without major limitationsb
III: Expert opinion
a
The rating may be lower than I in cases where trials have produced conflicting results.
b
This category also includes meta-analyses of observational studies.

In general, the recommendations in these Guidelines fall into the following categories:
• The Panel recommends using [blank] for the treatment of COVID-19 (rating).
Recommendations in this category are based on evidence that the potential benefits of using the
intervention outweigh the potential risks.
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of
[blank] for the treatment of COVID-19 (no rating). This statement is used when data are not
sufficient to support a recommendation or when the available data are conflicting.
• The Panel recommends against the use of [blank] for the treatment of COVID-19, except in a
clinical trial (rating). This recommendation is used in cases when the available data have shown
no benefit from using the intervention for the treatment of COVID-19, or the intervention has
demonstrated safety concerns. More results from clinical trials are needed to further define the role
of the intervention in treating COVID-19.
• The Panel recommends against the use of [blank] for the treatment of COVID-19 (rating).
This recommendation is used in cases when the available data show no benefit from using the
intervention to treat COVID-19, or the safety concerns for the intervention outweigh any potential
benefits.
Evolving Knowledge on Treatments for COVID-19

The Food and Drug Administration approved several agents (e.g., baricitinib, ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir [Paxlovid], remdesivir, tocilizumab) for the treatment of COVID-19, and a number of other
agents have received Emergency Use Authorizations. An array of drugs approved for other indications
and multiple investigational agents are being studied for the treatment of COVID-19 in clinical trials
around the globe. Information about these trials can be found at ClinicalTrials.gov.
Whenever possible, the Panel recommends that unapproved or unlicensed treatments for COVID-19
be studied in well-designed, controlled clinical trials. This recommendation also applies to drugs that
have been approved or licensed for indications other than the treatment of COVID-19. Clinical research
is critically important to generating evidence that can be used to answer questions about the safety and
efficacy of potential treatments for COVID-19.
Finally, it is important to stress that the rated treatment recommendations in these Guidelines should
not be considered mandates. Ultimately, patients and their health care providers should use a shared
decision-making process when considering treatments for COVID-19.

Overview of COVID-19
Last Updated: December 20, 2023
Epidemiology
Individuals of all ages are at risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, the probability of severe
COVID-19 is higher in people aged ≥65 years, those living in nursing homes or long-term care facilities,
those who are not vaccinated against COVID-19 or who have poor responses to COVID-19 vaccines,
and those with certain chronic medical conditions. Data on comorbid health conditions among patients
with COVID-19 indicate that patients with cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes with complications, neurocognitive disorders, and obesity
are at increased risk of severe COVID-19. The risk appears to be higher in patients with multiple
comorbid conditions. Other conditions that may lead to a high risk of severe COVID-19 include cancer,
cystic fibrosis, immunocompromising conditions, liver disease (especially in patients with cirrhosis),
pregnancy, and sickle cell disease. Transplant recipients and people who are taking immunosuppressive
medications are also at high risk of severe COVID-19.1 See Clinical Spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
for a description of the clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection and a discussion of the
spectrum of disease.
Although COVID-19 vaccination does not eliminate the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection, vaccination does
significantly reduce the risk of COVID-19–related morbidity and mortality, particularly in individuals
who are at high risk of progressing to severe disease.2,3
Racial and Ethnic Minorities and Other Marginalized Groups

Communities that have been historically marginalized or made socially vulnerable due to a lack of
access to health care or an inability to socially isolate are at increased risk of SARS-CoV-2 acquisition,
COVID-19–related hospitalization, and death. These communities include racial and ethnic minorities,
essential non-health care workers, and some people with disabilities.
Key Considerations
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel recommends that health care providers, health
care systems, and payers ensure equitable access to high-quality care and treatment for all
patients, regardless of race, ethnic identity, or other minoritized identity or social status (AIII).
“Minoritized” refers to social groups that have been deprived of power and status by the dominant
culture in society and encompasses not just racial identities but other identities as well, including
gender identity and sexual orientation.4
• Promoting equitable care for these groups must include considering the full range of medical,
demographic, and social factors that may negatively impact health outcomes.
• Clinicians should be aware that pulse oximeters may not accurately detect hypoxemia in people
with darker skin pigmentation.5,6 This may delay treatment and lead to worse clinical outcomes in
patients with COVID-19.7 See Clinical Spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 Infection for more information.
• Supporting equitable access to high-quality care and treatment for all patients is now an imperative
for all health care organizations accredited by the Joint Commission, as well as a priority for the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and other public health agencies.

COVID-19–Related Health Outcomes
Historical structural inequities significantly contribute to the health disparities experienced by racial
and ethnic minority groups (e.g., Black/African American people, Hispanic people, American Indian/
Alaska Native people).8 Some data have highlighted that select racial and ethnic minority groups
experience higher rates of COVID-19, subsequent hospitalization, and death in relation to their share of
the total U.S. population. Black/African American people, Hispanic people, and American Indian/Alaska
Native people also experience rates of hospitalization that are more than 2 times higher and rates of
COVID-19–related death that are approximately 2 times higher than those experienced by White people.
The largest disparities were observed among American Indian/Alaska Native people, who experienced a
rate of hospitalization almost 3 times higher and a rate of death 2.1 times higher than White people.9
The increased risk of severe COVID-19 among racial and ethnic minority groups may be partly
attributed to higher rates of comorbid conditions in these populations (e.g., cardiovascular disease,
diabetes, chronic kidney disease, hypertension, obesity, pulmonary disease).9
Disparities in Access to Care

Members of racial and ethnic minority groups have an increased risk of exposure to COVID-19
and decreased access to care. Large-scale mobility data reveals that people living in lower-income
communities were less able to physically isolate during COVID-19 emergency declarations,10 as
members of these communities were frequently unable to work from home.11 A 2020 study evaluating
access to health care resources in New York City found that in areas of the city where the majority of
the population was Black/African American and Hispanic, there were higher COVID-19 positivity rates
and fewer licensed hospital beds and intensive care unit beds than in areas where the majority of the
population was White.12
Disparities in Access to COVID-19 Treatments

Data from 41 U.S. health care systems reveal racial and ethnic disparities in the use of anti-SARS-CoV-2
monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) for the treatment of COVID-19.13 Black/African American patients,
Asian patients, and patients of other races were, respectively, 22.4%, 48.3%, and 46.5% less likely to
receive anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs for the treatment of COVID-19 than White patients.13,14 Disparities
have also been observed in the dispensing rates for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and
molnupiravir. One study reported that between April and July 2022, Black/African American patients
were prescribed ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir 35.8% less often than White patients, and Hispanic
patients were prescribed this drug 29.9% less often than White patients.15 Despite a greater number of
dispensing sites in neighborhoods with a higher social vulnerability, oral antivirals were prescribed at a
lower rate for patients with COVID-19 who were living in these areas than in those with a lesser degree
of social vulnerability.16 These disparities are not limited to outpatient settings. One retrospective cohort
study of veterans hospitalized with COVID-19 reported that Black veterans had lower odds of receiving
COVID-19–specific treatments, including systemic steroids, remdesivir, and immunomodulators, than
White veterans.17
Other Marginalized Groups

Other marginalized groups also experience worse outcomes for COVID-19. Hospitalization rates
for COVID-19 among Medicare beneficiaries who were eligible for disability were approximately
50% higher than those among people who were eligible for Medicare based on age alone, and this
discrepancy disproportionately affected Black/African American people, Hispanic people, and American
Indian/Alaska Native people.18

Migrants, refugees, and essential non-health care workers (e.g., food supply, food service, public
transportation, and agricultural workers) also have disproportionately high rates of COVID-19 cases
and deaths. These high rates can be attributed to overcrowding, an inability to physically isolate, and
inadequate access to health care.19-21
Given the pervasiveness of disparities in access to care and provision of treatment, it is imperative for
clinicians, working with others on the patient care team, to assess the social factors that contribute to
access and quality gaps and to strive to provide equitable treatment to all patients. These issues have
been identified as a strategic priority by the Joint Commission and the CDC.
SARS-CoV-2 Variants
Like other RNA viruses, SARS-CoV-2 is constantly evolving through random mutations. New mutations
can potentially increase or decrease infectiousness and virulence. In addition, mutations can increase the
virus’ ability to evade adaptive immune responses from previous SARS-CoV-2 infections or vaccination.
This viral evolution may increase the risk of reinfection or decrease the efficacy of vaccines.22 There is
evidence that some SARS-CoV-2 variants have reduced susceptibility to plasma from people who were
previously infected or immunized, as well as to anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs.23-25
Since December 2020, the World Health Organization has assigned Greek letter designations to
several identified variants. A SARS-CoV-2 variant designated as a variant of concern displays certain
characteristics, such as increased transmissibility or virulence. In addition, vaccines and therapeutics
may have decreased effectiveness against variants of concern, and the mutations found in these variants
may interfere with the targets of diagnostic tests. The variant of interest designation has been used for
important variants that are not fully characterized; however, organizations do not use the same variant
designations, and they may define their variant designations differently.26,27
In September 2021, the CDC added a new designation for variants: variants being monitored.
The data on these variants indicate a potential or clear impact on approved or authorized medical
countermeasures, or these variants are associated with cases of more severe disease or increased
transmission rates. However, these variants are either no longer detected or are circulating at very low
levels in the United States; therefore, they do not pose a significant and imminent risk to public health in
the United States.
The Omicron variant was designated as a variant of concern in November 2021 and rapidly became the
dominant variant across the globe. The Omicron subvariants BA.1, BA.1.1, and BA.2 emerged in early
to mid-2022, followed by the subvariants BA.4, BA.5, BQ.1, BQ.1.1, XBB, EG.5, HV.1, and FL.1.5.1.
The newer Omicron subvariants are generally more transmissible than previous variants and are not
susceptible to any of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs that were previously authorized for the treatment and
prevention of COVID-19.24,25,28,29
Data on the emergence, transmission, and clinical relevance of these new variants are rapidly evolving;
this is especially true for research on how variants might affect transmission rates, disease progression,
vaccine development, and the efficacy of current therapeutics. Because the research on variants is
moving quickly and the classification of the different variants may change over time, websites such
as the CDC’s COVID Data Tracker, CoVariants.org, and the World Health Organization’s Tracking
SARS-CoV-2 Variants provide regular updates on data for SARS-CoV-2 variants.
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22. Walensky RP, Walke HT, Fauci AS. SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern in the United States—challenges and
opportunities. JAMA. 2021;325(11):1037-1038. Available at:
23. Wang P, Nair MS, Liu L, et al. Antibody resistance of SARS-CoV-2 variants B.1.351 and B.1.1.7. Nature.
24. Cameroni E, Bowen JE, Rosen LE, et al. Broadly neutralizing antibodies overcome SARS-CoV-2 Omicron
antigenic shift. Nature. 2022;602(7898):664-670. Available at:
25. Liu L, Iketani S, Guo Y, et al. Striking antibody evasion manifested by the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2.
Nature. 2022;602(7898):676-681. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35016198.
26. World Health Organization. Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants. 2023. Available at:
https://www.who.int/en/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants. Accessed November 13, 2023.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. SARS-CoV-2 variant classifications and definitions. 2023.
Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/variants/variant-classifications.html. Accessed
November 13, 2023.
28. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for
Evusheld (tixagevimab co-packaged with cilgavimab). 2023. Available at:
https://www.fda.gov/media/154701/download.
bebtelovimab. 2022. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/156152/download.

Testing for SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Summary of Testing for SARS-CoV-2 Infection

The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) defers to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for
recommendations on diagnostic testing for SARS-CoV-2 infection. The Panel also defers to the CDC for recommendations
on the use of testing for screening purposes, such as for screening among people who are asymptomatic but have had
recent known or suspected exposure to SARS-CoV-2. Some key CDC recommendations include:
• For diagnosing current SARS-CoV-2 infection, the CDC recommends using either a nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT)
or an antigen test and using a specimen from the upper respiratory tract (e.g., nasal, nasopharyngeal).
• There may be a window period of up to 5 days after exposure before viral antigens or nucleic acids can be detected.
• NAATs are the most sensitive tests for detecting current SARS-CoV-2 infection. Because antigen tests are less sensitive
than NAATs, the Food and Drug Administration recommends repeating antigen tests that produce negative results in
certain circumstances, such as when clinical suspicion of COVID-19 is high in people who are symptomatic or when
people who are asymptomatic have had known or suspected exposure to SARS-CoV-2.
• Antibody tests should not be used to diagnose current SARS-CoV-2 infection.
• Currently, antibody tests are not recommended for assessing SARS-CoV-2 immunity following COVID-19 vaccination or
for assessing the need for vaccination in a person who is unvaccinated.
Diagnostic Testing for SARS-CoV-2 Infection

For diagnosing current SARS-CoV-2 infection, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
recommends using either a nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT) or an antigen test.1 Testing may
also be used for screening and to determine the length of a patient’s isolation period.2 There may be a
window period of up to 5 days after exposure before viral antigens or nucleic acids can be detected.
A number of diagnostic tests for SARS-CoV-2 infection (e.g., NAATs, antigen tests) have received
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Emergency Use Authorizations (EUAs) for use in laboratories
and points of care (e.g., physician offices, pharmacies, long-term care facilities, school clinics) and for
self-administered testing.3 An influenza and SARS-CoV-2 multiplex NAAT that can simultaneously
detect and differentiate between influenza A, influenza B, and SARS-CoV-2 also received an EUA from
the FDA.4 The FDA also granted authorization to market the first over-the-counter, at-home, molecular
NAAT (i.e., Cue COVID-19) and antigen test (i.e., Flowflex COVID-19) for use in people with
symptomatic COVID-19.
For diagnosing current SARS-CoV-2 infection, the CDC recommends using a specimen from the
upper respiratory tract (e.g., nasal, nasopharyngeal).5 Testing lower respiratory tract specimens is also
an option in certain circumstances (e.g., in those receiving mechanical ventilation). For details about
collecting and handling specimens for COVID-19 testing, please refer to the CDC’s recommendations.
Antigen Testing for SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Antigen-based diagnostic tests are widely used at home, at the point of care, and in the laboratory because
of their low cost, rapid turnaround time, and availability. Antigen tests and laboratory-based NAATs
have similar high specificity. False positive test results can occur with antigen tests, although they are
unlikely when the tests are used correctly.6 The likelihood of a false positive antigen test result is higher
when the expected probability of SARS-CoV-2 infection is low. Because antigen tests are less sensitive
than NAATs, the FDA recommends repeating antigen tests that produce negative results in certain

circumstances, such as when clinical suspicion of COVID-19 is high in people who are symptomatic or
when people who are asymptomatic have had known or suspected exposure to SARS-CoV-2.
Nucleic Acid Amplification Testing for SARS-CoV-2 Infection

NAATs, such as reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction–based diagnostic tests, which detect
viral nucleic acids,7 are the most sensitive tests for detecting current SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Diagnostically, some NAATs may produce false negative results if a mutation occurs in the part of the
virus’s genome that is assessed by that test.8 The FDA monitors the potential effects of SARS-CoV-2
genetic variations on NAAT results and issues updates when specific variations could affect the
performance of NAATs that have received EUAs.9 A single negative test result does not exclude the
possibility of SARS-CoV-2 infection in people who have a high likelihood of infection based on their
exposure history or clinical presentation.10
Reinfection
Reinfection has been reported in people after an initial diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Because
reinfection can be difficult to distinguish from persistent shedding (i.e., positive NAAT results persisting
for weeks or months), the CDC recommends using an antigen test instead of a NAAT in patients who
have symptoms compatible with SARS-CoV-2 infection who are within 90 days of recovering from
a previous SARS-CoV-2 infection. Because intermittent detection of viral RNA can occur, a negative
result on an initial NAAT followed by a positive result on a subsequent test does not necessarily mean a
person has been reinfected.11 When the results for an initial and subsequent test are positive, comparative
viral sequence data from both tests are needed to distinguish between the persistent presence of viral
fragments and reinfection. In the absence of viral sequence data, the cycle threshold (Ct) value from a
positive NAAT result may provide information about whether a newly detected infection is related to
the persistence of viral fragments or to reinfection. The Ct value is the number of PCR cycles at which
the nucleic acid target in the sample becomes detectable. In general, the Ct value is inversely related
to the SARS-CoV-2 viral load. Because the clinical utility of Ct values is unclear, an expert should be
consulted if these values are used to guide clinical decisions.
Serologic or Antibody Testing for Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Unlike NAATs and antigen tests, which detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2, serologic or antibody tests
can detect recent or prior SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination. The CDC recommends that antibody
tests should not be used to diagnose current SARS-CoV-2 infection.12 It may take 21 days or longer after
symptom onset for seroconversion to occur (i.e., the development of detectable immunoglobulin M or
immunoglobulin G antibodies to SARS-CoV-2).13-18
No serologic tests for SARS-CoV-2 have been approved by the FDA. Some, but not all, commercially
available serologic tests for SARS-CoV-2 have received EUAs from the FDA.19 Several professional
societies and federal agencies, including the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the CDC, and the
FDA, provide guidance on the use of serologic testing for SARS-CoV-2.
Serologic Testing and Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Currently, antibody tests are not recommended for assessing SARS-CoV-2 immunity following
COVID-19 vaccination or for assessing the need for vaccination in a person who is unvaccinated.
The FDA has issued EUAs for more than 80 SARS-CoV-2 serologic tests since the beginning of the
pandemic. However, these tests are not currently authorized for routine use in making individual
medical decisions.19 SARS-CoV-2 serologic tests are authorized for detecting antibodies, but their

ability to predict protective immunity has not been validated. Most of these tests are not standardized.
Furthermore, as SARS-CoV-2 is not a well-conserved virus, mutations in the receptor binding domain
of the virus could lead to decreased binding affinity between antibodies and SARS-CoV-2–specific
antigens.
If a serologic test is performed, the result should be interpreted with caution. First, it remains unclear
how long SARS-CoV-2 antibodies persist following infection or vaccination. A negative serologic test
result also does not preclude prior SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination against COVID-19. Second,
some people who are infected with SARS-CoV-2 or who are vaccinated against COVID-19 (e.g.,
those who are immunocompromised) may not develop measurable levels of antibodies. It is presumed
that those who do not have measurable antibodies after vaccination are at higher risk of SARS-CoV-2
infection than those who have measurable antibodies. Third, because nucleocapsid proteins are not
a constituent of the vaccines that are currently approved by the FDA, available through EUAs, or in
late-stage clinical trials, serologic tests that detect antibodies by recognizing nucleocapsid proteins
should be used to distinguish between antibody responses to natural infection and vaccine-induced
antibody responses to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein antigen.
Assuming that the test is reliable, serologic tests that identify recent or prior SARS-CoV-2 infection
may be used to determine who may be eligible to donate COVID-19 convalescent plasma and may aid
in diagnosing multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and multisystem inflammatory
syndrome in adults (MIS-A).
References
1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Overview of testing for SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes
COVID-19. 2023. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/testing-overview.html.
Accessed December 7, 2023.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Isolation and precautions for people with COVID-19. 2023.
Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/your-health/isolation.html. Accessed December 5,
2023.
3. Food and Drug Administration. In vitro diagnostics EUAs. 2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/medical-
devices/covid-19-emergency-use-authorizations-medical-devices/in-vitro-diagnostics-euas. Accessed
December 4, 2023.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC’s influenza SARS-CoV-2 multiplex assay. 2022. Available
at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/multiplex.html. Accessed December 12, 2023.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidelines for collecting and handling of clinical
specimens for COVID-19 testing. 2023. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/
guidelines-clinical-specimens.html. Accessed December 7, 2023.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Considerations for SARS-CoV-2 antigen testing for healthcare
providers testing individuals in the community. 2023. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-
ncov/lab/resources/antigen-tests-guidelines.html. Accessed December 11, 2023.
7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs). 2023. Available at:
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/naats.html. Accessed December 11, 2023.
8. Food and Drug Administration. Genetic variants of SARS-CoV-2 may lead to false negative results with
molecular tests for detection of SARS-CoV-2—letter to clinical laboratory staff and health care providers.
2021. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/letters-health-care-providers/genetic-variants-sars-
cov-2-may-lead-false-negative-results-molecular-tests-detection-sars-cov-2. Accessed December 7, 2023.
9. Food and Drug Administration. SARS-CoV-2 viral mutations: impact on COVID-19 tests. 2023. Available at:
https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-covid-19-and-medical-devices/sars-cov-2-viral-mutations-

impact-covid-19-tests. Accessed December 7, 2023.
10. Kucirka LM, Lauer SA, Laeyendecker O, Boon D, Lessler J. Variation in false-negative rate of reverse
transcriptase polymerase chain reaction-based SARS-CoV-2 tests by time since exposure. Ann Intern Med.
11. Xiao AT, Tong YX, Zhang S. Profile of RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2: a preliminary study from 56 COVID-19
patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2249-2251. Available at:
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidelines for COVID-19 antibody testing. 2022.
Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/testing/antibody-tests-guidelines.html.
13. Guo L, Ren L, Yang S, et al. Profiling early humoral response to diagnose novel coronavirus disease
(COVID-19). Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(15):778-785. Available at:
14. Haveri A, Smura T, Kuivanen S, et al. Serological and molecular findings during SARS-CoV-2 infection:
the first case study in Finland, January to February 2020. Euro Surveill. 2020;25(11):2000266. Available at:
15. Long QX, Liu BZ, Deng HJ, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19. Nat Med.
16. Okba NMA, Müller MA, Li W, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2–specific antibody
responses in coronavirus disease patients. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(7):1478-1488. Available at:
17. Xiang F, Wang X, He X, et al. Antibody detection and dynamic characteristics in patients with coronavirus
disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(8):1930-1934. Available at:
18. Zhao J, Yuan Q, Wang H, et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with novel coronavirus disease
2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2027-2034. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32221519.
19. Food and Drug Administration. EUA authorized serology test performance. 2022. Available at: https://www.
fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19-emergency-use-authorizations-medical-devices/
eua-authorized-serology-test-performance. Accessed December 7, 2023.

Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Summary Recommendation
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends COVID-19 vaccination for everyone who is eligible
according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (AI).
Each recommendation in the Guidelines receives a rating for the strength of the recommendation (A, B, or C) and a rating
for the evidence that supports it (I, IIa, IIb, or III). See Guidelines Development for more information.
General Prevention Measures

Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 occurs primarily through exposure to respiratory droplets.1 Exposure can
occur when individuals inhale droplets or particles that contain the virus or touch mucous membranes
with hands that have been contaminated with the virus. Exhaled droplets or particles can also deposit the
virus onto exposed mucous membranes.
The risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission can be reduced by covering coughs and sneezes, wearing a
well-fitted mask around others, and isolating when experiencing symptoms. Frequent handwashing also
effectively reduces the risk of infection.2 Health care providers should follow the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) recommendations for infection control and the appropriate use of
personal protective equipment.3
COVID-19 Vaccines
Recommendation
• The Panel recommends COVID-19 vaccination for everyone who is eligible according to the
CDC’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (AI).
Rationale
Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent COVID-19. Two 2023–2024 mRNA vaccines,
BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) and mRNA-1273 (Moderna), and the 2023–2024 recombinant spike
protein with adjuvant vaccine NVX-CoV2373 (Novavax)4 are currently available in the United States.
The adenovirus vector vaccine Ad26.COV2.S (Johnson & Johnson/Janssen) is no longer available in the
United States.
COVID-19 vaccination is recommended for everyone aged ≥6 months in the United States. The Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) Emergency Use Authorization fact sheet and the product label for
each vaccine provide detailed information on the vaccination schedule and the doses that are approved
or authorized for that vaccine. The type and dose of vaccine and the timing of the doses depend
on the recipient’s age and underlying medical conditions. The CDC regularly updates the clinical
considerations for the COVID-19 vaccines currently approved by the FDA or authorized for use in the
United States.5
Adverse Events
COVID-19 vaccines are safe and effective. Local and systemic adverse events are relatively common
with these vaccines. Most of the adverse events that occurred during vaccine trials were mild or

moderate in severity (i.e., they did not prevent vaccinated people from engaging in daily activities)
and resolved after 1 or 2 days. There have been a few reports of severe allergic reactions following
COVID-19 vaccination, including rare reports of patients who experienced anaphylaxis after receiving
an mRNA vaccine.6,7
Thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome is a serious condition characterized by blood clots in
large blood vessels and low platelet levels. The prevalence of the syndrome was approximately 4 per
million among people who received the Johnson & Johnson/Janssen vaccine.8,9 That vaccine is no longer
available in the United States. If a patient experiences thrombosis and thrombocytopenia syndrome after
receiving a COVID-19 vaccine outside of the United States, a hematologist should be consulted about
evaluation and management.
Myocarditis and pericarditis after COVID-19 vaccination are rare, and most of the reported cases were
very mild and self-limiting.10 These conditions have occurred most often in male adolescents, young
adults, and people who have received mRNA vaccines.
The results of recent studies suggest that adults aged ≥18 years who received the Johnson & Johnson/
Janssen vaccine have an increased risk of Guillain-Barré syndrome.11 In contrast, people who received
mRNA vaccines do not have an increased risk of Guillain-Barré syndrome.12
The CDC monitors severe adverse events, such as strokes, and provides regular updates on selected
adverse events of COVID-19 vaccines.
Vaccination in Pregnant and Lactating People

Pregnant and lactating individuals were not included in the initial COVID-19 vaccine trials. However,
the CDC and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommend vaccination for
pregnant and lactating people. This recommendation is based on the accumulated safety and efficacy
data on the use of these vaccines in pregnant people, as well on as the increased risk of severe disease in
pregnant individuals with COVID-19.13-17 These organizations also recommend vaccination for people
who are trying to become pregnant or who may become pregnant in the future. The American College of
Obstetricians and Gynecologists provides guidance for clinicians on counseling pregnant patients about
COVID-19 vaccination.18
Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis
As of January 2024, no biomedical intervention other than vaccines prevents COVID-19 disease.
Previously, the FDA authorized the use of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 monoclonal antibodies tixagevimab
plus cilgavimab (Evusheld) as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) of COVID-19 in people who were
not expected to mount an adequate immune response to COVID-19 vaccination and in people with
COVID-19 vaccine contraindications.19 Due to the increased prevalence of Omicron subvariants that are
not susceptible to tixagevimab plus cilgavimab, this combination is not currently authorized by the FDA
for use as PrEP of COVID-19.20 It remains critical that these individuals:
• Keep up to date with COVID-19 vaccination unless a contraindication exists.
• Take precautions to avoid infection. The CDC provides information on the prevention of
COVID-19 in people who are immunocompromised.
• Be tested for SARS-CoV-2 infection if they experience signs and symptoms consistent with
COVID-19 and, if infected, promptly seek medical attention.

Post-Exposure Prophylaxis
As of January 2024, no biomedical intervention other than vaccines prevents disease after exposure to
SARS-CoV-2. Previously, the FDA authorized the use of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 monoclonal antibody
products bamlanivimab plus etesevimab and casirivimab plus imdevimab as post-exposure prophylaxis
(PEP) in certain people at high risk of progression to severe COVID-19. However, the Omicron
subvariants are not susceptible to these products; therefore, their use as SARS-CoV-2 PEP is not
recommended.
References
1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 overview and infection prevention and control
priorities in non-U.S. healthcare settings. 2023. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/
non-us-settings/overview/index.html. Accessed December 1, 2023.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How to protect yourself and others. 2023. Available at: https://
www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed December 1, 2023.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim infection prevention and control recommendations for
healthcare personnel during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. 2023. Available at: https://
www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/infection-control-recommendations.html. Accessed December 1,
2023.
4. Food and Drug Administration. FDA authorizes updated Novavax COVID-19 vaccine formulated to
better protect against currently circulating variants. 2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/news-events/
press-announcements/fda-authorizes-updated-novavax-covid-19-vaccine-formulated-better-protect-against-
currently. Accessed December 1, 2023.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Use of COVID-19 vaccines in the United States. 2023. Available
at: https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/clinical-considerations/covid-19-vaccines-us.html. Accessed
December 1, 2023.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim considerations: preparing for the potential management of
anaphylaxis after COVID-19 vaccination. 2022. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/clinical-
considerations/managing-anaphylaxis.html. Accessed December 1, 2023.
7. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers administering vaccine (vaccination
providers): Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) of the Janssen COVID-19 vaccine to prevent coronavirus
disease 2019 (COVID-19). 2022. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/146304/download.
8. See I, Su JR, Lale A, et al. US case reports of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis with thrombocytopenia after
Ad26.COV2.S vaccination, March 2 to April 21, 2021. JAMA. 2021;325(24):2448-2456. Available at:
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33929487.
9. See I, Lale A, Marquez P, et al. Case series of thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome after COVID-19
vaccination—United States, December 2020 to August 2021. Ann Intern Med. 2022;175(4):513-522. Available
at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35038274.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Selected adverse events reported after COVID-19 vaccination.
2023. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/safety/adverse-events.html.
11. Hanson KE, Goddard K, Lewis N, et al. Incidence of Guillain-Barré syndrome after COVID-19 vaccination in
the Vaccine Safety Datalink. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(4):e228879. Available at:
12. Abara WE, Gee J, Marquez P, et al. Reports of Guillain-Barré syndrome after COVID-19 vaccination
in the United States. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(2):e2253845. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/36723942.
13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 vaccines while pregnant or breastfeeding. 2023.

Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/recommendations/pregnancy.html.
14. Shimabukuro TT, Kim SY, Myers TR, et al. Preliminary findings of mRNA COVID-19 vaccine safety in
pregnant persons. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(24):2273-2282. Available at:
15. Zauche LH, Wallace B, Smoots AN, et al. Receipt of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines and risk of spontaneous
abortion. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(16):1533-1535. Available at:
16. Goldshtein I, Nevo D, Steinberg DM, et al. Association between BNT162b2 vaccination and incidence of
SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnant women. JAMA. 2021;326(8):728-735. Available at:
17. Collier AY, McMahan K, Yu J, et al. Immunogenicity of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines in pregnant and lactating
women. JAMA. 2021;325(23):2370-2380. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33983379.
18. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. COVID-19 vaccination considerations for obstetric-
gynecologic care. 2023. Available at: https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/practice-advisory/
articles/2020/12/covid-19-vaccination-considerations-for-obstetric-gynecologic-care. Accessed December 1,
2023.
Evusheld (tixagevimab co-packaged with cilgavimab). 2023. Available at:
20. Food and Drug Administration. FDA announces Evusheld is not currently authorized for emergency use in the
U.S. 2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-announces-evusheld-not-
currently-authorized-emergency-use-us. Accessed December 1, 2023.

Clinical Spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection can experience a range of clinical manifestations, from no
symptoms to critical illness. In general, adults with SARS-CoV-2 infection can be grouped into the
following severity of illness categories; however, the criteria for each category may overlap or vary
across clinical guidelines and clinical trials, and a patient’s clinical status may change over time.
• Asymptomatic or presymptomatic infection: Individuals who test positive for SARS-CoV-2 using
a virologic test (i.e., a nucleic acid amplification test [NAAT] or an antigen test) but have no
symptoms consistent with COVID-19.
• Mild illness: Individuals who have any of the various signs and symptoms of COVID-19 (e.g.,
fever, cough, sore throat, malaise, headache, muscle pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of taste
and smell) but do not have shortness of breath, dyspnea, or abnormal chest imaging.
• Moderate illness: Individuals who show evidence of lower respiratory disease during clinical
assessment or imaging and who have an oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry (SpO2)
≥94% on room air at sea level.
• Severe illness: Individuals who have an SpO2 <94% on room air at sea level, a ratio of arterial
partial pressure of oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO2/FiO2) <300 mm Hg, a respiratory
rate >30 breaths/min, or lung infiltrates >50%.
• Critical illness: Individuals who have respiratory failure, septic shock, or multiple organ
dysfunction.
SpO2 is a key parameter for defining the illness categories listed above. However, pulse oximetry has
important limitations (discussed in more detail below). Clinicians who use SpO2 when assessing a
patient must be aware of those limitations and conduct the assessment in the context of that patient’s
clinical status.
The risk of progressing to severe disease increases with age and the number of underlying conditions.
Patients aged ≥50 years, especially those aged ≥65 years, and patients who are immunosuppressed,
unvaccinated, or not up to date with COVID-19 vaccinations are at a higher risk of progressing to severe
COVID-19.1,2 Certain underlying conditions are also associated with a higher risk of severe COVID-19,
including cancer, cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, chronic liver disease, chronic lung
disease, diabetes, advanced or untreated HIV infection, obesity, pregnancy, cigarette smoking, and being
a recipient of immunosuppressive therapy or a transplant.3 Health care providers should closely monitor
patients who have COVID-19 and any of these conditions until clinical recovery is achieved.
The initial evaluation for patients may include chest imaging (e.g., X-ray, ultrasound or computed
tomography scan) and an electrocardiogram, if indicated. Laboratory testing should include a complete
blood count with differential and a metabolic profile, including liver and renal function tests. Although
inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP), D-dimer, and ferritin are not routinely
measured as part of standard care, results from such measurements may have prognostic value.4-7
The definitions for the severity of illness categories also apply to pregnant patients. However, the
threshold for certain interventions is different for pregnant and nonpregnant patients. For example,
oxygen supplementation for pregnant patients is generally used when SpO2 falls below 95% on room air
at sea level to accommodate the physiologic changes in oxygen demand during pregnancy and to ensure

adequate oxygen delivery to the fetus.8
If laboratory parameters are used for monitoring pregnant patients and making decisions about
interventions, clinicians should be aware that normal physiologic changes during pregnancy can alter
several laboratory values. In general, leukocyte cell count increases throughout gestation and delivery
and peaks during the immediate postpartum period. This increase is mainly due to neutrophilia.9
D-dimer and CRP levels also increase during pregnancy and are often higher in pregnant patients than
in nonpregnant patients.10 Detailed information on treating COVID-19 in pregnant patients can be found
in Special Considerations During Pregnancy and After Delivery and in the pregnancy considerations
subsections in the Guidelines.
In children with COVID-19, radiographic abnormalities are common and, for the most part, should not
be the only criteria used to determine the severity of illness. The normal values for respiratory rate also
vary with age in children. Therefore, hypoxemia should be the primary criterion used to define severe
COVID-19, especially in younger children. In a small subset of children and young adults, SARS-CoV-2
infection may be followed by the severe inflammatory condition multisystem inflammatory syndrome in
children (MIS-C).11,12 This syndrome is discussed in detail in Special Considerations in Children.
Clinical Considerations for the Use of Pulse Oximetry

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of pulse oximetry to assess and monitor patients’ oxygenation
status increased in hospital, outpatient health care facility, and home settings. Although pulse oximetry is
useful for estimating blood oxygen levels, pulse oximeters may not accurately detect hypoxemia under
certain circumstances. To avoid delays in recognizing hypoxemia, clinicians who use pulse oximetry to
assist with clinical decisions should keep these limitations in mind.
Pulse oximetry results can be affected by skin pigmentation, thickness, or temperature. Poor blood
circulation or the use of tobacco or fingernail polish also may affect results. The Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) advises clinicians to refer to the label or manufacturer website of a pulse oximeter
or sensor to ascertain its accuracy.13 The FDA also advises using pulse oximetry only as an estimate
of blood oxygen saturation, because an SpO2 reading represents a range of arterial oxygen saturation
(SaO2). For example, an SpO2 reading of 90% may represent a range of SaO2 from 86% to 94%.
Studies that compared SpO2 and SaO2 levels measured before the pandemic found that pulse oximeters
overestimated oxygen saturation in people who were classified as having darker skin pigmentation
and in people whose race or ethnic origin was reported as non-Hispanic Black, Black, or African
American.14,15
Several published reports have compared SpO2 and SaO2 measurements in patients with COVID-19,
including children.14,16-18 The studies demonstrated that occult hypoxemia (defined as an SaO2 <88%
despite an SpO2 >92%) was more common in patients with darker skin pigmentation, which may result
in adverse consequences. The likelihood of error was greater in the lower ranges of SpO2. In 1 of these
studies, occult hypoxemia was associated with more organ dysfunction and hospital mortality.17 These
studies did not specify the specific devices used to assess SpO2 levels. The FDA has recognized the need
for better real-world evidence to address ongoing concerns about the accuracy of pulse oximeters when
they are used to measure oxygen saturation in people with darker skin pigmentation.19
A 5-hospital registry study of patients evaluated in the emergency department or hospitalized for
COVID-19 found that 24% were not identified as eligible for treatment due to overestimation of SaO2.20
The majority of patients (55%) who were not identified as eligible were Black. The study also examined
the amount of time delay patients experienced before being identified as eligible for treatment. The
median delay for patients who were Black was 1 hour longer than the delay for patients who were White.

In pulse oximetry, skin tone is an important variable, but accurately measuring oxygen saturation is a
complex process. One observational study in adults was unable to identify a consistently predictable
difference between SaO2 and SpO2 over time for individual patients.16 Factors other than skin
pigmentation (e.g., peripheral perfusion, pulse oximeter sensor placement) are likely involved.
Despite the limitations of pulse oximetry, an FDA-cleared pulse oximeter for home use can contribute
to an assessment of a patient’s overall clinical status. Practitioners should advise patients to follow the
manufacturer’s instructions for use, place the oximeter on the index or ring finger, and ensure the hand is
warm, relaxed, and held below the level of the heart. Fingernail polish should be removed before testing.
Patients should be at rest, indoors, and breathing quietly without talking for several minutes before
testing. Rather than accepting the first reading, patients or caretakers should observe the readings on the
pulse oximeter for ≥30 seconds until a steady number is displayed and inform their health care provider if
the reading is repeatedly below a previously specified value (generally 95% on room air at sea level).13,21
Pulse oximetry has been widely adopted as a remote patient monitoring tool, but when the use of pulse
oximeters is compared with close monitoring of clinical progress via video consultation, telephone calls,
text messaging, or home visits, there is insufficient evidence that it improves clinical outcomes.22,23
Not all commercially available pulse oximeters have been cleared by the FDA. SpO2 readings obtained
through devices not cleared by the FDA, such as over-the-counter sports oximeters or mobile phone
applications, lack sufficient accuracy for clinical use. Abnormal readings on these devices should be
confirmed with an FDA-cleared device or an arterial blood gas analysis.24,25
Regardless of the setting, SpO2 should always be interpreted within the context of a patient’s entire
clinical presentation. Regardless of a pulse oximeter reading, a patient’s signs and symptoms (e.g.,
dyspnea, tachypnea, chest pain, changes in cognition or attentional state, cyanosis) should be evaluated.
Asymptomatic or Presymptomatic Infection

Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection can occur, although the percentage of patients who remain truly
asymptomatic throughout the course of infection is variable and incompletely defined. The percentage
of individuals who present with asymptomatic infection and progress to clinical disease is unclear. Some
asymptomatic individuals have been reported to have objective radiographic findings consistent with
COVID-19 pneumonia.26,27
Mild Illness
Patients with mild illness may exhibit a variety of signs and symptoms (e.g., fever, cough, sore throat,
malaise, headache, muscle pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of taste and smell). They do not
have shortness of breath, dyspnea on exertion, or abnormal imaging. Most patients who are mildly ill
can be managed in an ambulatory setting or at home. No imaging or specific laboratory evaluations
are routinely indicated in otherwise healthy patients with mild COVID-19. Patients aged ≥50 years,
especially those aged ≥65 years, patients with certain underlying comorbidities, and patients who are
immunosuppressed, unvaccinated, or not up to date with COVID-19 vaccinations are at higher risk
of disease progression and are candidates for antiviral therapy.1,2 See Therapeutic Management of
Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for recommendations regarding anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies.
Moderate Illness
Moderate illness is defined as evidence of lower respiratory disease during clinical assessment or
imaging, with an SpO2 ≥94% on room air at sea level. Given that pulmonary disease can progress
rapidly in patients with COVID-19, patients with moderate disease should be closely monitored. See
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for recommendations regarding

anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies in patients at high risk of progression to severe disease.
Severe Illness
Patients with COVID-19 are considered to have severe illness if they have an SpO2 <94% on room
air at sea level, PaO2/FiO2 <300 mm Hg, a respiratory rate >30 breaths/min, or lung infiltrates >50%.
These patients may experience rapid clinical deterioration and should be given oxygen therapy and
hospitalized. See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for treatment
recommendations.
Critical Illness
SARS-CoV-2 infection can cause acute respiratory distress syndrome, virus-induced distributive (septic)
shock, cardiac shock, an exaggerated inflammatory response, thrombotic disease, and exacerbation of
underlying comorbidities.
The clinical management of patients with COVID-19 who are in the intensive care unit should include
treatment with immunomodulators and, in some cases, the addition of remdesivir. These patients
should also receive treatment for any comorbid conditions and nosocomial complications. For more
information, see Critical Care for Adults and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With
COVID-19.
Infectious Complications in Patients With COVID-19

Some patients with COVID-19 may have additional infections when they present for care or that develop
during the course of treatment. These coinfections may complicate treatment and recovery. Older
patients or those with certain comorbidities or immunocompromising conditions may be at higher risk
for these infections. The use of immunomodulators such as dexamethasone, Janus kinase inhibitors (e.g.,
baricitinib, tofacitinib), interleukin-6 inhibitors (e.g., tocilizumab, sarilumab), tumor necrosis factor
inhibitors (e.g., infliximab), or abatacept to treat COVID-19 may also increase the risk of infectious
complications. However, when these therapies are used appropriately, the benefits outweigh the risks.
Infectious complications in patients with COVID-19 can be categorized as follows:
• Coinfections at presentation: Although most individuals present with only SARS-CoV-2
infection, concomitant viral infections, including influenza and other respiratory viruses, have
been reported.28-30 Community-acquired bacterial pneumonia has also been reported, but it is
uncommon.28,31,32 Antibacterial therapy is generally not recommended unless additional evidence
for bacterial pneumonia is present (e.g., leukocytosis, the presence of a focal infiltrate on
imaging).
• Reactivation of latent infections: There are case reports of underlying chronic hepatitis B
virus and latent tuberculosis infections reactivating in patients with COVID-19 who receive
immunomodulators as treatment, although the data are currently limited.33-35 Reactivation of herpes
simplex virus and varicella zoster virus infections have also been reported.36 Cases of severe and
disseminated strongyloidiasis have been reported in patients with COVID-19 during treatment
with tocilizumab and corticosteroids.37,38 Many clinicians would initiate empiric treatment
(e.g., with the antiparasitic drug ivermectin), with or without serologic testing, in patients who
require immunomodulators for the treatment of COVID-19 and have come from areas where
Strongyloides is endemic (i.e., tropical, subtropical, or warm temperate areas).39,40
• Nosocomial infections: Hospitalized patients with COVID-19 may acquire common nosocomial
infections, such as hospital-acquired pneumonia (including ventilator-associated pneumonia), line-

related bacteremia or fungemia, catheter-associated urinary tract infection, and diarrhea associated
with Clostridioides difficile.41,42 Early diagnosis and treatment of these infections are important for
improving outcomes in these patients.
• Opportunistic fungal infections: Invasive fungal infections, including aspergillosis and
mucormycosis, have been reported in hospitalized patients with COVID-19.43-46 Although these
infections are relatively rare, they can be fatal, and they may be seen more commonly in patients
who are immunocompromised or receiving mechanical ventilation. The majority of mucormycosis
cases have been reported in India and are associated with diabetes mellitus or the use of
corticosteroids.47,48 The approach for managing these fungal infections should be the same as the
approach for managing invasive fungal infections in other settings.
SARS-CoV-2 Reinfection and Breakthrough Infection

As seen with other respiratory viral infections, reinfection after recovery from prior infection has been
reported for SARS-CoV-2.49 Reinfection may occur as initial immune responses to the primary infection
wane over time. Data regarding the prevalence, risk factors, timing, and severity of reinfection are
evolving and vary depending on the circulating variants. Breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infections (i.e.,
infection in people who are up to date with COVID-19 vaccinations) also occur.50 When compared with
infection in people who are unvaccinated, breakthrough infections in vaccinated individuals appear less
likely to lead to severe illness or symptoms that persist ≥28 days.50-53 The time to breakthrough infection
has been reported to be shorter for patients with immunocompromising conditions (i.e., solid organ or
bone marrow transplant recipients or people with HIV) than for those with no immunocompromising
conditions.50
Although data are limited, no evidence suggests that the treatment of suspected or documented
SARS-CoV-2 reinfection or breakthrough infection should be different from the treatment used during
the initial infection, as outlined in Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19
and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
Prolonged Viral Shedding, Persistent Symptoms, and Other Conditions After

SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection is typically associated with a decline in viral shedding and
resolution of COVID-19 symptoms over days to weeks. However, in some cases, reduced viral
shedding and symptom resolution are followed by viral or symptom rebound. People who are
immunocompromised may experience viral shedding for many weeks. Some people experience
symptoms that develop or persist for more than 4 weeks after the initial COVID-19 diagnosis.
Viral or Symptom Rebound Soon After COVID-19

Observational studies and results from clinical trials of therapeutic agents have described SARS-CoV-2
viral or COVID-19 symptom rebound in patients who have completed treatment for COVID-19.54-56
Viral and symptom rebounds have also occurred when anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies were not used.56,57
Typically, this phenomenon has not been associated with progression to severe COVID-19.
Prolonged Viral Shedding in Patients Who Are Immunocompromised

Patients who are immunocompromised may experience prolonged shedding of SARS-CoV-2 with or
without COVID-19 symptoms.58,59 Prolonged viral shedding may affect SARS-CoV-2 testing strategies
and isolation duration for these patients. In some cases, the prolonged shedding may be associated with
persistent COVID-19 symptoms. See Special Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised
for more information on the clinical management of people who are immunocompromised.

Persistent, New, or Recurrent Symptoms More Than 4 Weeks After SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Some patients report persistent, new, or recurrent symptoms and conditions (e.g., cardiopulmonary
injury, neurocognitive impairment, new-onset diabetes, gastrointestinal and dermatologic manifestations)
more than 4 weeks after the initial COVID-19 diagnosis.60 The nomenclature for this phenomenon is
evolving; no clinical terminology has been established. The terminology used includes long COVID,
post-COVID condition, post–COVID-19 syndrome, and post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2. Patients
who have these symptoms or conditions have been called “long haulers.”
Data on the incidence, natural history, and etiology of these symptoms are emerging. However, reports on
these syndromes have several limitations, such as differing case definitions, a lack of comparator groups,
and overlap between the reported symptoms and the symptoms of post-intensive care syndrome that have
been described in patients without COVID-19. In addition, many reports only included patients who
attended post-COVID clinics. Details on the pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and treatment for these
conditions are beyond the scope of these Guidelines. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
provides information about the timeframes, presentation of symptoms, and management strategies for
post-COVID conditions. Research on the prevalence, characteristics, and pathophysiology of persistent
symptoms and conditions after COVID-19 is ongoing, including research through the National Institutes
of Health’s RECOVER Initiative, which aims to inform potential therapeutic strategies.
MIS-C and multisystem inflammatory syndrome in adults (MIS-A) are serious postinfectious
complications of SARS-CoV-2 infection. For more information on these syndromes, see Therapeutic
Management of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A.
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Accessed January 2, 2024.

Prioritization of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Therapies for
the Treatment of COVID-19 in Nonhospitalized
Patients When There Are Logistical Constraints
The prioritization guidance in this section should be used only when logistical constraints limit the
availability of therapies. When there are no logistical constraints, clinicians can prescribe therapies
to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection to any eligible individual following the recommendations in these
Guidelines.
If it is necessary to triage patients for receipt of anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies, the COVID-19 Treatment
Guidelines Panel (the Panel) suggests prioritizing patients based on their clinical risk factors for severe
disease, their vaccination status, and their ability to mount an adequate immune response to COVID-19
vaccination or SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Prioritization schemes should include a plan for equitable distribution of scarce resources to individuals
who may have less knowledge of or access to these therapies. The availability and distribution of
recommended therapies should be monitored to ensure that access to products is equitable.
Patient Prioritization for Treatment

The Panel recommends using ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) to treat nonhospitalized adults
(AIIa) and adolescents (BIII) who have mild to moderate COVID-19 and are at high risk of progressing
to severe disease.
Remdesivir is a recommended option if ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir cannot be used. However,
some treatment facilities may not have the ability to provide a 3-day course of remdesivir intravenous
infusions to all eligible patients. In these situations, prioritizing patients who will benefit the most from
the therapy becomes necessary. If administration of remdesivir is not feasible, clinicians should review
the Panel’s recommendations in Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19
for alternative treatment options.
The prioritization scheme below is based on 4 key elements: age, vaccination status, immune status, and
clinical risk factors. For a list of risk factors, see the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
webpage Underlying Medical Conditions Associated With Higher Risk for Severe COVID-19. The
groups are listed by tier in descending order of priority.
.
Tier Risk Group
1 • People who are immunocompromised and are not expected to mount an adequate immune response to
COVID-19 vaccination or SARS-CoV-2 infection due to their underlying conditions, regardless of vaccine
status (see Immunocompromising Conditions below); or
• Unvaccinated individuals at the highest risk of severe disease (anyone aged ≥75 years or anyone aged ≥65
years with additional risk factors)
2 • Unvaccinated individuals not included in Tier 1 who are at risk of severe disease (anyone aged ≥65 years or
anyone aged <65 years with clinical risk factors)
3 • Vaccinated individuals at risk of severe disease (anyone aged ≥65 years or anyone aged <65 years with
clinical risk factors)
• Vaccinated individuals who are not up to date with their immunizations are likely at higher risk for severe
disease; patients within this tier who are in this situation should be prioritized for treatment.

Immunocompromising Conditions
The CDC website COVID-19 Vaccines for People Who Are Moderately or Severely
Immunocompromised provides a list of moderate or severe immunocompromising conditions.
If there are logistical constraints to providing the Panel’s recommended therapies to all individuals who
are moderately to severely immunocompromised, the Panel suggests prioritizing patients who are least
likely to mount an adequate response to COVID-19 vaccination or SARS-CoV-2 infection and are at risk
for severe outcomes. This includes, but is not limited to, patients who:
• Are receiving active treatment for solid tumor and hematologic malignancies.
• Have hematologic malignancies (e.g., chronic lymphocytic lymphoma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma,
multiple myeloma, acute leukemia) and are known to have poor responses to COVID-19 vaccines,
regardless of the treatment status for the hematologic malignancy.
• Received a solid organ or islet transplant and are receiving immunosuppressive therapy.
• Received chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy or a hematopoietic cell transplant and are within
2 years of transplantation or are receiving immunosuppressive therapy.
• Have a moderate or severe primary immunodeficiency (e.g., severe combined immunodeficiency,
DiGeorge syndrome, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, common variable immunodeficiency disease).
• Have advanced or untreated HIV infection (defined as people with HIV and CD4 T lymphocyte
cell counts <200 cells/mm3, a history of an AIDS-defining illness without immune reconstitution,
or clinical manifestations of symptomatic HIV).
• Are receiving active treatment with high-dose corticosteroids (i.e., ≥20 mg prednisone
or equivalent per day for ≥2 weeks), alkylating agents, antimetabolites, transplant-
related immunosuppressive drugs, cancer chemotherapeutic agents classified as severely
immunosuppressive, or immunosuppressive or immunomodulatory biologic agents (e.g., B cell–
depleting agents).
If logistical constraints preclude administration of remdesivir to all prioritized patients, the Panel
suggests further prioritizing patients who are more severely immunocompromised and have additional
risk factors for severe disease.
Clinical Risk Factors

Some of the most important risk factors for severe COVID-19 include age (risk increases with
each decade after age 50),1 receipt of cancer treatment, immunocompromising conditions or receipt
of immunosuppressive medications, cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, chronic lung
disease, diabetes, obesity (i.e., body mass index ≥30), and pregnancy. For a complete list of risk
factors, including information on the relative risk of severe disease, see the CDC webpage Underlying
Medical Conditions Associated With Higher Risk for Severe COVID-19. Of note, the likelihood of
developing severe COVID-19 increases when a person has multiple comorbidities.2 For people who
are not immunocompromised, vaccination with a primary COVID-19 vaccine series and booster doses
dramatically reduces the risk of progressing to severe disease.
Although children with COVID-19 have substantially lower mortality than adults with COVID-19,
severe disease can occur, especially in those with risk factors. See Table 3b for the Panel’s framework
for assessing the risk of progression to severe COVID-19 in children.

References
coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-care/underlyingconditions.html. Accessed October 17, 2023.
2. Rosenthal N, Cao Z, Gundrum J, Sianis J, Safo S. Risk factors associated with in-hospital mortality in a U.S.
national sample of patients with COVID-19. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(12):e2029058. Available at: https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33301018.

Clinical Management of Adults Summary
Two main processes are thought to drive the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Early in the clinical course, the
disease is primarily driven by the replication of SARS-CoV-2. Later in the clinical course, the disease
is driven by a dysregulated immune/inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 infection that may lead
to further tissue damage and thrombosis. Based on this understanding, therapies that directly target
SARS-CoV-2 are anticipated to have the greatest effect early in the course of the disease, whereas
immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory, and antithrombotic therapies are likely to be more beneficial
after COVID-19 has progressed to stages characterized by hypoxemia, endothelial dysfunction, and
immunothrombosis.
The clinical spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 infection includes asymptomatic or presymptomatic infection and
mild, moderate, severe, and critical illness. Table 2a provides guidance for clinicians on the therapeutic
management of nonhospitalized adults. This includes patients who do not require hospitalization or
supplemental oxygen and those who have been discharged from an emergency department or a hospital.
Table 2c provides guidance on the therapeutic management of hospitalized adults according to their
disease severity and oxygen requirements.

Table 2a. Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With Mild to Moderate COVID-19
Who Do Not Require Supplemental Oxygen
Patient Disposition Panel’s Recommendations
• Symptom management should be initiated for all patients (AIII).
All Patients • The Panel recommends against the use of dexamethasonea or other
systemic corticosteroids (AIIb), unless these agents are being used to treat
an underlying condition (AIII).
Preferred therapies. Listed in order of preference:
• Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid)e (AIIa). Start as soon as possible
and within 5 days of symptom onset. See footnote on drug-drug interactions.f
• Remdesivire,g (BIIa). Start as soon as possible and within 7 days of
symptom onset.
Patients Who Are at High Risk of
Progressing to Severe COVID-19b,c,d Alternative therapy. For use when the preferred therapies are not available,
feasible to use, or clinically appropriate:h
• Molnupiravire,i (CIIa). Start as soon as possible and within 5 days of
symptom onset.
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against
initiating these antiviral agents after the timeframes listed above.
a
T here is currently a lack of safety and efficacy data on the use of dexamethasone in outpatients with COVID-19. Using
systemic glucocorticoids in outpatients with COVID-19 may cause harm.
b
For a list of risk factors, see the CDC webpage Underlying Medical Conditions Associated With Higher Risk for Severe
COVID-19. When deciding whether to prescribe an antiviral agent to a patient who has been vaccinated, clinicians
should be aware of the conditions associated with a high risk of disease progression. These conditions include older
age, a prolonged amount of time since the most recent vaccine dose (e.g., >6 months), and a decreased likelihood of an
adequate immune response to vaccination due to a moderate to severe immunocompromising condition or the receipt of
immunosuppressive medications. The number and severity of risk factors also affects the level of risk.
c
For a discussion of potential treatment options for patients who are immunocompromised and have prolonged COVID-19
symptoms and evidence of ongoing viral replication, see Special Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised.
d
Concerns about viral rebound or the recurrence of symptoms should not be a reason to avoid using antiviral therapies
when their use is indicated.
e
If a patient requires hospitalization after starting treatment, the full treatment course can be completed at the health care
provider’s discretion.
f
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir has significant drug-drug interactions. Clinicians should carefully review a patient’s
concomitant medications and evaluate potential drug-drug interactions. See Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-
Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Concomitant Medications for more information.
g
Administration of remdesivir requires an IV infusion once daily for 3 days.
h
Molnupiravir appears to have lower efficacy than the other options recommended by the Panel.
i
The Panel recommends against the use of molnupiravir for the treatment of COVID-19 in pregnant patients unless there
are no other options and therapy is clearly indicated (AIII).
Key: CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; IV = intravenous; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines
Panel

Table 2c. Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19
Recommendations for Antiviral or Immunomodulator Therapy Recommendations for

Disease Severity
Clinical Scenario Recommendation Anticoagulant Therapy
Patients with mild to moderate See Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID- For patients without an indication for
Hospitalized for Reasons
COVID-19 who are at high risk of 19.b therapeutic anticoagulation:
Other Than COVID-19
progressing to severe COVID-19a • Prophylactic dose of heparin, unless
All patients The Panel recommends against the use of dexamethasone (AIIa) contraindicated (AI); (BIII) for pregnant
Hospitalized but Does Not or other systemic corticosteroids (AIII) for the treatment of COVID- patients
Require Supplemental 19.c
Oxygen Patients who are at high risk of Remdesivird (BIIb) for patients who are immunocompromised; (BIII)
progressing to severe COVID-19a for other high-risk patients
Patients who require minimal Remdesivird,f (BIIa) For nonpregnant patients with D-dimer
conventional oxygen levels above the ULN who do not have an
Most patients Use dexamethasone plus remdesivir (BIIa). If remdesivir cannot
f increased bleeding risk:
Hospitalized and Requires be obtained, use dexamethasone (BI). • Therapeutic dose of heparinh (CIIa)
Conventional Oxygene Patients who are receiving Add 1 of the following immunomodulators:g For other patients:
dexamethasone and who have Preferred Alternatives (Listed in Alphabetical Order) • Prophylactic dose of heparin, unless
rapidly increasing oxygen needs contraindicated (AI); (BIII) for pregnant
• PO baricitinib (BIIa) • IV abatacept (CIIa)
and systemic inflammation patients
• IV tocilizumab (BIIa) • IV infliximab (CIIa)
All patients Dexamethasone should be administered to all patients (AI). If not For patients without an indication for
already initiated, promptly add 1 of the following immunomodulators:g,i therapeutic anticoagulation:
Preferred • Prophylactic dose of heparin, unless
• PO baricitinib (AI) contraindicated (AI); (BIII) for pregnant
Preferred Alternative patients
Hospitalized and Requires For patients who start on a therapeutic
• IV tocilizumab (BIIa)
HFNC Oxygen or NIV dose of heparin in a non-ICU setting
Additional Alternatives (Listed in Alphabetical Order)
and then transfer to the ICU, the Panel
• IV abatacept (CIIa) recommends switching to a prophylactic
• IV infliximab (CIIa) dose of heparin, unless there is another
Add remdesivir to 1 of the options above in certain patients (for indication for therapeutic anticoagulation
examples, see footnote).j (BIII).
All patients Dexamethasone should be administered to all patients (AI). If
the patient has not already received a second immunomodulator,
Hospitalized and Requires promptly add 1 of the following (listed in alphabetical order):i,k
MV or ECMO • PO baricitinibl (BIIa)
• IV tocilizumabl (BIIa)
See footnote k for a discussion on the use of remdesivir.

a
COVID-19.
b
If the patient is hospitalized for reasons other than COVID-19, the treatment duration for remdesivir is 3 days.
c
Corticosteroids that are prescribed for an underlying condition should be continued.
d
Evidence suggests that the benefit of remdesivir is greatest when the drug is given early in the course of COVID-19 (e.g.,
within 10 days of symptom onset).
e
Conventional oxygen refers to oxygen supplementation that is not HFNC oxygen, NIV, MV, or ECMO.
f
If these patients progress to requiring HFNC oxygen, NIV, MV, or ECMO, the full course of remdesivir should still be
completed.
g
If none of the preferred or alternative options are available or feasible to use, the JAK inhibitor PO tofacitinib (CIIa) or
the IL-6 inhibitor IV sarilumab (CIIa) can be used in combination with dexamethasone. Sarilumab is only commercially
available as a SUBQ injection; see Table 5e for information regarding the preparation of an IV infusion using the SUBQ
product.
h
Contraindications for the use of therapeutic anticoagulation in patients with COVID-19 include a PLT <50,000 cells/µL, Hgb
<8 g/dL, the need for dual antiplatelet therapy, bleeding within the past 30 days that required an ED visit or hospitalization, a
history of a bleeding disorder, or an inherited or active acquired bleeding disorder.
i
Dexamethasone should be initiated immediately, without waiting until the second immunomodulator can be acquired. If
other immunomodulators cannot be obtained or are contraindicated, use dexamethasone alone (AI).
j
Examples of patients who may benefit most from remdesivir include patients who are immunocompromised (BIIb);
patients with evidence of ongoing viral replication (e.g., those with a low Ct value, as measured by an RT-PCR result or
with a positive rapid antigen test result) (BIII); or patients who are within 10 days of symptom onset (CIIa). For more
information on using remdesivir in people with immunocompromising conditions, see Special Considerations in People
Who Are Immunocompromised.
k
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of remdesivir in hospitalized
patients with COVID-19 who require MV or ECMO. Some Panel members would add remdesivir to immunomodulator
therapy in patients who have recently been placed on MV or ECMO, who are immunocompromised, who have evidence of
ongoing viral replication, or who are within 10 days of symptom onset. See text for more information.
l
If PO baricitinib and IV tocilizumab are not available or feasible to use, PO tofacitinib can be used instead of PO baricitinib
(CIIa), and IV sarilumab can be used instead of IV tocilizumab (CIIa).
Key: CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Ct = cycle threshold; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane
oxygenation; ED = emergency department; HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula; Hgb = hemoglobin; ICU = intensive care
unit; IL = interleukin; IV = intravenous; JAK = Janus kinase; MV = mechanical ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation;
the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PLT = platelet count; PO = oral; RT-PCR = reverse transcription
polymerase chain reaction; SUBQ = subcutaneous; ULN = upper limit of normal

General Management of Nonhospitalized
Adults With Acute COVID-19
Summary Recommendations
• Management of nonhospitalized patients with acute COVID-19 should include providing supportive care, taking steps to
reduce the risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission (including isolating the patient), and advising patients on when to contact a
health care provider and seek an in-person evaluation (AIII).
• Patients who are at high risk of progressing to severe COVID-19 may be eligible for pharmacologic therapy. See
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for specific recommendations.
• Patients with persistent or progressive dyspnea, especially those who have an oxygen saturation measured by pulse
oximetry (SpO2) ≤94% on room air at sea level or have symptoms that suggest high acuity (e.g., chest pain or tightness,
dizziness, confusion, other mental status changes), should be referred to a health care provider for an in-person
evaluation (AIII).
• Clinicians should be aware that using pulse oximeters to measure oxygen saturation has important limitations.
Therefore, SpO2 results should be considered in the context of the patient’s clinical condition. See Clinical Spectrum of
SARS-CoV-2 Infection for more information.
This section of the Guidelines is intended to provide general information to health care providers who
are caring for nonhospitalized adults with COVID-19. The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the
Panel) recommendations for pharmacologic management can be found in Therapeutic Management of
Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
This section focuses on the evaluation and management of:
• Adults with COVID-19 in an ambulatory care setting
• Adults with COVID-19 following discharge from the emergency department (ED)
• Adults with COVID-19 following inpatient discharge
Outpatient evaluation and management in each of these settings may include some or all of the
following: in-person visits, telemedicine, remote monitoring, and home visits by nurses or other health
care providers.
Data from studies in the United States show that certain racial and ethnic minorities experience higher
rates of COVID-19, hospitalization, and death in relation to their share of the total U.S. population.1-5
In addition, some studies have found that members of certain racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups
were less likely to receive COVID-19 treatments.6-8 The underlying causes of these observed disparities
may include inadequate insurance coverage, a lack of primary care providers, hesitancy about receiving
treatment, barriers to telehealth visits, and transportation challenges. To reduce COVID-19 treatment
disparities, providers must be aware of the problem and provide patient-centered care. The Panel
recommends that health care providers, health care systems, and payers ensure equitable access to high-
quality care and treatment for all patients, regardless of race, ethnic identity, or other minoritized identity
or social status (AIII).
Managing Patients With COVID-19 in an Ambulatory Care Setting

Approximately 80% of patients with COVID-19 who are unvaccinated have mild illness that does not

require medical intervention or hospitalization,9 and the proportion is likely higher in patients who
are up to date with COVID-19 vaccinations.10,11 Most patients with mild COVID-19 (defined as the
absence of viral pneumonia and hypoxemia) can be managed in an ambulatory care setting or at home.
Patients with moderate COVID-19 (e.g., those with viral pneumonia but without hypoxemia) or severe
COVID-19 (e.g., those with dyspnea, hypoxemia, or lung infiltrates >50%) need in-person evaluation
and close monitoring, as pulmonary disease can progress rapidly and require hospitalization.
When managing outpatients with COVID-19, clinicians should provide supportive care, take steps to
reduce the risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission as recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention,12,13 and advise patients on when to seek an in-person evaluation.14 Supportive care includes
managing symptoms (as described below), ensuring that patients are receiving the proper nutrition,
and being cognizant of the risks of social isolation, particularly for older adults.15 Health care providers
should identify patients who are at high risk of progressing to severe COVID-19.16 These patients
are candidates for antiviral therapy. See Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With
COVID-19 for more information.
Older patients and those with chronic medical conditions, especially those who are not up to date with
COVID-19 vaccinations, have a higher risk of hospitalization and death.17 However, SARS-CoV-2
infection may cause severe disease and death in patients of any age, even in the absence of risk factors.
When managing older adults with COVID-19, factors such as cognitive impairment, frailty, the risk of
falls, and polypharmacy should be considered. The decision to monitor a patient in the outpatient setting
should be made on a case-by-case basis.
Clinical Considerations When Managing Patients in an Ambulatory Care Setting

Patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection may be asymptomatic or experience symptoms that are
indistinguishable from other acute viral or bacterial infections (e.g., fever, cough, sore throat, malaise,
muscle pain, headache, gastrointestinal symptoms). People who have symptoms compatible with
COVID-19 should undergo diagnostic SARS-CoV-2 testing (see Testing for SARS-CoV-2 Infection).
Considering other possible etiologies of symptoms is important, including other respiratory viral
infections (e.g., influenza), community-acquired pneumonia, congestive heart failure, asthma or chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations, and streptococcal pharyngitis.
Although mild dyspnea is common, worsening dyspnea and severe chest pain or tightness suggest the
development or progression of pulmonary involvement. In earlier studies of patients with COVID-19
who developed acute respiratory distress syndrome, progression occurred a median of 2.5 days after
the onset of dyspnea.18-20 Patients with persistent or progressive dyspnea, especially those who have an
oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry (SpO2) ≤94% on room air at sea level or have symptoms
that suggest high acuity (e.g., chest pain or tightness, dizziness, confusion, other mental status changes),
should be referred to a health care provider for an in-person evaluation (AIII).
If an adult patient has access to a pulse oximeter at home, SpO2 measurements can be used to help
assess overall clinical status. Patients should be advised to use pulse oximeters on warm fingers rather
than cold fingers for better accuracy. Patients should inform their health care providers if the value is
repeatedly below 95% on room air at sea level. Pulse oximetry may not accurately detect hypoxemia,
especially in patients who have dark skin pigmentation.21,22
Not all commercially available pulse oximeters have been cleared by the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA). SpO2 readings obtained through non-FDA-cleared devices, such as over-the-counter sports
oximeters or mobile phone applications, lack sufficient accuracy for clinical use.23,24 Abnormal readings
on these devices should be confirmed with an FDA-cleared device or an arterial blood gas analysis.

Importantly, SpO2 readings should only be interpreted within the context of a patient’s entire clinical
presentation (i.e., results should be disregarded if a patient is complaining of increasing dyspnea). See
Clinical Spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 Infection for more information regarding the limitations of pulse
oximetry.
Assessing the Need for In-Person Evaluation

When possible, patients with symptoms of COVID-19 may be triaged via telehealth visits to determine
whether they require COVID-19–specific therapy and in-person care. Outpatient management may
include the use of patient self-assessment tools. During the initial triage, clinic staff should determine
which patients are eligible to receive supportive care at home and which patients warrant an in-person
evaluation.25
Patients with persistent or progressive dyspnea, especially those who have an SpO2 ≤94% on room air at
sea level or have symptoms that suggest high acuity (e.g., chest pain or tightness, dizziness, confusion,
other mental status changes), should be evaluated by a health care provider (AIII).
Clinicians who use SpO2 results to assess patients must be aware of the important limitations of pulse
oximeters and conduct assessments in the context of a patient’s clinical condition. See Clinical Spectrum
of SARS-CoV-2 Infection for more information.
The criteria used to determine the appropriate clinical setting for an in-person evaluation may vary by
location and institution. There should be a low threshold for in-person evaluation of older people and
those with medical conditions associated with an increased risk of progressing to severe COVID-19.
The individuals who perform the initial triage should use their clinical judgment to determine whether
patients require ambulance transport.
In some settings where clinical evaluation is challenged by geography, home visits from a health care
provider may be used to evaluate patients.26 Patients who are homeless should be provided with housing
where they can adequately self-isolate. All outpatients should receive instructions regarding self-care,
isolation, and follow-up, and they should be advised to contact a health care provider or a local ED
about any worsening symptoms.27
Counseling Regarding the Need for Follow-Up

Clinicians should ensure that these patients receive adequate medical follow-up. The frequency and
duration of follow-up will depend on the risk for severe disease, the severity of symptoms, and the
patient’s ability to self-report worsening symptoms. Health care providers should determine whether
a patient has adequate transportation for clinic visits; whether they have access to a phone, computer,
or tablet for telehealth visits; and whether they have regular access to food. The clinician should also
confirm that the patient has a caregiver who can assist with daily activities if needed.
All patients and/or their family members or caregivers should be counseled about the warning symptoms
that should prompt re-evaluation through a telehealth visit or an in-person evaluation in an ambulatory
care setting or ED. These symptoms include new onset of dyspnea; worsening dyspnea (particularly
if dyspnea occurs while resting or if it interferes with daily activities); dizziness; and mental status
changes, such as confusion.
Managing Adults With COVID-19 Following Discharge From the Emergency

Department
Clinicians who work in EDs should assess whether a patient requires hospital admission for the
management of COVID-19 or whether the symptoms can be managed in the outpatient setting.

Treatment with an antiviral agent is recommended for outpatients with mild to moderate COVID-19
who are not on supplemental oxygen and are at high risk of clinical progression (see Therapeutic
Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19).
If a patient is not admitted to the hospital, the Panel recommends against the use of anticoagulants and
antiplatelet therapy in the ED for the prevention of venous thromboembolism or arterial thrombosis,
except in a clinical trial (AIIa). This recommendation does not apply to patients with other indications
for antithrombotic therapy. For more information, see Antithrombotic Therapy in Patients With
COVID-19. Patients should be encouraged to ambulate, and activity should be increased according to
the patient’s tolerance.
Managing Adults With COVID-19 Following Hospital Discharge

Most patients who are discharged from the hospital setting should have a follow-up visit with a health
care provider soon after discharge. Whether an in-person or telehealth visit is most appropriate depends
on the clinical and social situation. In some cases, adult patients are deemed to be stable for discharge
from the inpatient setting while they still require supplemental oxygen. When possible, these individuals
should receive oximetry monitoring and close follow-up through telehealth visits, visiting nurse
services, or in-person clinic visits.
The Panel recommends against routinely continuing venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in patients
with COVID-19 after hospital discharge unless they have another indication for anticoagulation (AIIa).
For more information, see Antithrombotic Therapy in Patients With COVID-19. Patients should be
encouraged to ambulate, and activity should be increased according to the patient’s tolerance.
Considerations in Pregnant People

Managing pregnant outpatients with COVID-19 is similar to managing nonpregnant patients. Clinicians
should offer supportive care and therapeutics as indicated, take steps to reduce the risk of SARS-CoV-2
transmission, and provide guidance on when to seek an in-person evaluation. Pregnant patients who
have COVID-19 are at higher risk of severe disease, including a higher risk of death, intensive care unit
admission, and mechanical ventilation, than nonpregnant people with COVID-19.28,29 Pregnant patients
with COVID-19 also have an increased risk of poor obstetric and neonatal outcomes, and this risk may
be even higher in people with comorbidities such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and lung disease.30-
34
It is important for health care providers to thoroughly assess pregnant patients for potential risks of
severe COVID-19 and offer antiviral therapy when indicated. Please see Special Considerations During
Pregnancy and After Delivery for more information on managing pregnant patients with COVID-19.
In pregnant patients, SpO2 should be maintained at ≥95% on room air at sea level; therefore, the
threshold for monitoring pregnant patients in an inpatient setting may be lower than in nonpregnant
patients. At this time, there are no changes to fetal monitoring recommendations in the outpatient setting,
and fetal surveillance and management should be similar to the fetal surveillance and management used
for pregnant patients with medical illness.35,36 However, these monitoring strategies can be discussed on
a case-by-case basis with an obstetrician. Pregnant and lactating patients should be given the opportunity
to participate in clinical trials of outpatients with COVID-19 to help inform decision making in this
population.
References
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nih.gov/pubmed/32437224.

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hospitalized with COVID-19—Georgia, March 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(18):545-550.
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Gen Intern Med. 2020;35(10):3097-3099. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32754782.
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United States. medRxiv. 2020;Preprint. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32511437.
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6. Azam TU, Berlin H, Anderson E, et al. Differences in inflammation, treatment, and outcomes between Black
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www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed January 16, 2024.
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www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/if-you-are-sick. Accessed January 16, 2024.
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Physician. 2020;102(8):478-486. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33064422.
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infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA. 2020;323(11):1061-1069. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.
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pubmed/32191259.
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21. Luks AM, Swenson ER. Pulse oximetry for monitoring patients with COVID-19 at home. Potential pitfalls
and practical guidance. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2020;17(9):1040-1046. Available at:
22. Sjoding MW, Dickson RP, Iwashyna TJ, Gay SE, Valley TS. Racial bias in pulse oximetry measurement. N
Engl J Med. 2020;383(25):2477-2478. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33326721.
23. Harskamp RE, Bekker L, Himmelreich JCL, et al. Performance of popular pulse oximeters compared with
simultaneous arterial oxygen saturation or clinical-grade pulse oximetry: a cross-sectional validation study in
intensive care patients. BMJ Open Respir Res. 2021;8(1):e000939. Available at:
24. Lipnick MS, Feiner JR, Au P, Bernstein M, Bickler PE. The accuracy of 6 inexpensive pulse oximeters not
cleared by the Food and Drug Administration: the possible global public health implications. Anesth Analg.
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Symptoms of COVID-19. 2022. Available at: https://www.cdc.
gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/symptoms.html. Accessed August 23, 2023.
26. Close RM, Stone MJ. Contact tracing for Native Americans in rural Arizona. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(3):e15.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Isolation and precautions for people with COVID-19. 2023.
Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/your-health/isolation.html. Accessed January 16,
2024.
28. Khan DSA, Pirzada AN, Ali A, et al. The differences in clinical presentation, management, and prognosis of
laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 between pregnant and non-pregnant women: a systematic review and meta-
analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(11):5613. Available at:
29. Zambrano LD, Ellington S, Strid P, et al. Update: characteristics of symptomatic women of reproductive age
with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection by pregnancy status—United States, January 22–October 3,
2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(44):1641-1647. Available at:
30. Metz TD, Clifton RG, Hughes BL, et al. Association of SARS-CoV-2 infection with serious maternal
morbidity and mortality from obstetric complications. JAMA. 2022;327(8):748-759. Available at:
31. Smith ER, Oakley E, Grandner GW, et al. Adverse maternal, fetal, and newborn outcomes among pregnant
women with SARS-CoV-2 infection: an individual participant data meta-analysis. BMJ Glob Health.
2023;8(1):e009495. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36646475.
32. Ellington S, Strid P, Tong VT, et al. Characteristics of women of reproductive age with laboratory-confirmed
SARS-CoV-2 infection by pregnancy status—United States, January 22–June 7, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal
33. Panagiotakopoulos L, Myers TR, Gee J, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among Hospitalized Pregnant Women:
Reasons for Admission and Pregnancy Characteristics - Eight U.S. Health Care Centers, March 1-May 30,
34. Knight M, Bunch K, Vousden N, et al. Characteristics and outcomes of pregnant women admitted to hospital
with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection in UK: national population based cohort study. BMJ. 2020;369:m2107.

36. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. COVID-19 FAQs for obstetrician-gynecologists,
obstetrics. 2023. Available at: https://www.acog.org/clinical-information/physician-faqs/covid-19-faqs-for-ob-
gyns-obstetrics. Accessed January 16, 2024.

Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized
Adults With COVID-19
Symptom management should be initiated for all nonhospitalized adults with mild to moderate
COVID-19. For adults who are at high risk of progressing to severe disease, several antiviral therapeutic
options are available to reduce the risk of hospitalization or death. The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines
Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations on the use of these drugs for the treatment of COVID-19 are
outlined in this section.
The main goal of therapeutic management for nonhospitalized patients is to prevent progression to
severe disease, hospitalization, or death. Other goals may include accelerating symptom recovery and
viral clearance and preventing long-term sequelae. Current data on the impact of therapy on these
secondary goals are limited.
Several factors affect the selection of the best treatment option for a specific patient. These factors
include the clinical efficacy and availability of the treatment option, the feasibility of administering
parenteral medications, the potential for significant drug-drug interactions, the patient’s pregnancy
status, the time from symptom onset, and the in vitro activities of the available products against the
currently circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants and subvariants.
Most of the data that support the use of the recommended treatment options come from clinical trials
that enrolled individuals who were at high risk of disease progression and who had no pre-existing
immunity from COVID-19 vaccination or prior SARS-CoV-2 infection. Accordingly, the proportion
of hospitalizations and deaths in the placebo arms of these trials was high compared to what has been
seen more recently in populations where most people are vaccinated or have had prior SARS-CoV-2
infection. Although these trials demonstrated the efficacy of using antiviral drugs in high-risk
populations, it is difficult to know their precise effectiveness in the current setting because of the low
rates of hospitalization and death among those who have been vaccinated.
Nevertheless, some patients continue to have an increased risk of disease progression, and it is in
those people that therapies are most likely to be beneficial. Patients who are at the highest risk are
older patients (i.e., those aged >50 years and especially those aged ≥65 years) and patients who are
unlikely to have an adequate immune response to COVID-19 vaccines due to a moderate to severe
immunocompromising condition or the receipt of immunosuppressive medications. Other risk factors
include lack of vaccination or incomplete vaccination; a prolonged amount of time since the most recent
vaccine dose (e.g., >6 months); and conditions such as obesity, diabetes, and chronic pulmonary, cardiac,
or renal disease.1
People who are members of racial and ethnic minority groups have higher rates of hospitalization and
death from COVID-19 than people who are White.2 Disparities in the use of antiviral treatments in
patients who are not White have been reported; therefore, attention to equitable access is critical.3,4
The Panel’s recommendations reflect the available data on the benefits of using antiviral therapies
to prevent progression to severe COVID-19. Table 2a outlines the Panel’s recommendations for the
therapeutic management of nonhospitalized adults with COVID-19. For the recommended doses for the
agents listed in Table 2a, refer to Table 2b below.

Table 2a. Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With Mild to Moderate COVID-19
Who Do Not Require Supplemental Oxygen
Patient Disposition Panel’s Recommendations

• Symptom management should be initiated for all patients (AIII).
All Patients • The Panel recommends against the use of dexamethasonea or other
systemic corticosteroids (AIIb), unless these agents are being used to treat
an underlying condition (AIII).
Preferred therapies. Listed in order of preference:
• Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid)e (AIIa). Start as soon as
possible and within 5 days of symptom onset. See footnote on drug-drug
interactions.f
• Remdesivire,g (BIIa). Start as soon as possible and within 7 days of
symptom onset.
Patients Who Are at High Risk of
Progressing to Severe COVID-19b,c,d Alternative therapy. For use when the preferred therapies are not available,
feasible to use, or clinically appropriate:h
• Molnupiravire,i (CIIa). Start as soon as possible and within 5 days of
symptom onset.
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or
against initiating these antiviral agents after the timeframes listed above.
a
T here is currently a lack of safety and efficacy data on the use of dexamethasone in outpatients with COVID-19. Using
systemic glucocorticoids in outpatients with COVID-19 may cause harm.
b
COVID-19. When deciding whether to prescribe an antiviral agent to a patient who has been vaccinated, clinicians
should be aware of the conditions associated with a high risk of disease progression. These conditions include older
age, a prolonged amount of time since the most recent vaccine dose (e.g., >6 months), and a decreased likelihood of an
adequate immune response to vaccination due to a moderate to severe immunocompromising condition or the receipt of
immunosuppressive medications. The number and severity of risk factors also affects the level of risk.
c
For a discussion of potential treatment options for patients who are immunocompromised and have prolonged
COVID-19 symptoms and evidence of ongoing viral replication, see below and Special Considerations in People Who Are
Immunocompromised.
d
Concerns about viral rebound or the recurrence of symptoms should not be a reason to avoid using antiviral therapies
when their use is indicated. See Viral Rebound and Symptom Recurrence below for details.
e
If a patient requires hospitalization after starting treatment, the full treatment course can be completed at the health care
provider’s discretion.
f
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir has significant drug-drug interactions. Clinicians should carefully review a patient’s
concomitant medications and evaluate potential drug-drug interactions. See Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-
g
Administration of remdesivir requires an IV infusion once daily for 3 days.
h
Molnupiravir appears to have lower efficacy than the other options recommended by the Panel.
i
The Panel recommends against the use of molnupiravir for the treatment of COVID-19 in pregnant patients unless there
are no other options and therapy is clearly indicated (AIII).
Key: CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; IV = intravenous; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines
Panel

Symptom Management
Treatment of symptoms includes using over-the-counter antipyretics, analgesics, or antitussives for fever,
headache, myalgias, and cough. Patients should be advised to drink fluids regularly to avoid dehydration.
Rest is recommended as needed during the acute phase of COVID-19, and ambulation and other forms
of activity should be increased according to the patient’s tolerance. Patients should be educated about the
variability in time to symptom resolution and complete recovery. When possible, patients with symptoms
of COVID-19 may be triaged via telehealth visits to determine whether they require COVID-19–specific
therapy and in-person care.
Patients with persistent or progressive dyspnea, especially those who have an oxygen saturation measured
by pulse oximetry ≤94% on room air at sea level or have symptoms that suggest high acuity (e.g., chest
pain or tightness, dizziness, confusion, other mental status changes), should be evaluated by a health care
provider (AIII). For more information, see General Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With Acute
COVID-19.
Rationale for the Panel’s Recommendations

The Panel’s recommendations for the antiviral agents that are used to treat nonhospitalized patients with
mild to moderate COVID-19 who are at high risk of disease progression are based on the results of clinical
trials.
The Panel favors the use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) in most high-risk, nonhospitalized
patients with mild to moderate COVID-19. When ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is not clinically
appropriate (e.g., because of significant drug-drug interactions), the Panel recommends using remdesivir.
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir has high efficacy; has been shown to reduce hospitalization and death when
administered to high-risk, unvaccinated, nonhospitalized patients within 5 days of symptom onset;5 and is
an oral medication, whereas remdesivir requires intravenous (IV) administration.
The Panel’s recommendation for remdesivir is based on the results from a Phase 3, randomized,
placebo-controlled trial that reported high clinical efficacy for remdesivir in high-risk, nonhospitalized
patients with COVID-19 who were unvaccinated.6 However, in some settings, daily IV administration of
remdesivir for 3 days may be a logistical challenge.
The Panel recommends molnupiravir as a therapeutic option when the other recommended antiviral
treatment options are not available, feasible to use, or clinically appropriate (CIIa). Molnupiravir appears
to have lower clinical efficacy than the other treatment options, although no randomized studies have
compared these therapies directly.
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against initiating these antiviral
agents after the recommended timeframes. Because the drugs listed above were studied soon after
symptom onset (i.e., within 5 days for molnupiravir and ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and within 7 days
for remdesivir), it is not known whether they would confer a clinical benefit if they were started beyond
the recommended timeframe.
Currently, data on the use of combinations of antiviral agents for the treatment of COVID-19 are limited.
Clinical trials are needed to determine whether combination therapy has a role in the treatment of COVID-19.
Strategies for the Use of Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir

Because ritonavir is a strong cytochrome P450 3A4 inhibitor and a P-glycoprotein inhibitor, it may
increase blood concentrations of certain concomitant medications and increase the potential for serious
drug toxicities. Therefore, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) prescribing information includes a

boxed warning for significant drug-drug interactions with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.7 Clinicians
should consider both the potential benefits of treatment with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and the
potential risks related to drug-drug interactions.
Many drug-drug interactions between ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and concomitant medications (e.g.,
certain statins, calcium channel blockers, or direct oral anticoagulants) can be safely managed. If a
significant drug-drug interaction is identified, prescribers should consider consulting with a pharmacist.
The following resources provide information on identifying and managing drug-drug interactions:
• Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Concomitant
Medications
• The Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website
• The University of Waterloo/University of Toronto drug interaction guide for ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir
• The FDA prescribing information for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir
The use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir may be challenging in patients with severe renal impairment.
The FDA prescribing information states that ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is not recommended for
patients with an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of <30 mL/min until more data are available
to establish appropriate dosing.7 Although data on dose adjustments are limited, some groups have
proposed dosing adjustments for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in patients with an eGFR of <30 mL/min
or in patients who require hemodialysis.8-11
The decision to prescribe ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir to patients who have received transplants
and are taking calcineurin and mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors should always be made in
consultation with the patient’s specialist providers. Among reports submitted to the FDA Adverse
Event Reporting System, the most commonly reported concomitant medications that resulted in serious
adverse reactions, including fatal events, were calcineurin inhibitors (e.g., tacrolimus).12 Ritonavir-
boosted nirmatrelvir may be prescribed to select patients if an expert in managing the interaction
is available and close therapeutic drug monitoring is logistically feasible. Otherwise, an alternative
therapy for COVID-19 should be considered. See the American Society of Transplantation statement for
additional information.
Interactions between ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and cancer chemotherapeutic agents should also
be managed in consultation with the patient’s specialist providers. For guidance on managing these
interactions, refer to the FDA prescribing information for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and the
prescribing information for the chemotherapeutic agent. The University Health Network/Kingston
Health Sciences Centre provides an additional resource for evaluating drug-drug interactions between
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and chemotherapeutic agents.
Strategies for the Use of Remdesivir

Advanced planning (e.g., reserving infusion slots, identifying alternative infusion sites) may be needed
to increase access to IV remdesivir. IV remdesivir can be administered in skilled nursing facilities, home
health care settings, and outpatient facilities such as infusion centers. If treatment facilities cannot provide
a 3-day course of remdesivir IV infusions to all eligible patients, prioritizing patients who will benefit the
most from the therapy becomes necessary. The prioritization scheme below is based on 4 key elements:
age, vaccination status, immune status, and clinical risk factors. For a list of risk factors, see the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) webpage Underlying Medical Conditions Associated With
Higher Risk for Severe COVID-19. The groups are listed by tier in descending order of priority.

Tier Risk Group
• Immunocompromised individuals not expected to mount an adequate immune response to COVID-19
vaccination or SARS-CoV-2 infection due to their underlying conditions,a regardless of vaccine status; or
1
• Unvaccinated individuals at the highest risk of severe disease (anyone aged ≥75 years or anyone aged
≥65 years with additional risk factors)
• Unvaccinated individuals not included in Tier 1 who are at risk of severe disease (anyone aged ≥65
2
years or anyone aged <65 years with clinical risk factors)
• Vaccinated individuals at risk of severe disease (anyone aged ≥65 years or anyone aged <65 years
3
with clinical risk factors)b
a
See the CDC webpage COVID-19 Vaccines for People Who Are Moderately or Severely Immunocompromised for a
discussion of immunocompromising conditions.
b
Vaccinated individuals who are not up to date with their immunizations are likely at higher risk of severe disease; patients
within this tier who are in this situation should be prioritized for treatment. See the CDC webpage Stay Up to Date With
COVID-19 Vaccines for more information.
See Prioritization of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Therapies for the Treatment of COVID-19 in Nonhospitalized

Patients When There Are Logistical Constraints for more information.
Patients Who Are Immunocompromised and Have Prolonged COVID-19 Symptoms

and Evidence of Ongoing Viral Replication
For patients who are immunocompromised and have prolonged COVID-19 symptoms and evidence
of ongoing viral replication (e.g., those with a low cycle threshold value, as measured by a reverse
transcription polymerase chain reaction result or with a positive rapid antigen test result) despite
receiving a course of antiviral therapy, the optimal management is unknown. Case reports and case
series have described the treatment of these patients with additional antiviral treatments, prolonged
courses of antiviral treatments, high-titer COVID-19 convalescent plasma (CCP), or combination
therapy.13-19 The data for these approaches are not definitive, but some Panel members would use 1 or
more of the following treatment options:
• Longer and/or additional courses of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir
• Longer and/or additional courses of remdesivir
• High-titer CCP from a vaccinated donor who recently recovered from COVID-19 likely caused by
a SARS-CoV-2 variant similar to the variant causing the patient’s illness
For further discussion of these potential treatment options, see Special Considerations in People Who
Are Immunocompromised.
Additional Information on Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir

Nirmatrelvir is an orally bioavailable protease inhibitor that is active against MPRO, a viral protease that
plays an essential role in viral replication.20 The FDA has approved ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir for the
treatment of mild to moderate COVID-19 in nonhospitalized adults who are at high risk of progressing
to severe COVID-19.7
Patients should complete the 5-day treatment course of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, which was shown
to be efficacious in the EPIC-HR trial.5 If a patient requires hospitalization after starting treatment,
the full 5-day treatment course of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir should be completed unless there are
drug-drug interactions that preclude its use.
In the EPIC-HR trial, ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir reduced the risk of hospitalization or death by 89%

compared to placebo in unvaccinated, nonhospitalized adults with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2
infection.5 This efficacy is comparable to the efficacies reported in similar patient populations for
remdesivir (87% relative reduction)6 and greater than the efficacy reported for molnupiravir in this
setting (31% relative reduction).21
Because ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir has the potential for significant drug-drug interactions with
concomitant medications, this regimen may not be the optimal choice for all patients (see Drug-Drug
Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir [Paxlovid] and Concomitant Medications).
However, because ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is the only highly effective oral antiviral available for
the treatment of COVID-19, drug-drug interactions that can be safely managed should not preclude the
use of this medication.
For more information on the use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, see Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir
(Paxlovid). See Viral Rebound and Symptom Recurrence below for information regarding SARS-CoV-2
viral rebound in patients who have completed treatment with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.
Additional Information on Remdesivir

Remdesivir is a nucleotide prodrug of an adenosine analog that inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication.
It is approved by the FDA for the treatment of COVID-19 in adults and children aged ≥28 days and
weighing ≥3 kg who are hospitalized with COVID-19 and for those with mild to moderate COVID-19
who are not hospitalized and are at high risk of progressing to severe disease. In the PINETREE trial,
nonhospitalized patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who were unvaccinated and at high risk
of progressing to severe disease received 3 days of IV remdesivir or placebo. The use of remdesivir
resulted in an 87% relative reduction in the risk of hospitalization or death.6
Remdesivir should be administered in a setting where severe hypersensitivity reactions, such as
anaphylaxis, can be managed. Patients should be monitored during the infusion and observed for at least
1 hour after the infusion as clinically appropriate.
For more information, see Remdesivir.
Additional Information on Molnupiravir

Molnupiravir is the oral prodrug of beta-D-N4-hydroxycytidine, a ribonucleoside that has shown
antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro and in clinical trials.22-24 The FDA issued an Emergency
Use Authorization for molnupiravir for the treatment of mild to moderate COVID-19 in nonhospitalized
patients aged ≥18 years who are at high risk of disease progression and for whom other antiviral
treatment options are not accessible or clinically appropriate.
The MOVe-OUT trial enrolled high-risk, unvaccinated, nonhospitalized adults in the pre-Omicron era.21
The study found that molnupiravir reduced the rate of hospitalization or death by 31% compared to
placebo. A secondary analysis of patients who required hospitalization during the trial found a reduced
need for respiratory interventions among those who received molnupiravir compared to those who
received placebo.25
The PANORAMIC trial enrolled nonhospitalized adults with COVID-19 who were at high risk of severe
disease during a period when the Omicron variant was circulating.26 Ninety-four percent of the patients
had received at least 3 doses of a COVID-19 vaccine. The study found that the use of molnupiravir plus
usual care did not reduce the occurrence of the primary composite outcome of hospitalization or death
compared to usual care alone. The proportion of patients who met this composite outcome was 1% in
both arms. Molnupiravir plus usual care was superior to usual care alone for several secondary clinical
endpoints. For example, the time to self-reported recovery was substantially shorter in people who

received molnupiravir plus usual care than in people who received usual care alone (median of 9 days
vs. 15 days). Because the PANORAMIC trial was an open-label study with self-reported symptoms, the
findings are less reliable than those from a placebo-controlled trial.
Although the different COVID-19 treatment options have not been directly compared in clinical trials,
the Panel recommends using molnupiravir as an alternative therapy only when ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir and remdesivir are not available, feasible to use, or clinically appropriate, because
molnupiravir appears to have lower clinical efficacy than these other options.
There is a theoretical risk that the molnupiravir metabolite beta-D-N4-hydroxycytidine could be
incorporated into host DNA, leading to mutations. The available genotoxicity data and the 5-day
duration of treatment led the FDA to conclude that molnupiravir has a low risk for genotoxicity.27
The Panel recommends against the use of molnupiravir for the treatment of COVID-19 in pregnant
patients unless there are no other options and therapy is clearly indicated (AIII). People who engage in
sexual activity that may result in conception should use effective contraception during and following
treatment with molnupiravir.
Fetal toxicity has been reported in animal studies of molnupiravir.27 However, when other therapies
are not available, pregnant patients with COVID-19 who are at high risk of progressing to severe
disease may reasonably choose molnupiravir after being fully informed of the risks, particularly if
they are beyond the time of embryogenesis (i.e., >10 weeks’ gestation). See Pregnancy, Lactation, and
COVID-19 Therapeutics for more information.
For more information, see Molnupiravir.
Viral Rebound and Symptom Recurrence

Observational studies and the EPIC-HR and MOVe-OUT trials have described SARS-CoV-2 viral
rebound and the recurrence of COVID-19 symptoms in some patients who have completed treatment
with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir or molnupiravir.7,27-30 However, viral rebound can also occur in
patients who have not received treatment for COVID-19.31 Some observational studies have reported
that patients who were treated with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir had a higher frequency of viral
rebound and symptom recurrence than those who did not receive treatment.32,33 The re-emergence of
culturable SARS CoV-2 has been reported in some individuals with viral rebound.
To date, virus detection and the recurrence of COVID-19 symptoms following the use of antiviral
therapies have not been associated with progression to severe COVID-19.34,35 Therefore, concerns about
viral rebound or the recurrence of symptoms should not be a reason to avoid using antiviral therapies
when their use is indicated.27,36-38 There are insufficient data on whether a longer course of ritonavir-
boosted nirmatrelvir or molnupiravir will prevent viral rebound or symptom recurrence. There also
are insufficient data on the efficacy of administering a second course of antiviral therapy to treat viral
rebound or symptom recurrence. However, a clinical trial that is evaluating the use of a second course of
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir to treat patients with viral rebound and symptom recurrence is underway
(ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT05567952).
Immunomodulators
The Panel recommends against the use of dexamethasone or other systemic corticosteroids to treat
outpatients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who do not require hospitalization or supplemental
oxygen (AIIb). Patients with COVID-19 who are receiving dexamethasone or another corticosteroid for
an underlying condition should continue this therapy as directed by their health care provider (AIII).
Medicare and FDA data show a significant increase in the number of prescriptions for systemic

corticosteroids among nonhospitalized patients with COVID-1939 despite a lack of safety and efficacy
data on the use of systemic corticosteroids in this setting. Systemic glucocorticoids may cause harm in
nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19. Results from 1 randomized controlled trial and 1 observational
cohort study did not demonstrate a clinical benefit of dexamethasone among hospitalized patients who did
not require supplemental oxygen,40 and dexamethasone may potentially cause harm in these patients.41
In the RECOVERY trial, the use of dexamethasone had no effect on mortality among hospitalized
patients with COVID-19 who did not require supplemental oxygen (rate ratio 1.19; 95% CI, 0.91–
1.55).41 A large observational study of patients at Veterans Affairs hospitals showed that patients with
COVID-19 who did not require supplemental oxygen and received dexamethasone had an increased risk
of 90-day mortality (HR 1.76; 95% CI, 1.47–2.12).41
Concomitant Medication Management

In general, a patient’s usual medication and/or supplement regimen should be continued after the
diagnosis of COVID-19 (see Considerations for Using Concomitant Medications in Patients With
COVID-19). Patients should be advised to avoid the use of nebulized medications in the presence of
others to avoid potential aerosolization of SARS-CoV-2.42 In patients with HIV, an antiretroviral regimen
should not be modified for the purpose of preventing or treating SARS-CoV-2 infection. For more
information, see Special Considerations in People With HIV.
When a patient is receiving an immunomodulating medication, the prescribing clinician or an expert in the
subspecialty should be consulted about the risks and benefits associated with a temporary dose reduction or
discontinuation. These risks and benefits will depend on the medication’s indication and the severity of the
underlying condition (see Special Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised).
Before prescribing ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, clinicians should carefully review the patient’s
concomitant medications, including over-the-counter medications, herbal supplements, and recreational
drugs, to evaluate potential drug-drug interactions.
Table 2b. Dosing Regimens for the Drugs Recommended in Table 2a
Drug Name Dosing Regimen Comments

Ritonavir-Boosted eGFR ≥60 mL/min Clinicians should evaluate potential
Nirmatrelvir • Nirmatrelvir 300 mg with RTV 100 mg PO twice daily drug-drug interactions. See Drug-Drug
(Paxlovid) for 5 days Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted
Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Concomitant
eGFR ≥30 to <60 mL/min Medications for more information.
• Nirmatrelvir 150 mg with RTV 100 mg PO twice daily
for 5 days
eGFR <30 mL/min
• Not recommended
• For more information on the use of this agent in
patients with eGFR <30 mL/min, see Ritonavir-
Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid).
Severe Hepatic Impairment (Child-Pugh Class C)
• Not recommended
Remdesivir RDV 200 mg IV on Day 1, then RDV 100 mg IV once Patients should be monitored for ≥1 hour
daily on Days 2 and 3. Administer each infusion over after the infusion as clinically appropriate.
30–120 minutes.
Molnupiravir MOV 800 mg PO every 12 hours for 5 days Before initiating MOV, assess the patient's
pregnancy status as clinically indicated.
See Molnupiravir for more information.

Key: eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; IV = intravenous; MOV = molnupiravir; PO = oral; RDV = remdesivir; RTV
= ritonavir
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13. Huygens S, Gharbharan A, Serroukh Y, et al. High-titer convalescent plasma plus nirmatrelvir/ritonavir
treatment for non-resolving COVID-19 in six immunocompromised patients. J Antimicrob Chemother.
14. Brosh-Nissimov T, Ma’aravi N, Leshin-Carmel D, et al. Combination treatment of persistent COVID-19
in immunocompromised patients with remdesivir, nirmatrelvir/ritonavir and tixagevimab/cilgavimab. J
Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2023;Published online ahead of print. Available at:
15. Mikulska M, Sepulcri C, Dentone C, et al. Triple combination therapy with two antivirals and monoclonal
antibodies for persistent or relapsed SARS-CoV-2 infection in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis.

16. Graziani L, Gori L, Manciulli T, et al. Successful use of nirmatrelvir/ritonavir in immunocompromised patients
with persistent and/or relapsing COVID-19. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2023;78(2):555-558. Available at: https://
17. Trottier CA, Wong B, Kohli R, et al. Dual antiviral therapy for persistent coronavirus disease 2019 and
associated organizing pneumonia in an immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76(5):923-925.
18. Focosi D, Maggi F, D‘Abramo A, Nicastri E, Sullivan DJ. Antiviral combination therapies for persistent
COVID-19 in immunocompromised patients. Int J Infect Dis. 2023;137:55-59. Available at:
19. Snell LB, McGreal-Bellone A, Nye C, et al. A multinational case series describing successful treatment of
persistent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection caused by Omicron sublineages with
prolonged courses of nirmatrelvir/ritonavir. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023;11(1):ofad612. Available at:
20. Pillaiyar T, Manickam M, Namasivayam V, Hayashi Y, Jung SH. An overview of severe acute respiratory
syndrome-coronavirus (SARS-CoV) 3CL protease inhibitors: peptidomimetics and small molecule
chemotherapy. J Med Chem. 2016;59(14):6595-6628. Available at:
21. Jayk Bernal A, Gomes da Silva MM, Musungaie DB, et al. Molnupiravir for oral treatment of COVID-19 in
nonhospitalized patients. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(6):509-520. Available at:
22. Fischer WA II, Eron JJ Jr, Holman W, et al. A Phase 2a clinical trial of molnupiravir in patients with COVID-19
shows accelerated SARS-CoV-2 RNA clearance and elimination of infectious virus. Sci Transl Med.
2022;14(628):eabl7430. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34941423.
23. Zhou S, Hill CS, Sarkar S, et al. Beta-d-N4-hydroxycytidine inhibits SARS-CoV-2 through lethal mutagenesis
but is also mutagenic to mammalian cells. J Infect Dis. 2021;224(3):415-419. Available at:
24. Zou R, Peng L, Shu D, et al. Antiviral efficacy and safety of molnupiravir against Omicron variant infection: a
randomized controlled clinical trial. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:939573. Available at:
25. Johnson MG, Puenpatom A, Moncada PA, et al. Effect of molnupiravir on biomarkers, respiratory
interventions, and medical services in COVID-19: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med.
26. Butler CC, Hobbs FDR, Gbinigie OA, et al. Molnupiravir plus usual care versus usual care alone as early
treatment for adults with COVID-19 at increased risk of adverse outcomes (PANORAMIC): an open-label,
platform-adaptive randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2023;401(10373):281-293. Available at:
27. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Lagevrio
(molnupiravir) capsules. 2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/155054/download.
29. Anderson AS, Caubel P, Rusnak JM, EPIC-HR Trial Investigators. Nirmatrelvir-ritonavir and viral load
rebound in COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(11):1047-1049. Available at:
31. Deo R, Choudhary MC, Moser C, et al. Symptom and viral rebound in untreated SARS-CoV-2 infection. Ann

Intern Med. 2023;176(3):348-354. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36802755.
32. Edelstein GE, Boucau J, Uddin R, et al. SARS-CoV-2 virologic rebound with nirmatrelvir-ritonavir therapy:
an observational study. Ann Intern Med. 2023;176(12):1577-1585. Available at:
33. Smith-Jeffcoat SE, Biddle JE, Talbot HK, et al. Symptoms, viral loads, and rebound among COVID-19
outpatients treated with nirmatrelvir/ritonavir compared to propensity score matched untreated individuals.
Clin Infect Dis. 2023;Published online ahead of print. Available at:
34. Smith DJ, Lambrou A, Patel P. SARS-CoV-2 rebound with and without use of COVID-19 oral antivirals.
MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023;72(51):1357-1364. Available at:
35. Harrington PR, Cong J, Troy SB, et al. Evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 RNA rebound after nirmatrelvir/ritonavir
treatment in randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials - United States and international sites,
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36. Soares H, Baniecki ML, Cardin R, et al. Viral load rebound in placebo and nirmatrelvir-ritonavir treated
COVID-19 patients is not associated with recurrence of severe disease or mutations. Res Sq. 2022;Preprint.
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37. Ranganath N, O’Horo JC, Challener DW, et al. Rebound phenomenon after nirmatrelvir/ritonavir treatment of
coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in high-risk persons. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76(3):e537-e539. Available
38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 rebound after Paxlovid treatment. 2022. Available at:
https://emergency.cdc.gov/han/2022/han00467.asp. Accessed January 26, 2024.
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settings from April 2020 to August 2021. JAMA. 2022;327(20):2015-2018. Available at:
40. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med.
41. Crothers K, DeFaccio R, Tate J, et al. Dexamethasone in hospitalised COVID-19 patients not on intensive
respiratory support. Eur Respir J. 2022;60(1):2102532. Available at:
42. Cazzola M, Ora J, Bianco A, Rogliani P, Matera MG. Guidance on nebulization during the current COVID-19
pandemic. Respir Med. 2021;176:106236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33248363.

Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19
Table 2c. Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19

Disease Severity
Patients with mild to moderate See Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID- For patients without an indication for
Hospitalized for Reasons
COVID-19 who are at high risk of 19.b therapeutic anticoagulation:
Other Than COVID-19
progressing to severe COVID-19a • Prophylactic dose of heparin, unless
All patients The Panel recommends against the use of dexamethasone (AIIa) contraindicated (AI); (BIII) for pregnant
Hospitalized but Does Not or other systemic corticosteroids (AIII) for the treatment of COVID- patients
Require Supplemental 19.c
Oxygen Patients who are at high risk of Remdesivird (BIIb) for patients who are immunocompromised; (BIII)
progressing to severe COVID-19a for other high-risk patients
Patients who require minimal Remdesivird,f (BIIa) For nonpregnant patients with D-dimer
conventional oxygen levels above the ULN who do not have an
Most patients Use dexamethasone plus remdesivir (BIIa). If remdesivir cannot
f increased bleeding risk:
Hospitalized and Requires be obtained, use dexamethasone (BI). • Therapeutic dose of heparinh (CIIa)
Conventional Oxygene Patients who are receiving Add 1 of the following immunomodulators:g For other patients:
dexamethasone and who have Preferred Alternatives (Listed in Alphabetical Order) • Prophylactic dose of heparin, unless
rapidly increasing oxygen needs contraindicated (AI); (BIII) for pregnant
• PO baricitinib (BIIa) • IV abatacept (CIIa)
and systemic inflammation patients
• IV tocilizumab (BIIa) • IV infliximab (CIIa)

Disease Severity
All patients Dexamethasone should be administered to all patients (AI). If not For patients without an indication for
already initiated, promptly add 1 of the following immunomodulators:g,i therapeutic anticoagulation:
Preferred • Prophylactic dose of heparin, unless
• PO baricitinib (AI) contraindicated (AI); (BIII) for pregnant
Preferred Alternative patients
Hospitalized and Requires For patients who start on a therapeutic
HFNC Oxygen or NIV dose of heparin in a non-ICU setting
Additional Alternatives (Listed in Alphabetical Order)
and then transfer to the ICU, the Panel
• IV abatacept (CIIa) recommends switching to a prophylactic
• IV infliximab (CIIa) dose of heparin, unless there is another
Add remdesivir to 1 of the options above in certain patients (for indication for therapeutic anticoagulation
examples, see footnote).j (BIII).
All patients Dexamethasone should be administered to all patients (AI). If
the patient has not already received a second immunomodulator,
Hospitalized and Requires promptly add 1 of the following (listed in alphabetical order):i,k
MV or ECMO • PO baricitinibl (BIIa)
• IV tocilizumabl (BIIa)
See footnote k for a discussion on the use of remdesivir.
Each recommendation in the Guidelines receives a rating for the strength of the recommendation (A, B, or C) and a rating for the evidence that supports it (I, IIa, IIb, or
III). See Guidelines Development for more information.
a
F or a list of risk factors, see the CDC webpage Underlying Medical Conditions Associated With Higher Risk for Severe COVID-19.
b
If the patient is hospitalized for reasons other than COVID-19, the treatment duration for remdesivir is 3 days.
c
Corticosteroids that are prescribed for an underlying condition should be continued.
d
Evidence suggests that the benefit of remdesivir is greatest when the drug is given early in the course of COVID-19 (e.g., within 10 days of symptom onset).
e
Conventional oxygen refers to oxygen supplementation that is not HFNC oxygen, NIV, MV, or ECMO.
f
If these patients progress to requiring HFNC oxygen, NIV, MV, or ECMO, the full course of remdesivir should still be completed.
g
If none of the preferred or alternative options are available or feasible to use, the JAK inhibitor PO tofacitinib (CIIa) or the IL-6 inhibitor IV sarilumab (CIIa) can be
used in combination with dexamethasone. Sarilumab is only commercially available as a SUBQ injection; see Table 5e for information regarding the preparation of an
IV infusion using the SUBQ product.
h
Contraindications for the use of therapeutic anticoagulation in patients with COVID-19 include a PLT <50,000 cells/µL, Hgb <8 g/dL, the need for dual antiplatelet therapy,
bleeding within the past 30 days that required an ED visit or hospitalization, a history of a bleeding disorder, or an inherited or active acquired bleeding disorder.
i
Dexamethasone should be initiated immediately, without waiting until the second immunomodulator can be acquired. If other immunomodulators cannot be obtained
or are contraindicated, use dexamethasone alone (AI).
j
Examples of patients who may benefit most from remdesivir include patients who are immunocompromised (BIIb); patients with evidence of ongoing viral replication

(e.g., those with a low Ct value, as measured by an RT-PCR result or with a positive rapid antigen test result) (BIII);
or patients who are within 10 days of symptom onset (CIIa). For more information on using remdesivir in people with
immunocompromising conditions, see Special Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised.
k
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of remdesivir in hospitalized
patients with COVID-19 who require MV or ECMO. Some Panel members would add remdesivir to immunomodulator
therapy in patients who have recently been placed on MV or ECMO, who are immunocompromised, who have evidence of
ongoing viral replication, or who are within 10 days of symptom onset. See text for more information.
l
If PO baricitinib and IV tocilizumab are not available or feasible to use, PO tofacitinib can be used instead of PO baricitinib
(CIIa), and IV sarilumab can be used instead of IV tocilizumab (CIIa).
Key: CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Ct = cycle threshold; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane
oxygenation; ED = emergency department; HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula; Hgb = hemoglobin; ICU = intensive care
unit; IL = interleukin; IV = intravenous; JAK = Janus kinase; MV = mechanical ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation;
the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PLT = platelet count; PO = oral; RT-PCR = reverse transcription
polymerase chain reaction; SUBQ = subcutaneous; ULN = upper limit of normal
Two main processes are thought to drive the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Early in the clinical course, the
disease is primarily driven by the replication of SARS-CoV-2. Later in the clinical course, the disease
is driven by a dysregulated immune/inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 infection that may lead
to further tissue damage and thrombosis. Based on this understanding, therapies that directly target
SARS-CoV-2 are anticipated to have the greatest effect early in the course of the disease, whereas
immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory, and antithrombotic therapies are likely to be more beneficial
after COVID-19 has progressed to stages characterized by hypoxemia, endothelial dysfunction, and
immunothrombosis.
Currently, most people in the United States have some degree of immunity to SARS-CoV-2 due to
COVID-19 vaccination or SARS-CoV-2 infection. The increase in population immunity and the change
in variants have led to a decrease in the rate of severe disease caused by COVID-19. Because other
co-existing diseases can cause hypoxemia in patients who test positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection,
clinicians should perform the appropriate evaluations to rule out alternative diagnoses. However,
the ongoing evolution of SARS-CoV-2 can lead to immune escape, allowing the virus to continue
circulating in the community. Thus, COVID-19 remains a concern for public health.
Many of the patients who are hospitalized for COVID-19 are immunocompromised to some degree.
For most hospitalized patients with severe or critical COVID-19 who are immunocompromised,
the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends using antiviral drugs and
immunomodulatory therapies at the doses and durations recommended for the general population (AIII).
Some patients who are immunocompromised have prolonged COVID-19 symptoms and evidence of
ongoing SARS-CoV-2 replication. See Special Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised
for additional guidance on managing these patients.
Below is a summary of the rationale for the Panel’s recommendations on the therapeutic management of
hospitalized patients with COVID-19. For dosing information for each of the recommended drugs, see
Table 2d below. For more information about these therapies and the evidence that supports the Panel’s
recommendations, please refer to the specific drug pages and clinical data tables.
Patients Who Are Hospitalized for Reasons Other Than COVID-19 and Who Do Not
Require Supplemental Oxygen
Hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who do not require supplemental oxygen are a heterogeneous
population. Some patients may be hospitalized for reasons other than COVID-19 but may also have mild
to moderate COVID-19 (see Clinical Spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 Infection). In these cases, patients who

are at high risk of progressing to severe COVID-19 may benefit from receiving antiviral therapy.
Remdesivir is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of COVID-19 in
adults who:
• Are hospitalized; or
• Are not hospitalized, have mild to moderate COVID-19, and are at high risk of progressing to
severe COVID-19.
If the patient is hospitalized for reasons other than COVID-19, the treatment duration for remdesivir is 3
days.
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) is approved by the FDA and molnupiravir has an Emergency
Use Authorization from the FDA for use in patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are at high
risk of progressing to severe disease. These therapies can be used in hospitalized patients who qualify
for therapy if they were admitted to the hospital for a diagnosis other than COVID-19. The Panel’s
recommendations for these patients are the same as those for nonhospitalized patients (see Therapeutic
Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19).
Patients Who Are Hospitalized for COVID-19 and Who Do Not Require
Supplemental Oxygen
Recommendations
• The Panel recommends using remdesivir for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized patients
who do not require supplemental oxygen and who are immunocompromised (BIIb) and for other
patients who are at high risk of progressing to severe disease (BIII).
• Remdesivir should be administered for 5 days or until hospital discharge, whichever comes first.
The rationale for using remdesivir in high-risk patients is based on several lines of evidence. In a
trial conducted predominantly among hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who were not receiving
supplemental oxygen at enrollment, a 5-day course of remdesivir was associated with greater clinical
improvement when compared with standard of care.1 Evidence from the PINETREE trial also suggests that
early therapy reduces the risk of progression, although that study was performed in high-risk, unvaccinated,
nonhospitalized patients with ≤7 days of symptoms who received a 3-day course of remdesivir.2
Other studies have not shown a clinical benefit of remdesivir in this group of patients. In the ACTT-1
trial, remdesivir showed no significant benefit in hospitalized patients with mild to moderate COVID-19;
however, only 13% of the study population did not require supplemental oxygen.3 In the large Solidarity
trial, the use of remdesivir was not associated with a survival benefit among the subset of hospitalized
patients who did not require supplemental oxygen.4 See Table 4a for more information.
The aggregate data on using remdesivir to treat all high-risk patients with COVID-19 show a faster time
to recovery in patients who received remdesivir but no clear evidence of a survival benefit. Therefore,
the Panel recommends using remdesivir in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who do not require
supplemental oxygen and who are at high risk of progressing to severe disease (BIII).
In a large, retrospective cohort study of hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who were
immunocompromised (n = 28,338), patients who received remdesivir had a lower risk of mortality
than those who did not receive remdesivir.5 Forty percent of patients in this cohort were not receiving
supplemental oxygen at baseline; mortality was reduced in this subset of patients. Therefore, the Panel
recommends using remdesivir in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who do not require supplemental
oxygen and who are immunocompromised (BIIb).

For information on medical conditions that confer high risk, see the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention webpage People With Certain Medical Conditions.
Recommendation
• The Panel recommends against the use of dexamethasone (AIIa) or other systemic corticosteroids
(AIII) for the treatment of COVID-19 in patients who do not require supplemental oxygen.
In the RECOVERY trial, no survival benefit was observed for dexamethasone among the subset of
patients with COVID-19 who did not require supplemental oxygen at enrollment.6 In an observational
cohort study of U.S. veterans, the use of dexamethasone was associated with higher mortality in
hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who did not require supplemental oxygen.7
There are insufficient data to inform the use of other systemic corticosteroids in hospitalized patients
with COVID-19 who do not require supplemental oxygen. See Table 5a for more information about the
clinical trials that have evaluated the use of these drugs in patients with COVID-19. Patients who are
receiving corticosteroid treatment for an underlying condition should continue to receive corticosteroids.
Patients Who Require Conventional Oxygen

Patients with COVID-19 who require conventional oxygen (i.e., those who do not require high-flow
nasal cannula [HFNC] oxygen, noninvasive ventilation [NIV], or mechanical ventilation) are a
heterogeneous population. Although all patients who require oxygen are considered to have severe
disease, some of these patients will improve after a short period with or without treatment; others will
develop progressive disease. There is no consensus on which clinical or laboratory parameters should be
used to determine a patient’s risk of progression and guide therapy.
Recommendation
• For patients with COVID-19 who only require minimal conventional oxygen, the Panel
recommends using remdesivir without dexamethasone (BIIa).
In a subgroup analysis during the ACTT-1 trial, remdesivir significantly reduced the time to clinical
recovery and significantly reduced mortality among the subset of patients who were receiving
conventional oxygen at enrollment.3 Evidence from ACTT-1 and a pooled analysis of individual
data from 9 randomized controlled trials8 suggest that remdesivir will have its greatest benefit when
administered early in the clinical course of COVID-19 (e.g., within 10 days of symptom onset). See
Table 4a for more information.
Recommendations
• For most patients with COVID-19 who require conventional oxygen, the Panel recommends using
dexamethasone plus remdesivir (BIIa).
• If dexamethasone is not available, an equivalent dose of another corticosteroid (e.g., prednisone,
methylprednisolone, hydrocortisone) may be used (BIII).
The results of several studies suggest that the use of remdesivir plus dexamethasone improves clinical
outcomes among hospitalized patients with COVID-19. In the CATCO trial, in which 87% of patients
received corticosteroids and 54% were on conventional oxygen, remdesivir significantly reduced the
need for mechanical ventilation among the subset of patients who did not require mechanical ventilation
at enrollment when compared with standard of care.9 In the Solidarity trial, in which approximately
two-thirds of the patients received corticosteroids, remdesivir significantly reduced mortality among the
large subset of patients (n > 7,000) who were receiving conventional or HFNC oxygen at enrollment.4
See Table 4a for more information.

An individual patient–level meta-analysis of 8 clinical trials examined the efficacy of using remdesivir
in hospitalized patients with COVID-19.8 This meta-analysis found that remdesivir significantly reduced
the number of patients who required mechanical ventilation or who died by Day 28 in the combined
subgroups of patients who did not require oxygen or who were receiving conventional oxygen at
baseline. However, the effect of remdesivir was not evaluated separately in the subgroup of patients who
were receiving conventional oxygen at enrollment.
Recommendation
• If remdesivir is not available, the Panel recommends using dexamethasone alone in patients with
COVID-19 who require conventional oxygen (BI).
In the RECOVERY trial, the use of dexamethasone 6 mg once daily for 10 days or until hospital
discharge significantly reduced mortality among the subset of patients who were receiving oxygen
(defined as receiving oxygen supplementation but not mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal
membrane oxygenation [ECMO]) at enrollment.6 Remdesivir was administered to <1% of the study
participants. Results for patients who were only receiving conventional oxygen at enrollment were not
available. See Table 5a for more information.
Recommendations
• For patients with COVID-19 who have rapidly increasing oxygen needs and systemic
inflammation, the Panel recommends adding 1 of the following immunomodulators to
dexamethasone:
• Preferred Second Immunomodulators
○ Oral (PO) baricitinib (BIIa)
○ Intravenous (IV) tocilizumab (BIIa)
• Alternative Second Immunomodulators (Listed in Alphabetical Order)
○ IV abatacept (CIIa)
○ IV infliximab (CIIa)
If none of these options are available or feasible to use, the Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor PO tofacitinib
(CIIa) or the interleukin (IL)-6 inhibitor IV sarilumab (CIIa) can be used in combination with
dexamethasone. Sarilumab is only commercially available as a subcutaneous (SUBQ) injection; see
Table 5e for information regarding the preparation of an IV infusion using the SUBQ product.
Several large randomized controlled trials have evaluated the use of dexamethasone in combination with
a second immunomodulator, including:
• Abatacept, a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated antigen 4 agonist10
• Baricitinib, a JAK inhibitor11-13
• Infliximab, a tumor necrosis factor–alpha inhibitor10
• Tocilizumab, an IL-6 inhibitor14-16
These studies included patients who required conventional oxygen only, as well as those with increasing
oxygen needs and/or elevated levels of inflammatory markers. Subgroup analyses in these trials have not
clearly defined which patients in this heterogeneous group are most likely to benefit from adding a second
immunomodulator to corticosteroid therapy. The study endpoints for these trials included progression
to more severe disease, the need for mechanical ventilation, and death. Nonetheless, some trials suggest
that adding a second immunomodulator provides benefits to patients who require conventional oxygen,

especially those with rapidly increasing oxygen requirements and systemic inflammation.
The Panel recommends either baricitinib or tocilizumab as the preferred second immunomodulator
because both are approved by the FDA for the treatment of COVID-19, and data from multiple clinical
trials have demonstrated that these agents provide a clinical benefit in patients with COVID-19 who
require conventional oxygen.6,11-16 There is also more clinical experience with the use of these 2 agents in
this setting than other potential treatment options.
The ACTIV-1 immunomodulator trial was a double-blind, multi-arm, randomized trial in moderately to
severely ill adults who were hospitalized with COVID-19.10 The trial separately evaluated treatment with
abatacept, cenicriviroc, and infliximab versus placebo. All arms received standard care, and the separate
analyses included data from a shared placebo arm. The primary endpoint was time to recovery by Day
28. Key secondary endpoints included clinical status at Day 14 and mortality through Days 28 and 60.
The majority of patients received corticosteroids (>89%) and remdesivir (>93%).
None of the study drugs had a significant effect on the time to recovery. Mortality by Day 28 was lower
among patients in the abatacept and infliximab arms than among those in the shared placebo arm.
Based on the results of this trial, abatacept or infliximab may be considered alternatives to baricitinib or
tocilizumab. There are no studies that directly compare the use of abatacept or infliximab to the use of
baricitinib or tocilizumab in people with COVID-19.
When baricitinib, tocilizumab, abatacept, or infliximab are not available or feasible to use, the JAK
inhibitor tofacitinib or the IL-6 inhibitor sarilumab may be used as alternative agents. Tofacitinib
decreased the risk for respiratory failure or death among hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in the
STOP-COVID trial,17 and sarilumab reduced mortality and the duration of organ support to the same
degree as tocilizumab in the REMAP-CAP trial.14,15
Use of Anticoagulants
• The Panel recommends using a therapeutic dose of heparin for nonpregnant patients with
D-dimer levels above the upper limit of normal who require conventional oxygen and who do not
have an increased bleeding risk (CIIa).
• The Panel recommends the use of a prophylactic dose of heparin for patients who do not meet
the criteria for receiving therapeutic heparin or are not receiving a therapeutic dose of heparin for
other reasons, unless a contraindication exists (AI).
• The Panel recommends the use of a prophylactic dose of anticoagulation for pregnant patients who
are hospitalized for manifestations of COVID-19, unless a contraindication exists (BIII).
The Panel’s recommendations for the use of heparin are based on data from 3 open-label randomized
controlled trials that compared the use of therapeutic doses of heparin to prophylactic or intermediate
doses of heparin in hospitalized patients who did not require intensive care unit (ICU)-level care. Pooled
data from the ATTACC/ACTIV-4a/REMAP-CAP trials reported more organ support-free days (i.e., days
alive and free of ICU-based organ support) for patients in the therapeutic heparin arm than for those
in the usual care arm, but there was no difference between the arms in in-hospital mortality or length
of hospitalization.18 The RAPID trial compared a therapeutic dose of heparin to a prophylactic dose in
hospitalized patients with moderate COVID-19. There was no statistically significant difference between
the arms in the occurrence of the primary endpoint (which was a composite of ICU admission, NIV
or mechanical ventilation, or death by Day 28), but the therapeutic dose of heparin reduced the risk of
all-cause death.19 In the HEP-COVID trial, venous thromboembolism (VTE), arterial thromboembolism,
and death by Day 32 occurred significantly less frequently in patients who received a therapeutic dose of
heparin than in those who received a prophylactic dose of heparin, but there was no difference in mortality

by Day 32 between the arms.20
Patients Who Require High-Flow Nasal Cannula Oxygen or Noninvasive Ventilation

In these patients, systemic inflammation contributes to hypoxemia, and thus these patients may benefit
from receiving a second immunomodulator in addition to dexamethasone. There is no consensus on
which clinical or laboratory parameters reliably predict the risk of progression to mechanical ventilation
or death.
The available evidence suggests that the benefits of adding baricitinib or tocilizumab to dexamethasone
treatment outweigh the potential risks in patients with COVID-19 who require HFNC oxygen or
NIV. Although the combination of dexamethasone and secondary immunomodulating medications
may increase the risk of opportunistic infections or the risk of reactivating latent infections, there are
insufficient data to make recommendations about initiating prophylaxis against these infections.
Recommendations
• Dexamethasone should be administered to all patients with COVID-19 who require HFNC
oxygen or NIV (AI).
• If not already initiated, promptly add 1 of the following immunomodulators to dexamethasone:
• Preferred Second Immunomodulator
○ PO baricitinib (AI)
• Preferred Alternative Second Immunomodulator
○ IV tocilizumab (BIIa)
• Additional Alternative Second Immunomodulators (Listed in Alphabetical Order)
○ IV abatacept (CIIa)
○ IV infliximab (CIIa)
If none of these options are available or feasible to use, PO tofacitinib (CIIa) or IV sarilumab (CIIa)
can be used in combination with dexamethasone. Sarilumab is only commercially available as a SUBQ
injection; see Table 5e for information regarding the preparation of an IV infusion using the SUBQ
product.
Clinicians should make a significant effort to obtain and administer 1 of the recommended second
immunomodulators. However, dexamethasone should be initiated immediately, without waiting until the
second immunomodulator can be acquired. Dexamethasone was used as a single-agent immunomodulatory
strategy in the RECOVERY trial and demonstrated a survival benefit among patients who required
supplemental oxygen.6 In this trial, the treatment effect for dexamethasone was not evaluated separately for
those who required conventional oxygen and those who required HFNC oxygen or NIV.
Several large randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that patients with COVID-19 who require
HFNC oxygen or NIV benefit from combining dexamethasone with an additional immunomodulator,
such as a JAK inhibitor or an IL-6 inhibitor. The quality of the evidence and the totality of the data
support a stronger recommendation for baricitinib than for tocilizumab.
Two large randomized controlled trials (RECOVERY and COV-BARRIER) both reported a survival
benefit among hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who required HFNC oxygen or NIV and who
received baricitinib plus dexamethasone.12,13 Data from the ACTT-211 and ACTT-421 trials support the
overall safety of using baricitinib in combination with remdesivir and the potential for a clinical benefit
of this combination, but neither trial studied baricitinib in combination with dexamethasone as the
standard of care. A retrospective analysis of data from 11 U.S. health systems suggests that the use of

baricitinib may be associated with fewer adverse effects than tocilizumab, including fewer secondary
infections, thrombotic events, and cases of acute liver injury.22
The use of tocilizumab in combination with corticosteroids reduced in-hospital mortality in patients with
rapid respiratory decompensation who were admitted to the ICU in the REMAP-CAP trial.14 Similar
results were reported during the RECOVERY trial, although patients were only randomized into the
tocilizumab arm if they had an oxygen saturation <92% on room air and C-reactive protein levels ≥75
mg/L.16 Both REMAP-CAP and RECOVERY evaluated the efficacy of adding tocilizumab to standard
care; in both cases, standard care included dexamethasone therapy. Other randomized trials that have
evaluated the use of tocilizumab have demonstrated mixed results, including a lack of benefit when
tocilizumab was administered without dexamethasone as part of standard care.23-26
In the ACTIV-1 trial, which evaluated the use of abatacept, cenicriviroc, and infliximab in hospitalized
patients with COVID-19, neither abatacept nor infliximab demonstrated a significant effect on the primary
endpoint of time to recovery.10 In the subgroup of patients who received HFNC oxygen or NIV, mortality
at Day 28 (a secondary outcome) was lower in both the abatacept and the infliximab arms than in the
shared placebo arm.
Combinations of 3 immunomodulators (e.g., dexamethasone plus baricitinib plus tocilizumab) have not
been studied in clinical trials. Although some patients in the baricitinib arm of the RECOVERY trial also
received tocilizumab, data from the study are insufficient to issue a recommendation.13 When both agents
are used, there is a potential for greater risk of secondary infections.
The clinical trial data cited above informed the Panel’s recommendations for adding a second
immunomodulator to dexamethasone in hospitalized patients who require HFNC oxygen or NIV. After
reviewing these clinical trial results, the Panel recommends baricitinib over tocilizumab as the second
immunomodulator. See Table 5c and Table 5d for more information. Because the evidence for the use of
either abatacept or infliximab in people with COVID-19 is derived from a single study while multiple
trials have demonstrated a beneficial effect of using baricitinib or tocilizumab, the Panel recommends
using abatacept or infliximab only when baricitinib and tocilizumab are not available or their use is
contraindicated.
Recommendations
• For certain hospitalized patients who require HFNC oxygen or NIV, the Panel recommends adding
remdesivir to 1 of the recommended immunomodulator combinations. Examples of patients who
may benefit most from adding remdesivir include:
• Patients who are immunocompromised (BIIb);
• Patients with evidence of ongoing viral replication (e.g., those with a low cycle threshold [Ct]
value, as measured by a reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction [RT-PCR] result or with
a positive rapid antigen test result) (BIII); or
• Patients who are within 10 days of symptom onset (CIIa).
Clinical trial data have not clearly established that remdesivir reduces the time to recovery or improves
survival in patients who require HFNC oxygen or NIV. However, because clinical trials have found
that remdesivir prevents clinical progression in patients who are not on mechanical ventilation, some
patients receiving HFNC oxygen or NIV might benefit from receiving remdesivir. In the Solidarity trial,
remdesivir had a modest but statistically significant effect on reducing the risk of death or progression
to ventilation in patients who were receiving oxygen but who were not ventilated at baseline.4
However, these effects could not be evaluated separately for patients who required conventional oxygen
supplementation and those who required HFNC oxygen or NIV.4 In the CATCO trial, among the patients

who were not receiving mechanical ventilation at baseline, 8% of patients who received remdesivir
required mechanical ventilation compared to 15% of those who received standard of care (relative risk
0.53; 95% CI, 0.38–0.75).9 See Table 4a for more information.
The Panel’s rationale for recommending remdesivir for certain patients who require HFNC oxygen
or NIV is discussed below. This discussion includes examples of patients who may benefit most from
receiving remdesivir. In addition, clinicians may extend the course of remdesivir beyond 5 days in this
population based on clinical response.
Patients Who Are Immunocompromised
People who are immunocompromised already have difficulty achieving viral clearance. The use
of immunomodulators to treat COVID-19 may further impair this process. Because SARS-CoV-2
replication may be prolonged in these patients, remdesivir may help enhance viral clearance and improve
outcomes. In a large, retrospective study of a cohort of patients who were immunocompromised, patients
who received remdesivir had a lower risk of mortality than those who did not receive remdesivir;
however, only 19% of the patients in the study were receiving HFNC oxygen or NIV.5 For more
information, see Special Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised.
Patients With Evidence of Ongoing Viral Replication
Hospitalized patients who require HFNC oxygen or NIV are routinely treated with 2 immunomodulators
to prevent or mitigate inflammation-mediated injury. These treatments may impair the patient’s ability to
achieve viral clearance; thus, directly treating the virus with remdesivir may theoretically help improve
outcomes. Substantial evidence from studies of other viral diseases supports the benefits of reducing the
viral burden. Ct values can be obtained from some SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR assays, and these values may
be used as a proxy for the level of ongoing viral replication (low Ct values correspond to higher viral
loads). While this information is not available on all RT-PCR platforms, Ct values may be helpful in
informing decisions regarding the use of remdesivir. Positive rapid antigen test results are also consistent
with higher viral loads.27
Patients Who Are Within 10 Days of Symptom Onset
Active viral replication occurs early in the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Evidence from the ACTT-1
and PINETREE trials suggests that remdesivir will have the greatest benefit when administered early
in the clinical course of COVID-19.2,3 In the ACTT-1 trial, remdesivir demonstrated a greater benefit in
patients who were enrolled within 10 days of symptom onset than in those who were enrolled later in the
disease course.
• The Panel recommends using a prophylactic dose of heparin as VTE prophylaxis, unless a
contraindication exists (AI); (BIII) for pregnant patients.
• The Panel recommends against the use of a therapeutic dose of anticoagulation for VTE
prophylaxis (BI).
• For patients who start on a therapeutic dose of heparin in a non-ICU setting due to COVID-19
and then transfer to the ICU, the Panel recommends switching from the therapeutic dose to a
prophylactic dose of heparin, unless VTE is confirmed (BIII).
The multiplatform randomized controlled trial REMAP-CAP/ACTIV-4a/ATTACC compared the
effectiveness of a therapeutic dose of heparin to standard care in critically ill patients with COVID-19.28
The study did not show an increase in the number of organ support-free days or the probability of
survival to hospital discharge among patients who received therapeutic doses of anticoagulation. See
Antithrombotic Therapy in Patients With COVID-19 for more information.

Patients Who Require Mechanical Ventilation or Extracorporeal Membrane
Oxygenation
Recommendations
• Dexamethasone should be administered to all patients with COVID-19 who require mechanical
ventilation or ECMO (AI).
• If the patient has not already received a second immunomodulator in addition to dexamethasone,
promptly add 1 of the following (listed in alphabetical order):
• PO baricitinib (BIIa)
Dexamethasone was shown to reduce mortality in critically ill patients with COVID-19 in a meta-
analysis that aggregated 7 randomized trials and included data on 1,703 critically ill patients.29 The
largest trial included in the meta-analysis was the RECOVERY trial, which had a subgroup of patients
who were receiving mechanical ventilation (see Systemic Corticosteroids and Table 5a).6 Subsequent
studies of immunomodulator therapy suggest that using a second immunomodulator in combination with
dexamethasone is more effective than dexamethasone alone in patients with COVID-19 who require
mechanical ventilation or ECMO.14,16,30
Clinical trials that have evaluated combining IL-6 inhibitors or JAK inhibitors with corticosteroids for the
treatment of patients with COVID-19 provide the most robust evidence for the Panel’s recommendations.
Clinical trials of tocilizumab have reported an overall survival benefit in patients with hypoxemia and
signs of systemic inflammation (RECOVERY)16 and in patients who are critically ill and require organ
support (REMAP-CAP).14 Although these studies included patients who were receiving mechanical
ventilation at randomization, the studies were not specifically powered to assess the effectiveness of IL-6
inhibitors in these patients. Other studies of tocilizumab in critically ill patients did not find a survival
benefit, although the time between initiation of organ support in the ICU and study enrollment differed
across the studies (see Table 5c).23,26 The use of corticosteroids also varied across the studies.
An extension of the COV-BARRIER trial compared the efficacy of baricitinib to placebo in 101 critically
ill patients with COVID-19.30 The study reported significant reductions in mortality (relative reduction
of 46% at 28 days and 44% at 60 days) and no major adverse events among patients who received
baricitinib. Systematic reviews of JAK inhibitors confirm the efficacy of using baricitinib in hospitalized
patients with COVID-19 who require oxygen support. There is a lower certainty of evidence for patients
who were receiving mechanical ventilation or ECMO, and baricitinib may have modestly attenuated
efficacy in this group.31 Baricitinib or tocilizumab should only be administered in combination with
dexamethasone or another corticosteroid.
In the ACTIV-1 trial, the use of abatacept, cenicriviroc, or infliximab did not reduce the time to recovery
or mortality in patients with COVID-19 who required mechanical ventilation or ECMO. Therefore, these
immunomodulators are not recommended for these patients.
Considerations for the Use of Remdesivir

There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of remdesivir in
hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who require mechanical ventilation or ECMO. For patients who
progress to requiring mechanical ventilation or ECMO after they initiate remdesivir, the Panel suggests
continuing remdesivir until the treatment course is completed. Remdesivir is most effective against
COVID-19 in patients who are earlier in the course of the disease.

In the ACTT-1 trial, there was no difference between the remdesivir and placebo arms in the time
to recovery among patients with COVID-19 who were receiving mechanical ventilation or ECMO;
however, very few patients received corticosteroids in this trial.3 The Solidarity trial reported no benefit
of using remdesivir in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who were already on mechanical ventilation
(mortality rate ratio 1.13; P = 0.32).4 It is worth noting that only a few patients required mechanical
ventilation in these 2 randomized trials, and there was substantial variation in the timing of remdesivir
initiation. In contrast, in a propensity score-matched retrospective observational study, the use of
remdesivir was associated with a reduction in mortality at 14 and 28 days among patients who required
mechanical ventilation or ECMO within 48 hours of hospital admission for COVID-19 pneumonia.32 In
this study, over 97% of patients received corticosteroids.
Given the results of the randomized clinical trials and the limitations of observational data, the Panel
cannot recommend either for or against the use of remdesivir in this group of patients. However, some
Panel members would add remdesivir to immunomodulator therapy in patients with COVID-19 who have
recently been placed on mechanical ventilation or ECMO. In this case, the rationale to add remdesivir is
based on the observed clinical benefit of remdesivir during earlier stages of infection, the results of the
observational study, and the demonstrated safety of remdesivir. In addition, some Panel members would
add remdesivir to the regimen for patients with COVID-19 who are immunocompromised, who have
evidence for ongoing viral replication, or who are within 10 days of symptom onset.
contraindication exists (AI); (BIII) for pregnant patients.
prophylactic dose of heparin, unless there is another indication for therapeutic anticoagulation
(BIII).
prophylaxis (BI).
Patients who required mechanical ventilation or ECMO were included in the multiplatform
REMAP-CAP/ACTIV-4a/ATTACC trial that studied therapeutic doses of heparin.28 Because these
studies reported no benefits of using therapeutic doses of heparin, the recommendations for using
prophylactic doses of heparin in hospitalized patients who require mechanical ventilation or ECMO are
the same as those for patients who require HFNC oxygen or NIV.
Table 2d. Dosing Regimens for the Drugs Recommended in Table 2c
The drugs in this table are listed in alphabetical order.
Abatacept Abatacept 10 mg/kg actual body • No adjustment based on eGFR
weight (up to 1,000 mg) administered
as a single IV dose
Baricitinib BAR dose is dependent on eGFR; • eGFR ≥60 mL/min/1.73 m2: BAR 4 mg PO once daily
duration of therapy is up to 14 days • eGFR 30 to <60 mL/min/1.73 m2: BAR 2 mg PO once daily
or until hospital discharge, whichever • eGFR 15 to <30 mL/min/1.73 m2: BAR 1 mg PO once daily
comes first.
• eGFR <15 mL/min/1.73 m2: Not recommended.
Dexamethasone DEX 6 mg IV or PO once daily for up • If DEX is not available, an equivalent dose of another
to 10 days or until hospital discharge, corticosteroid may be used.
whichever comes first • For more information, see Systemic Corticosteroids.

Heparin Therapeutic dose of SUBQ LMWH or IV • Administer for 14 days or until hospital discharge
UFH (whichever comes first) unless there is a diagnosis of VTE
or another indication for therapeutic anticoagulation.
Prophylactic dose of SUBQ LMWH or • Administer for the duration of the hospital stay.
SUBQ UFH
Infliximab Infliximab 5 mg/kg actual body weight • No adjustment based on eGFR
administered as a single IV dose
Remdesivir RDV 200 mg IV once, then RDV 100 mg • If the patient is hospitalized for reasons other than
IV once daily for 4 days or until hospital COVID-19, the treatment duration is 3 days. For
discharge, whichever comes first more information, see Therapeutic Management of
• If the patient progresses to more severe illness, complete
the course of RDV.
• For a discussion on using RDV in patients with renal
insufficiency, see Remdesivir.
Sarilumab Use the single-dose, prefilled syringe • In the United States, the currently approved route of
(not the prefilled pen) for SUBQ administration for sarilumab is SUBQ injection. In the
injection. Reconstitute sarilumab 400 REMAP-CAP trial, the SUBQ formulation was used to
mg in 100 cc 0.9% NaCl and administer prepare the IV infusion.
as an IV infusion over 1 hour.
Tocilizumab Tocilizumab 8 mg/kg actual body • In clinical trials, a third of the participants received a
weight (up to 800 mg) administered as second dose of tocilizumab 8 hours after the first dose if
a single IV dose no clinical improvement was observed.
Tofacitinib Tofacitinib 10 mg PO twice daily for up • eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2: tofacitinib 5 mg PO twice daily
to 14 days or until hospital discharge,
whichever comes first
Key: BAR = baricitinib; DEX = dexamethasone; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; IV = intravenous; LMWH =
low-molecular-weight heparin; NaCl = sodium chloride; PO = oral; RDV = remdesivir; SUBQ = subcutaneous; UFH =
unfractionated heparin; VTE = venous thromboembolism
References
1. Spinner CD, Gottlieb RL, Criner GJ, et al. Effect of remdesivir vs standard care on clinical status at 11 days in
patients with moderate COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020;324(11):1048-1057. Available at:
3. Beigel JH, Tomashek KM, Dodd LE, et al. Remdesivir for the treatment of COVID-19—final report. N Engl J
Med. 2020;383(19):1813-1826. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32445440.
4. WHO Solidarity Trial Consortium. Remdesivir and three other drugs for hospitalised patients with
COVID-19: final results of the WHO Solidarity randomised trial and updated meta-analyses. Lancet.
5. Mozaffari E, Chandak A, Gottlieb RL, et al. Remdesivir reduced mortality in immunocompromised patients
hospitalized for COVID-19 across variant waves: findings from routine clinical practice. Clin Infect Dis.
2023;77(12):1626-1634. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37556727.

respiratory support. Eur Respir J. 2022;60(1):2102532. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/34824060.
8. Amstutz A, Speich B, Mentré F, et al. Effects of remdesivir in patients hospitalized with COVID-19: a
systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Respir
Med. 2023;11(5):453-464. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36828006.
9. Ali K, Azher T, Baqi M, et al. Remdesivir for the treatment of patients in hospital with COVID-19 in Canada:
a randomized controlled trial. CMAJ. 2022;194(7):E242-E251. Available at:
10. O’Halloran JA, Ko ER, Anstrom KJ, et al. Abatacept, cenicriviroc, or infliximab for treatment of adults
hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;330(4):328-339. Available
at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37428480.
11. Kalil AC, Patterson TF, Mehta AK, et al. Baricitinib plus remdesivir for hospitalized adults with COVID-19. N
12. Marconi VC, Ramanan AV, de Bono S, et al. Efficacy and safety of baricitinib for the treatment of hospitalised
adults with COVID-19 (COV-BARRIER): a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled
Phase 3 trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(12):1407-1418. Available at:
13. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Baricitinib in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19
(RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled, open-label, platform trial and updated meta-analysis. Lancet.
14. REMAP-CAP Investigators. Interleukin-6 receptor antagonists in critically ill patients with COVID-19. N
15. REMAP-CAP Investigators. Effectiveness of tocilizumab, sarilumab, and anakinra for critically ill patients
with COVID-19: the REMAP-CAP COVID-19 immune modulation therapy domain randomized clinical trial.
medRxiv. 2021;Preprint. Available at: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.06.18.21259133v2.
16. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Tocilizumab in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19
(RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled, open-label, platform trial. Lancet. 2021;397(10285):1637-1645.
17. Guimarães PO, Quirk D, Furtado RH, et al. Tofacitinib in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. N
18. ATTACC, ACTIV-4a, and REMAP-CAP Investigators. Therapeutic anticoagulation with heparin in
noncritically ill patients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(9):790-802. Available at:
19. Sholzberg M, Tang GH, Rahhal H, et al. Effectiveness of therapeutic heparin versus prophylactic heparin
on death, mechanical ventilation, or intensive care unit admission in moderately ill patients with COVID-19
admitted to hospital: RAPID randomised clinical trial. BMJ. 2021;375:n2400. Available at:
20. Spyropoulos AC, Goldin M, Giannis D, et al. Efficacy and safety of therapeutic-dose heparin vs standard
prophylactic or intermediate-dose heparins for thromboprophylaxis in high-risk hospitalized patients with
COVID-19: the HEP-COVID randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2021;181(12):1612-1620.
21. Wolfe CR, Tomashek KM, Patterson TF, et al. Baricitinib versus dexamethasone for adults hospitalised with
COVID-19 (ACTT-4): a randomised, double-blind, double placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med.
22. Peterson JH, Paranjape NS, Grundlingh N, Priestley JL. Outcomes and adverse effects of baricitinib versus
tocilizumab in the management of severe COVID-19. Crit Care Med. 2023;51(3):337-346. Available at:

23. Rosas IO, Bräu N, Waters M, et al. Tocilizumab in hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia. N
24. Salama C, Han J, Yau L, et al. Tocilizumab in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. N Engl J
25. Stone JH, Frigault MJ, Serling-Boyd NJ, et al. Efficacy of tocilizumab in patients hospitalized with
26. Rosas IO, Diaz G, Gottlieb RL, et al. Tocilizumab and remdesivir in hospitalized patients with severe
COVID-19 pneumonia: a randomized clinical trial. Intensive Care Med. 2021;47(11):1258-1270. Available at:
27. Regan J, Flynn JP, Choudhary MC, et al. Detection of the Omicron variant virus with the Abbott BinaxNow
SARS-CoV-2 rapid antigen assay. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2022;9(3):ofac022. Available at:
28. REMAP-CAP, ACTIV-4a, and ATTACC Investigators. Therapeutic anticoagulation with heparin in critically
ill patients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(9):777-789. Available at:
29. WHO Rapid Evidence Appraisal for COVID-19 Therapies (REACT) Working Group. Association between
administration of systemic corticosteroids and mortality among critically ill patients with COVID-19: a meta-
analysis. JAMA. 2020;324(13):1330-1341. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32876694.
30. Ely EW, Ramanan AV, Kartman CE, et al. Efficacy and safety of baricitinib plus standard of care for
the treatment of critically ill hospitalised adults with COVID-19 on invasive mechanical ventilation or
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: an exploratory, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir
31. Zhang X, Shang L, Fan G, et al. The efficacy and safety of Janus kinase inhibitors for patients with
COVID-19: a living systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021;8:800492. Available
32. Mozaffari E, Chandak A, Gottlieb RL, et al. Remdesivir is associated with reduced mortality in COVID-19
patients requiring supplemental oxygen including invasive mechanical ventilation across SARS-CoV-2
variants. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023;10(10):ofad482. Available at:

Clinical Management of Children Summary
Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention demonstrate that severe disease and death due to
COVID-19 occur less often in children than in adults.1-4 However, weekly hospitalization rates for children
aged <6 months are high, exceeded only by the rates for adults aged ≥75 years.5 The overall incidence of
SARS-CoV-2 infection and, by extension, COVID-19–related hospitalizations among children increased
substantially with the emergence of newer variants, particularly the Omicron variant and its subvariants.6,7
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, by December 2022, an estimated 96% of
children and adolescents had serologic evidence of prior SARS-CoV-2 infection.8 The high infection rates
among children makes the overall burden substantial despite the low rate of severe outcomes.9
Data on the pathogenesis and clinical spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 infection in children are still limited
compared to the data for adults. Although only a small percentage of children with COVID-19 will
require medical attention, the percentage of intensive care unit admissions among hospitalized children
is comparable to that for hospitalized adults with COVID-19.6,10-18
Observational studies and meta-analyses have found that children with certain comorbidities are at
increased risk of severe COVID-19. These comorbidities include cardiac disease, neurologic disorders,
prematurity (in young infants), diabetes, obesity (particularly severe obesity), chronic lung disease,
feeding tube dependence, and immunocompromised status.19-22 Demographic factors, such as age (<1
year and 10–14 years)23 and non-White race/ethnicity,15,24-26 have also been associated with severe
disease. However, many studies did not assess the relative severity of underlying medical conditions in
children with severe COVID-19.
In general, COVID-19 has similar clinical manifestations and disease stages in children and adults,
including an early phase driven by viral replication and a late phase that appears to be driven by a
dysregulated immune/inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 that leads to tissue damage. Respiratory
complications in young children that can occur during the early clinical phase include croup and
bronchiolitis. In addition, a small number of children who have recovered from acute SARS-CoV-2
infection develop multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) 2 to 6 weeks after infection.
MIS-C is a postinfectious inflammatory condition that can lead to severe organ dysfunction.
Published guidance on the treatment of COVID-19 in children has been extrapolated mostly from
recommendations for adults with COVID-19, recommendations for children with other viral infections,
and expert opinion.27-29 Applying adult data from COVID-19 trials to children is a unique challenge
because most children experience a mild course of illness with COVID-19.30 Relative to adults, children
with COVID-19 have substantially lower mortality and less need for hospitalization.10,11,31 Because
of these differences in epidemiology and disease severity, the effect sizes of treatments for children
are likely to be smaller than those observed in adults. Therefore, to produce a beneficial outcome in
children, the number needed to treat is higher. Collectively, these factors influence the risk versus benefit
balance for pharmacologic therapies in children.
In the absence of sufficient clinical trial data on the treatment of children with COVID-19, the
COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations for the therapeutic management
of hospitalized children are based largely on safety and efficacy data from clinical trials in adults, the
child’s risk of disease progression, and expert opinion.
In general, data from clinical trials in adults are most applicable to the treatment of older children

with severe COVID-19 and predominantly lower respiratory tract disease. Using data from clinical
trials in adults to develop recommendations for children with SARS-CoV-2 infection who have
clinical syndromes associated with other respiratory viruses (e.g., bronchiolitis, croup, asthma) is a
challenge. No evidence suggests that these syndromes should be managed differently when caused by
SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clinical judgment is needed when applying recommendations for treatment in
adults to children, particularly young children, with these clinical syndromes.
The Panel’s recommendations for the management of children with COVID-19 or MIS-C are
summarized in the tables below. Table 3a provides recommendations for the therapeutic management
of nonhospitalized children with COVID-19. The Panel’s recommendations are stratified by age (per
the Food and Drug Administration Emergency Use Authorizations) and risk level. See Therapeutic
Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19 for more information. Table 3b includes a
framework to help clinicians evaluate the risk for severe COVID-19 based on patient conditions and
COVID-19 vaccination status.
The recommendations for hospitalized children in Table 3c are stratified by disease severity. See
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19 for more information. Table 3d
summarizes the recommendations for the therapeutic management of MIS-C. For the rationale behind
these recommendations and supporting data, see Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children
With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A.
Table 3a. Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19
Panel’s Recommendations
Risk of Severe COVID-19
Aged 12–17 Years Aged <12 Years
Symptomatic, Regardless • Provide supportive care (AIII). • Provide supportive care (AIII).
of Risk Factors
• Use 1 of the following options (listed in • Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is not
order of preference):c authorized by the FDA for use in children
• Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir aged <12 years.
High Riska,b (Paxlovid) within 5 days of symptom • There is insufficient evidence to recommend
onset (BIII) either for or against the routine use of
• Remdesivir within 7 days of symptom remdesivir. Consider treatment based on
onset (CIII) age and other risk factors.
• There is insufficient evidence to • There is insufficient evidence to
recommend either for or against the recommend either for or against the
Intermediate Riskb,d use of any antiviral therapy. Consider routine use of remdesivir.
treatment based on age and other risk
factors.
Low Riskb,e • Manage with supportive care alone (AIII). • Manage with supportive care alone (AIII).
a
Molnupiravir is not authorized by the FDA for use in children aged <18 years and should not be used.
b
See Table 3b for the Panel’s framework for assessing the risk of progression to severe COVID-19 based on patient
conditions and COVID-19 vaccination status.
c
Initiate treatment as soon as possible after symptom onset.
d
The relative risk of severe COVID-19 for intermediate-risk patients is lower than the risk for high-risk patients but higher
than the risk for low-risk patients.
e
Low-risk patients include those with comorbid conditions that have a weak or unknown association with severe COVID-19.

Patients with no comorbidities are included in this group.
Key: FDA = Food and Drug Administration; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel
Table 3b. The Panel’s Framework for Assessing the Risk of Progression to Severe COVID-19
Based on Patient Conditions and COVID-19 Vaccination Status
Risk Level by Vaccination Status

Conditions
Not Up to Datea,b Up to Datea
Strong or Consistent Association With Progression to Severe COVID-19
• Moderately or severely immunocompromised (see Special
High
Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised)
• Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile for age), especially severe
obesity (BMI ≥120% of 95th percentile for age)c
• Medical complexity with dependence on respiratory
technologyd
• Severe neurologic, genetic, metabolic, or other disability that
results in impaired airway clearance or limitations in self-care
or activities of daily living High
• Severe asthma or other severe chronic lung disease requiring
≥2 inhaled or ≥1 systemic medications daily
• Severe congenital or acquired cardiac disease
• Multiple moderate to severe chronic diseases
• Pregnancy
Moderate or Inconsistent Association With Progression to Severe COVID-19
• Aged <1 year
• Prematurity in children aged ≤2 years
• Sickle cell disease
Intermediate
• Diabetes mellitus (poorly controlled)
• Chronic kidney disease
• Nonsevere cardiac, neurologic, or metabolic diseasee
Weak or Unknown Association With Progression to Severe COVID-19
• Mild asthma
• Overweight Low
• Diabetes mellitus (well controlled)
a
See the current COVID-19 vaccination schedule from the CDC.
b
Recent SARS-CoV-2 infection (i.e., within 3–6 months) may confer substantial immunity against closely related variants. A
patient’s recent infection history should be factored into the risk assessment.
c
The degree of risk conferred by obesity in younger children is less clear than it is in older adolescents.
d
This includes patients with a tracheostomy and those who require NIV.
e
The data for this group are particularly limited.
Key: BMI = body mass index; CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; the Panel =
the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel

Table 3c. Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19
Disease Severity Panel’s Recommendations

For children aged ≥12 years admitted for COVID-19, use prophylactic
Hospitalized for COVID-19
anticoagulation unless contraindicated (BIII).a
For children admitted for COVID-19 who are at the highest risk of
progression to severe COVID-19b (especially those who are severely
immunocompromised), consider using remdesivirc for children aged 12–17
years (CIII). There is insufficient evidence for using remdesivir in children
Does Not Require Supplemental Oxygen aged 28 days to <12 years and weighing ≥3 kg.
For children admitted for reasons other than COVID-19 who have mild to
moderate COVID-19 and are at the highest risk of progression,b refer to
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19.
Use 1 of the following options:
• Remdesivirc (BIII)
Requires Conventional Oxygend
• Dexamethasone plus remdesivirc for children with increasing oxygen
needs, particularly adolescents (BIII)
• Dexamethasone (BIII)
Requires Oxygen Through High-Flow • Dexamethasone plus remdesivirc (BIII)
Device or NIVe For children who do not have rapid (e.g., within 24 hours) improvement in
oxygenation after initiation of dexamethasone, baricitinibf or tocilizumab
can be considered for children aged 12–17 years (BIII) and for children
aged 2–11 years (CIII).
Dexamethasoneg (AIII)
For children who do not have rapid (e.g., within 24 hours) improvement in
Requires MV or ECMOg oxygenation after initiation of dexamethasone, baricitinibf or tocilizumab
may be considered for children aged 12–17 years (BIII) and for children
aged 2–11 years (CIII).
a

Weighing the risk factors for thrombosis and bleeding, some Panel members would use prophylactic anticoagulation for
children aged <12 years who are hospitalized for COVID-19.
b
See Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19 for a list of conditions that will put children at
highest risk for progression to severe COVID-19.
c
The clinical benefit of remdesivir is greatest if it is initiated within 10 days of symptom onset. Remdesivir should be given
for 5 days or until hospital discharge, whichever comes first. Examples of patients who may benefit most from adding
remdesivir >10 days from symptom onset include patients who are severely immunocompromised, particularly if they
have evidence of ongoing viral replication (e.g., those with a low Ct value, as measured by an RT-PCR result or with a
positive rapid antigen test result).
d
Conventional oxygen refers to oxygen supplementation that is not high-flow oxygen, NIV, MV, or ECMO.
e
Patients who are receiving NIV or MV at baseline and require a substantial increase in baseline support should be treated
per the recommendations for patients requiring new NIV or MV.
f
Tofacitinib is an alternative if baricitinib is not available (BIII).
g
For children who started receiving remdesivir before admission to the ICU, the remdesivir should be continued to complete
the treatment course.
Key: ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; ICU = intensive care unit; MV = mechanical ventilation; NIV =
noninvasive ventilation; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; RT-PCR = reverse transcription polymerase
chain reaction

Table 3d. Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Patients With MIS-C
Initial treatment for MIS-C includes both immunomodulatory and antithrombotic therapy.
Initial Immunomodulatory Therapy
• IVIG 2 g/kg IBW IV (up to a maximum total dose of 100 g) plus low to moderate dose
methylprednisolone (1–2 mg/kg/day IV)a or another glucocorticoid at an equivalent dosea
(AIIb).
• Glucocorticoid monotherapy, only if IVIG is unavailable or contraindicated (BIIa).
• IVIG monotherapy, only if glucocorticoids are contraindicated (BIIb).
Intensification Immunomodulatory Therapy
• Intensification therapy is recommended for children with refractory MIS-C who do not improve
within 24 hours of receiving initial immunomodulatory therapy (AIII). One of the following can
be used (listed in alphabetical order):
• High-dose anakinra 5–10 mg/kg/day IV (preferred) or SUBQ in 1–4 divided dosesb (BIIb)
• Higher-dose glucocorticoid (e.g., methylprednisolone 10–30 mg/kg/day IV for 1–3 days,
MIS-C up to a maximum of 1,000 mg/day, or equivalent glucocorticoid for 1–3 days)a,b (BIIb)
• Infliximab 5–10 mg/kg IV for 1 doseb,c (BIIb)
Antithrombotic Therapy
• Low-dose aspirin (3–5 mg/kg PO once daily, up to a maximum dose of 81 mg) for all patients
without risk factors for bleeding (AIII), AND
• Anticoagulation for patients who fall under 1 of the following clinical scenarios:
• Therapeutic anticoagulation for patients with large CAAs according to the American Heart
Association guidelines for Kawasaki disease (AIII).
• Therapeutic anticoagulation for patients with moderate to severe LV dysfunction who
have no risk factors for bleeding (AIII).
• For patients with MIS-C who do not have large CAAs or moderate to severe LV dysfunction,
consider prophylactic or therapeutic anticoagulation on an individual basis, taking
into consideration risk factors for thrombosis and bleeding. See Table 3e for additional
information.
a
T he duration of glucocorticoid therapy may vary. When a patient shows clinical improvement (e.g., resolution of fever,
improvement of organ function, reduction of levels of inflammatory markers), a steroid taper should be initiated. Typically,
the patient’s clinical status guides the taper, and it continues for several weeks to avoid rebound inflammation. For more
information, see Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A.
b
In certain patients with severe illness, intensification therapy may include dual therapy with higher-dose glucocorticoids
plus anakinra (BIII) or higher-dose glucocorticoids plus infliximab (BIII). Anakinra and infliximab should not be used in
combination.
c
Infliximab should not be used in patients with macrophage activation syndrome.
Key: CAA = coronary artery aneurysm; IBW = ideal body weight; IV = intravenous; IVIG = intravenous immunoglobulin; LV =
left ventricular; MIS-C = multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children; PO = oral; SUBQ = subcutaneous
References
1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 monthly death rates per 100,000 population
by age group, race and ethnicity, and sex. 2024. Available at: https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-
tracker/#demographicsovertime. Accessed February 15, 2024.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Provisional COVID-19 deaths: focus on ages 0–18 years. 2023.

Available at: https://data.cdc.gov/NCHS/Provisional-COVID-19-Deaths-Focus-on-Ages-0-18-Yea/nr4s-juj3.
Accessed February 15, 2024.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Demographic trends of COVID-19 deaths in the US reported to
NVSS. 2024. Available at: https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#demographics. Accessed February 15,
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2024. Available at: https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#covidnet-hospitalization-network. Accessed
February 15, 2024.
5. Havers FP. COVID-19–associated hospitalizations among infants, children and adults—COVID-NET,
January–August 2023. 2023. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/acip/meetings/downloads/slides-
2023-09-12/03-COVID-Havers-508.pdf.
6. Marks KJ, Whitaker M, Anglin O, et al. Hospitalizations of children and adolescents with laboratory-
confirmed COVID-19—COVID-NET, 14 states, July 2021–January 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep.
7. Marks KJ, Whitaker M, Agathis NT, et al. Hospitalization of infants and children aged 0–4 years with
laboratory-confirmed COVID-19—COVID-NET, 14 states, March 2020–February 2022. MMWR Morb
Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71(11):429-436. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35298458.
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2024. Available at: https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#pediatric-seroprevalence. Accessed February 15,
2024.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. New hospital admissions of patients with confirmed COVID-19,
United States. 2024. Available at: https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#new-hospital-admissions.
10. Dong Y, Mo X, Hu Y, et al. Epidemiology of COVID-19 among children in China. Pediatrics.
11. CDC COVID-19 Response Team. Coronavirus disease 2019 in children—United States, February 12–April 2,
12. Cui X, Zhang T, Zheng J, et al. Children with coronavirus disease 2019: a review of demographic, clinical,
laboratory, and imaging features in pediatric patients. J Med Virol. 2020;92(9):1501-1510. Available at:
13. Livingston E, Bucher K. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Italy. JAMA. 2020;323(14):1335. Available
14. Tagarro A, Epalza C, Santos M, et al. Screening and severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in
children in Madrid, Spain. JAMA Pediatr. 2021;175(3):316-317. Available at:
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2764394.
15. Swann OV, Holden KA, Turtle L, et al. Clinical characteristics of children and young people admitted to
hospital with COVID-19 in United Kingdom: prospective multicentre observational cohort study. BMJ.
2020;370:m3249. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32960186.
16. Götzinger F, Santiago-García B, Noguera-Julián A, et al. COVID-19 in children and adolescents in Europe: a
multinational, multicentre cohort study. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2020;4(9):653-661. Available at:
17. Shi DS, Whitaker M, Marks KJ, et al. Hospitalizations of children aged 5–11 years with laboratory-confirmed
COVID-19—COVID-NET, 14 states, March 2020–February 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep.
18. Siegel DA, Reses HE, Cool AJ, et al. Trends in COVID-19 cases, emergency department visits, and hospital
admissions among children and adolescents aged 0–17 years—United States, August 2020–August 2021.

MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70(36):1249-1254. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/34499628.
19. Wanga V, Gerdes ME, Shi DS, et al. Characteristics and clinical outcomes of children and adolescents aged
<18 years hospitalized with COVID-19—six hospitals, United States, July–August 2021. MMWR Morb
20. Choi JH, Choi SH, Yun KW. Risk factors for severe COVID-19 in children: a systematic review and meta-
analysis. J Korean Med Sci. 2022;37(5):e35. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35132841.
21. Shi Q, Wang Z, Liu J, et al. Risk factors for poor prognosis in children and adolescents with COVID-19: a
systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine. 2021;41:101155. Available at:
22. Kompaniyets L, Agathis NT, Nelson JM, et al. Underlying medical conditions associated with severe
COVID-19 illness among children. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(6):e2111182. Available at:
23. Harwood R, Yan H, Talawila Da Camara N, et al. Which children and young people are at higher risk of
severe disease and death after hospitalisation with SARS-CoV-2 infection in children and young people: a
systematic review and individual patient meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine. 2022;44:101287. Available at:
24. Holmes L Jr, Wu C, Hinson R, et al. Black-White risk differentials in pediatric COVID-19 hospitalization and
intensive care unit admissions in the USA. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2023;10(3):1187-1193. Available
25. Antoon JW, Grijalva CG, Thurm C, et al. Factors associated with COVID-19 disease severity in US children
and adolescents. J Hosp Med. 2021;16(10):603-610. Available at:
26. Saatci D, Ranger TA, Garriga C, et al. Association between race and COVID-19 outcomes among 2.6 million
children in England. JAMA Pediatr. 2021;175(9):928-938. Available at:
27. Chiotos K, Hayes M, Kimberlin DW, et al. Multicenter initial guidance on use of antivirals for children
with coronavirus disease 2019/severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc.
28. Dulek DE, Fuhlbrigge RC, Tribble AC, et al. Multidisciplinary guidance regarding the use of
immunomodulatory therapies for acute coronavirus disease 2019 in pediatric patients. J Pediatric Infect Dis
Soc. 2020;9(6):716-737. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32808988.
29. Wolf J, Abzug MJ, Anosike BI, et al. Updated guidance on use and prioritization of monoclonal antibody
therapy for treatment of COVID-19 in adolescents. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2022;11(5):177-185. Available
30. Chan-Tack K, Sampson M, Earp J, et al. Considerations and challenges in the remdesivir COVID-19 pediatric
development program. J Clin Pharmacol. 2023;63(2):259-265. Available at:
31. Delahoy MJ, Ujamaa D, Whitaker M, et al. Hospitalizations associated with COVID-19 among children and
adolescents—COVID-NET, 14 states, March 1, 2020–August 14, 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep.

Special Considerations in Children
Key Considerations
• SARS-CoV-2 infection is generally milder in children than in adults, and a substantial proportion of children with the
infection are asymptomatic.
• Most nonhospitalized children with COVID-19 will not require any specific therapy.
• Children with ≥1 of the following comorbidities are at increased risk of severe COVID-19: cardiac disease, neurologic
disorders, prematurity (in young infants), diabetes, obesity (particularly severe obesity), chronic lung disease, feeding
tube dependence, and immunocompromised status. Age (<1 year and 10–14 years) and non-White race/ethnicity are
also associated with severe disease.
• Data on the pathogenesis and clinical spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 infection are more limited for children than for adults.
• Vertical transmission of SARS-CoV-2 appears to be rare.
• A small subset of children and young adults with SARS-CoV-2 infection may develop multisystem inflammatory
syndrome in children (MIS-C). Many patients with MIS-C require intensive care management. The majority of children
with MIS-C do not have underlying comorbidities.
• Data on the prevalence of post-COVID conditions in children are limited but suggest that younger children may have
fewer persistent symptoms than older children and adults.
This section provides an overview of the epidemiology and clinical spectrum of disease, including
COVID-19, multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), and post-COVID conditions.
It also includes information on risk factors for severe COVID-19, vertical transmission, and infants
born to a birth parent with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Throughout this section, the term “COVID-19”
refers to the acute, primarily respiratory illness due to infection with SARS-CoV-2. MIS-C refers to the
postinfectious inflammatory condition.
Epidemiology
Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) demonstrate that severe disease and
death due to COVID-19 occur less often in children than in adults.1-4 However, weekly hospitalization
rates for children aged <6 months are high, exceeded only by the rates for adults aged ≥75 years.5 The
overall incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection and, by extension, COVID-19–related hospitalizations
among children increased substantially with the emergence of newer variants, particularly the Omicron
variant and its subvariants.6,7 According to the CDC, by December 2022, an estimated 96% of children
and adolescents had serologic evidence of prior SARS-CoV-2 infection.8 The high infection rate among
children makes the overall burden substantial despite the low rate of severe outcomes.9
Data on the pathogenesis and clinical spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 infection in children are still limited
compared to the data for adults. Although only a small percentage of children with COVID-19 will
require medical attention, the percentage of intensive care unit (ICU) admissions among hospitalized
children is comparable to that for hospitalized adults with COVID-19.6,10-18
Children from some racial and ethnic groups experience disproportionate rates of COVID-19–related
hospitalization, which may be a result of barriers to accessing health care and economic and structural
inequities. From 2020 to 2021, Black/African American children with COVID-19 in the United States

were 2 times more likely to be hospitalized and 5 times more likely to be admitted to the ICU than
White children.19
A U.S. study of children with COVID-19 who were hospitalized between April and September 2020
reported an association between race/ethnicity and disease severity.20 In a large United Kingdom study,
admission to critical care was independently associated with hospitalized children who self-reported as
being of Black ethnicity.15 A study in England reported that children who identified as Asian were more
likely than children who identified as White to be hospitalized for COVID-19 and to be admitted to an
ICU.21 The study also found that children who identified as Black or as mixed or other races/ethnicities
had significantly more hospitalizations than children who identified as White.
Clinical Manifestations of COVID-19

The signs and symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infection in symptomatic children are similar to those in
adults. However, a greater proportion of children may be asymptomatic or have only mild illness
when compared with adults. Although the true incidence of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection is
unknown, a small study reported that 45% of children who underwent surveillance testing at the time
of hospitalization for a non–COVID-19 indication had asymptomatic infection.22 The most common
signs and symptoms of COVID-19 in hospitalized children are fever, nausea/vomiting, cough, shortness
of breath, and upper respiratory symptoms.15,23 The signs and symptoms of COVID-19 may overlap
significantly with those of influenza and other respiratory and enteric viral infections. Critical disease,
including respiratory failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and, less commonly, shock, may occur
in children with COVID-19.24,25 For more information, see Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized
Children With COVID-19 and Introduction to Critical Care Management of Children With COVID-19.
Risk Factors for Severe COVID-19

Observational studies and meta-analyses have found that children with certain comorbidities are at
increased risk of severe COVID-19. These comorbidities include cardiac disease, neurologic disorders,
prematurity (in young infants), diabetes, obesity (particularly severe obesity), chronic lung disease,
feeding tube dependence, and immunocompromised status.26-29 Demographic factors, such as age (<1
year and 10–14 years)30 and non-White race/ethnicity,15,19-21 have also been associated with severe
disease. However, many studies did not assess the relative severity of underlying medical conditions in
children with severe COVID-19.
Many published studies reported an increased relative risk of severe disease in children with
comorbidities,20,26-30 but the overall risk of severe COVID-19 among children remains low. Protocolized
admissions for certain populations (e.g., febrile young infants) may confound the association between
comorbidities and severe COVID-19. However, nearly half of the children aged 8 months to <5 years
who were hospitalized for COVID-19 from September 20, 2022, to May 31, 2023, were previously
healthy.31 Most children who have been hospitalized for severe COVID-19 have not been fully
vaccinated, as many were not eligible for COVID-19 vaccination because of their age when the studies
were conducted.5 The CDC has additional information on the underlying conditions that are risk factors
for severe COVID-19.
The risk of severe disease is an important factor to consider when making treatment decisions for
children with COVID-19. The children most likely to benefit from antiviral treatment are those who
are nonhospitalized, have mild to moderate COVID-19, and are at the highest risk of severe COVID-19
(e.g., those with severe comorbidities). For a description of children who are considered at high risk of
severe COVID-19 and for the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations
for their treatment, see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19.

Age
Among all children, infants and adolescents have the highest risk of COVID-19–related hospitalization,
ICU admission, or death. From March 2020 to mid-August 2021, U.S. children aged <5 years had the
highest cumulative COVID-19–related hospitalization rates, followed closely by adolescents.32 Children
aged 5 to 11 years had the lowest hospitalization rates. From July to August 2021, when the Delta
variant was the dominant variant, 25% of 713 children admitted to 6 U.S. hospitals were aged <1 year,
17% were aged 1 to 4 years, 20% were aged 5 to 11 years, and 38% were aged 12 to 17 years.26 From
March 2020 to mid-June 2021, 26.5% of 3,116 U.S. children hospitalized for COVID-19 were admitted
to an ICU.32 In 2023, children aged <6 months had the highest weekly COVID-19–related pediatric
hospitalization rates.5
A meta-analysis of individual patient data showed that among hospitalized children with COVID-19,
patients aged <1 year and those aged 10 to 14 years had the highest risks of ICU admission and death.30
In another meta-analysis, neonates had an increased risk of severe COVID-19 when compared with
other pediatric age groups, but infants aged 1 to 3 months did not.27 When the original Omicron variant
was the dominant circulating variant, children and adolescents had higher hospitalization rates than they
did when the Delta variant was dominant, and children aged <5 years had the highest rates.7,33 However,
the proportion of hospitalized children who required ICU admission was significantly lower when the
original Omicron variant was dominant.
Comorbidities
Several chronic conditions are prevalent in hospitalized children with COVID-19. When the Delta
variant was the dominant variant in the United States, 68% of hospitalized children had ≥1 underlying
medical conditions, such as obesity (32%), asthma or reactive airway disease (16%), or feeding tube
dependence (8%).26 Obesity was present in approximately a third of hospitalized children aged 5 to 11
years, 60% of whom had severe obesity (i.e., a body mass index [BMI] ≥120% of the 95th percentile).
For adolescents, 61% had obesity; of those patients, 61% had a BMI ≥120% of the 95th percentile.
Meta-analyses and observational studies identified risk factors for ICU admission, mechanical
ventilation, or death among hospitalized children with COVID-19.27-29 These risk factors included
prematurity in young infants, obesity, diabetes, chronic lung disease, cardiac disease, neurologic disease,
and immunocompromising conditions. Another study found that having a complex chronic condition
that affected ≥2 body systems or having a progressive chronic condition or continuous dependence on
technology for ≥6 months (e.g., dialysis, tracheostomy with ventilator assistance) was significantly
associated with an increased risk of moderate or severe COVID-19.34 The study also found that children
with more severe chronic diseases (e.g., active cancer treated within the previous 3 months or asthma
with hospitalization within the previous 12 months) had a higher risk of critical COVID-19 or death than
those with less severe conditions. The CDC has additional information on the underlying conditions that
are risk factors for severe COVID-19.
Having multiple comorbidities increases the risk of severe COVID-19 in children. A meta-analysis
of data from children hospitalized with COVID-19 found that the risk of ICU admission was greater
for children with 1 chronic condition than for those with no comorbidities, and the risk increased
substantially as the number of comorbidities increased.30
COVID-19 Vaccination
Staying up to date with COVID-19 vaccinations remains the most effective way to prevent severe
COVID-19. See the CDC webpages Stay Up to Date With COVID-19 Vaccines and Use of COVID-19
Vaccines in the United States for more information on COVID-19 vaccination schedules. Estimates of

vaccine effectiveness vary by age group and time period. From July 2022 to September 2023 (when
Omicron subvariants were dominant in the United States), 86% of vaccine-eligible U.S. children aged
6 months to <5 years who were hospitalized or sought care for acute respiratory illness in emergency
departments had not received any COVID-19 vaccines.35 Two or more doses of COVID-19 vaccine
were 40% effective in preventing emergency department visits or hospitalization due to COVID-19 in
children aged <5 years compared with unvaccinated children. In a study of U.S. children aged 8 months
to <5 years who were hospitalized for COVID-19 from September 20, 2022, to May 31, 2023, only
4.5% had completed a primary COVID-19 vaccine series.31
The estimates for vaccine effectiveness against severe COVID-19 in adolescents aged 12 to 18 years
exceeded 90% while Delta was the dominant variant in the United States.36,37 When Omicron was the
dominant variant, vaccine effectiveness against hospitalization for noncritical COVID-19 was 20%
in adolescents; vaccine effectiveness against critical illness was 79% in these patients.37 In children
aged 5 to 11 years, vaccine effectiveness against hospitalization was more variable, with an estimated
effectiveness of 68% after Omicron became the dominant variant in the United States.
A meta-analysis of COVID-19 vaccination in adolescents aged 12 to 17 years reported a vaccine
effectiveness of 88% against severe disease and 35% against nonsevere COVID-19.38 An Italian study
estimated that vaccine effectiveness was 38% in children aged 5 to 11 years during the Omicron period.39
A Canadian study reported that the effectiveness of 2 doses of COVID-19 vaccine against symptomatic
COVID-19 in children aged 5 to 11 years varied widely.40 Vaccine effectiveness decreased over time
after the last dose and decreased against Omicron subvariants that were antigenically distinct from the
vaccine. See Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 Infection for more information about COVID-19 vaccines.
Mortality
Death from COVID-19 is uncommon in children. Risk factors for death include having chronic
conditions, such as neurologic or cardiac disease, and having multiple comorbidities. Among children
aged <21 years in the United States, the number of deaths associated with COVID-19 has been higher
for children aged 10 to 20 years, especially for young adults aged 18 to 20 years, and for those who
identify as Hispanic, Black, or American Indian/Alaskan Native.41,42
A systematic review and meta-analysis reported that neurologic or cardiac comorbidities were associated
with the greatest increase in risk of death among hospitalized children with COVID-19.30 In the same
study, an individual patient data meta-analysis found that the risk of death related to COVID-19 was
greater for children with 1 chronic condition than for those with no comorbidities, and the risk increased
substantially as the number of comorbidities increased.
Vertical Transmission and Infants Born to People With SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have reported that confirmed vertical transmission of
SARS-CoV-2 appears to be rare, but severe maternal COVID-19 has been associated with SARS-CoV-2
infection in babies.43 In 2 large, combined cohorts of pregnant individuals from the United States and
United Kingdom, SARS-CoV-2 infection was reported in 1.8% and 2% of the babies born to people with
SARS-CoV-2 infection.44 A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies
from high-income countries estimated that the frequency of SARS-CoV-2 infection in infants born to
people with SARS-CoV-2 infection was 2.3%.45
Case reports have described intrauterine fetal demise during the third trimester of pregnancy in
individuals with mild COVID-19 due to infection with the Delta variant.46,47 These individuals had
evidence of placental SARS-CoV-2 infection, placental malperfusion, and placental inflammation. One
case report described a person with asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe preeclampsia who

gave birth at 25 weeks of gestation by emergency cesarean delivery. The neonate died on Day 4, and
evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection was found in placental tissues and in the infant’s lungs and vascular
endothelium at autopsy.48 Evidence of placental SARS-CoV-2 infection was reported in 5 stillbirths and
for a live-born neonate in Sweden.49
A systematic review of neonatal SARS-CoV-2 infections reported that 70% were due to postpartum
transmission, and 30% were due to vertical transmission from the infected birth parent.50 Two systematic
reviews reported that newborn infants rooming-in with an infected birth parent did not have an increased
risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission when compared with newborns who were isolated from the birth
parent.45,51
Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the breast milk of individuals with confirmed cases of COVID-19 is
very uncommon.52 Currently, there is no evidence of SARS-CoV-2 transmission through breast milk.53
Breast milk from people with SARS-CoV-2 infection can contain antibodies to SARS-CoV-2.54-56 For
information regarding the safety of feeding infants breast milk from individuals who are receiving
treatment for COVID-19, see Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics.
Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children

A small subset of children and young adults with SARS-CoV-2 infection, including those with
asymptomatic infection, may develop MIS-C. This syndrome is also called pediatric inflammatory
multisystem syndrome—temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2 (PIMS-TS). Although the case
definitions for these syndromes differ slightly, they are likely the same disease. The syndrome was
first described in Europe, where previously healthy children with severe inflammation and features
similar to Kawasaki disease were identified as having current or recent infection with SARS-CoV-2.57,58
Subsequently, children with MIS-C were identified in the United States and in many other locations
outside of Europe.59 Most patients with MIS-C have serologic evidence of previous SARS-CoV-2
infection, but only a minority have had a positive reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) result for SARS-CoV-2 at presentation.60,61 The peak, population-based incidence of MIS-C
lags about 4 weeks behind the peak of acute pediatric COVID-19–related hospitalizations.
Although risk factors for the development of MIS-C have not been established, an analysis of MIS-C
cases in the United States found that ICU admission was more likely for patients aged 6 to 12 years than
for younger children, and it was more likely for children who identified as non-Hispanic Black than for
those who identified as non-Hispanic White.62 Unlike most children who present with severe COVID-19,
the majority of children who present with MIS-C do not seem to have common underlying comorbidities
other than obesity.62 In addition, children whose deaths were related to MIS-C were less likely to have
underlying medical conditions than children who died of COVID-19.42
Several studies have suggested that COVID-19 vaccination protects against the development of
MIS-C.63-65 Following the emergence of the Omicron variant, the incidence of MIS-C and the clinical
severity of MIS-C have declined.66-70 This decline may be a result of several factors. For example, more
children have now received COVID-19 vaccines and have had infection with SARS-CoV-2, which may
provide some protection against MIS-C.
Clinical Manifestations of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children

The CDC and the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE) issued an updated case
definition for MIS-C on January 1, 2023.71 The 2023 CSTE/CDC Surveillance Case Definition for
MIS-C is an individual aged <21 years who:
• Presents with fever,a laboratory evidence of inflammation,b and illness with a clinical severity that

requires hospitalization or results in death, with new-onset clinical manifestations in ≥2 categories
(i.e., cardiac, shock, hematologic, gastrointestinal, dermatologic)c; and does not have a more likely
alternative diagnosis; and
• Has a positive viral test result from a molecular test that detects SARS-CoV-2 RNA or a
SARS-CoV-2 antigen test up to 60 days prior to or during hospitalization or in a postmortem
specimen; or
• Has a positive viral test result from a test that detects SARS-CoV-2–specific antibodies
associated with current illness; or
• Has a close contact with a confirmed or probable case of COVID-19 in the 60 days prior to
hospitalization; or
• Has a death certificate that lists MIS-C as an underlying cause of death or a significant condition
contributing to death.
a
Subjective or documented fever ≥38.0°C.
b
C-reactive protein level ≥3.0 mg/dL (30 mg/L).
c
See Table A for a list of categories for these organ manifestations.
Table A. Clinical Manifestation Criteria for the 2023 CSTE/CDC MIS-C Surveillance Case Definition
Clinical Manifestation Criteria

Cardiac Involvement • Left ventricular ejection fraction <55%
• Coronary artery dilatation, aneurysm, or ectasia
• Troponin levels elevated above laboratory normal range or indicated
as elevated in a clinical note
Shock • Clinician diagnosis, as documented in clinical note
Hematologic Involvement • Thrombocytopenia (i.e., platelet count <150,000 cells/µL)
• Lymphopenia (i.e., absolute lymphocyte count <1,000 cells/µL)
Gastrointestinal Involvement • Abdominal pain
• Vomiting
• Diarrhea
Dermatologic/Mucocutaneous Involvement • Rash
• Inflammation of the oral mucosa
• Conjunctivitis or conjunctival injection
• Extremity findings (e.g., erythema, edema)
Key: CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; CSTE = Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists; MIS-C =
multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children
Distinguishing MIS-C from other febrile illnesses in the community setting remains challenging,
particularly with the declining incidence of MIS-C, but the presence of persistent fever, multisystem
manifestations, and laboratory abnormalities could help early recognition.72 The clinical spectrum of
hospitalized cases has included younger children with mucocutaneous manifestations that overlap
with Kawasaki disease, older children with more multiorgan involvement and shock, and patients with
respiratory manifestations that overlap with COVID-19.
Patients with MIS-C are often critically ill, and up to 80% of children require ICU admission; however,
data collected while Omicron was the dominant variant in the United States suggest that the cases
of MIS-C reported during this period were less severe than those reported when other variants were
dominant.66,73,74 Most patients with MIS-C have markers of cardiac injury or dysfunction, including

elevated levels of troponin and brain natriuretic protein.62 Higher levels of these markers are associated
with ICU admission, myocardial dysfunction, and shock. In these cases, echocardiographic findings
may include impaired left ventricular function, coronary artery dilations, and, rarely, coronary artery
aneurysms. During the period when Omicron was the dominant variant in the United States, the clinical
phenotype of MIS-C appeared to be more consistent with classic Kawasaki disease.66,73 The reported
mortality in the United States for hospitalized children with MIS-C is 1% to 2%. Longitudinal studies to
examine the long-term sequelae of MIS-C are currently ongoing.
The pathogenesis of MIS-C is still being elucidated and may include a unique, distinct antibody
response; excessive activation of elements of the innate immune system; or aberrant T cell responses,
including a superantigen effect.75 Several studies reported that an expansion of T cells that express the
T cell receptor beta variable 11-2 (TRBV11-2) gene was detected in many children with MIS-C.76-79
This expansion of T cells was not seen in children who had conditions similar to MIS-C, including
Kawasaki disease and bacterial toxic shock syndrome, which supports the hypothesis that a superantigen
effect may be involved in MIS-C. Another study demonstrated that 1% of patients with MIS-C had
inborn errors of immunity.80 Other studies have demonstrated that MIS-C and typical Kawasaki disease
have differences in epidemiology, cytopenias, cytokine expression, and elevation of inflammatory
markers.81,82 Immunologic profiling has shown that MIS-C and COVID-19 in children have differences
in cytokine expression (e.g., tumor necrosis factor–alpha, interleukin-10, and interferon gamma).78,83,84
For the Panel’s recommendations on the treatment of MIS-C, see Therapeutic Management of
Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A.
Post-COVID Conditions
The persistent symptoms after COVID-19 that have been described in children are similar to those
seen in adults. The terminology for these collective symptoms is evolving and includes long COVID,
post–COVID-19 condition, and post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC). The data on
the incidence of post-COVID conditions in children are limited and somewhat conflicting, but the
overall incidence appears to be lower in children than in adults (see Clinical Spectrum of SARS-CoV-2
Infection).85-92
Case definitions for post-COVID conditions vary between studies, which makes determining the true
incidence of these conditions challenging. The incidence of post-COVID symptoms in children appears
to increase with age. The most common symptoms reported include persistent fatigue, headache,
shortness of breath, sleep disturbances, gastrointestinal symptoms, and an altered sense of smell.93
Cardiopulmonary injury, neurocognitive impairment, and new-onset diabetes may occur. However,
some studies did not include control groups of children who did not have SARS-CoV-2 infection, which
makes assessing the relative risk of these symptoms a challenge.
Details on the pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and treatment for post-COVID conditions in children
are beyond the scope of these Guidelines. The CDC provides additional information about the incidence,
presentation, and management strategies for post-COVID conditions in children as well as adults.
Additional research is needed to define the incidence, pathophysiology, spectrum, and severity of
post-COVID conditions in children and to identify the optimal strategies for the prevention, diagnosis,
and treatment of these conditions.
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Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized
Children With COVID-19
This section outlines the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations for
the therapeutic management of nonhospitalized children (i.e., pediatric patients aged <18 years) with
mild to moderate COVID-19. These recommendations are also for children who have mild to moderate
COVID-19 and are hospitalized for reasons other than COVID-19. For patients aged ≥18 years, see
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19. Throughout this section, the term
“COVID-19” refers to the acute, primarily respiratory illness due to infection with SARS-CoV-2. For the
Panel’s recommendations for managing multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), see
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A.
Treatment Considerations
Currently, no results from pediatric clinical trials that evaluated the treatment of COVID-19 have been
published. Data evaluating the use of pharmacologic therapy in children with COVID-19 are limited
largely to descriptive reports.1-3 Therefore, more high-quality randomized trials, observational studies,
and pharmacokinetic studies are urgently needed. Whenever possible, clinical trials of therapeutics and
multicenter observational cohorts should enroll children with COVID-19.
because most children experience a mild course of illness with COVID-19. Relative to adults, children
with COVID-19 have substantially lower mortality and less need for hospitalization.7-9 Because of these
differences in epidemiology and disease severity, the effect sizes of treatments for children are likely
to be smaller than those observed in adults. Therefore, to produce a beneficial outcome in children, the
number needed to treat is higher. Collectively, these factors influence the risk versus benefit balance for
pharmacologic therapies in children.
Other challenges are the uncertainty about which comorbid conditions place children at the highest
risk of severe COVID-19 and the uncertainty about the absolute magnitude of the increased risk from
those comorbid conditions. For children with COVID-19, the type, number, and severity of comorbid
conditions influence decisions about pharmacologic treatments. For more information on risk factors for
children with COVID-19, see Special Considerations in Children.
Recommendations
In the absence of sufficient clinical trial data on the treatment of children with COVID-19, the Panel’s
recommendations for the therapeutic management of nonhospitalized children are based largely on
safety and efficacy data from clinical trials in adults (see Table 3a). No pediatric comparative studies
have been published; therefore, all the quality of evidence ratings for the Panel’s recommendations in
this section are based on expert opinion (i.e., a III rating).
The majority of children with mild to moderate COVID-19 will not progress to more severe illness;
therefore, the Panel recommends managing these patients with supportive care alone (AIII). The risks
and benefits of therapy should be assessed based on COVID-19 disease severity, age, vaccination status,

and the presence of underlying medical conditions that may place the patient at high risk of severe
COVID-19.
Table 3a. Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19
Risk of Severe COVID-19
Aged 12–17 Years Aged <12 Years
Symptomatic, Regardless of • Provide supportive care (AIII). • Provide supportive care (AIII).
Risk Factors
• Use 1 of the following options (listed in • Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is
order of preference):c not authorized by the FDA for use in
• Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir children aged <12 years.
High Riska,b (Paxlovid) within 5 days of symptom • There is insufficient evidence to
onset (BIII) recommend either for or against the
• Remdesivir within 7 days of routine use of remdesivir. Consider
symptom onset (CIII) treatment based on age and other risk
factors.
• There is insufficient evidence to • There is insufficient evidence to
recommend either for or against the recommend either for or against the
Intermediate Riskb,d use of any antiviral therapy. Consider routine use of remdesivir.
treatment based on age and other risk
factors.
• Manage with supportive care alone • Manage with supportive care alone
Low Riskb,e
(AIII). (AIII).
a
Molnupiravir is not authorized by the FDA for use in children aged <18 years and should not be used.
b
See Table 3b for the Panel’s framework for assessing the risk of progression to severe COVID-19 based on patient
conditions and COVID-19 vaccination status.
c
Initiate treatment as soon as possible after symptom onset.
d
The relative risk of severe COVID-19 for intermediate-risk patients is lower than the risk for high-risk patients but higher
than the risk for low-risk patients.
e
Low-risk patients include those with comorbid conditions that have a weak or unknown association with severe COVID-19.
Patients with no comorbidities are included in this group.
Key: FDA = Food and Drug Administration; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel

Table 3b. The Panel’s Framework for Assessing the Risk of Progression to Severe COVID-19
Based on Patient Conditions and COVID-19 Vaccination Status
Risk Level by Vaccination Status
Conditions
Not Up to Datea,b Up to Datea
Strong or Consistent Association With Progression to Severe COVID-19
• Moderately or severely immunocompromised
(see Special Considerations in People Who Are High
Immunocompromised)
• Obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile for age), especially
severe obesity (BMI ≥120% of 95th percentile for age)c
• Medical complexity with dependence on respiratory
technologyd
• Severe neurologic, genetic, metabolic, or other
disability that results in impaired airway clearance or
limitations in self-care or activities of daily living High Intermediate
• Severe asthma or other severe chronic lung disease
requiring ≥2 inhaled or ≥1 systemic medications daily
• Severe congenital or acquired cardiac disease
• Multiple moderate to severe chronic diseases
• Pregnancy
Moderate or Inconsistent Association With Progression to Severe COVID-19
• Aged <1 year
• Prematurity in children aged ≤2 years
• Sickle cell disease
Intermediate
• Diabetes mellitus (poorly controlled)
• Chronic kidney disease
• Nonsevere cardiac, neurologic, or metabolic diseasee
Weak or Unknown Association With Progression to Severe COVID-19
• Mild asthma
• Overweight Low
• Diabetes mellitus (well controlled)
a
See the current COVID-19 vaccination schedule from the CDC.
b
Recent SARS-CoV-2 infection (i.e., within 3–6 months) may confer substantial immunity against closely related variants. A
patient’s recent infection history should be factored into the risk assessment.
c
The degree of risk conferred by obesity in younger children is less clear than it is in older adolescents.
d
This includes patients with a tracheostomy and those who require NIV.
e
The data for this group are particularly limited.
Key: BMI = body mass index; CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; the Panel =
the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel

Rationale for the Panel’s Framework for Assessing the Risk of Progression to
Severe COVID-19
Although mortality associated with COVID-19 in children is low overall, severe disease can occur,
especially in those with risk factors.10 Risk stratification for severe disease in children remains
challenging. Imprecise definitions of comorbid conditions, insufficient granularity for differentiating
the severity of comorbidities (e.g., mild vs. severe lung disease, poorly controlled vs. well-controlled
diabetes), and small sample sizes limit the conclusions that can be drawn from individual studies and
make comparing findings across studies difficult.
Furthermore, asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection detected during admission screening of children who
are hospitalized for reasons other than COVID-19 may affect the estimated risk of severe COVID-19,
particularly for patient groups that may have protocolized admissions (e.g., children with febrile
neutropenia, infants aged <90 days with fever). In addition, the published studies that have evaluated
these associations in children are limited largely to case series without control groups and observational
studies with methodologic limitations.
Despite these challenges, a risk-stratification framework needs to be developed that will allow clinicians
to identify the patients who are most likely to benefit from receiving treatment. These patients can
be prioritized in situations where supply or logistical constraints make it impossible to offer therapy
to all eligible patients. Both the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the American Academy
of Pediatrics advocate for a risk-stratified approach to identifying the patients who are at the highest
risk of progression to severe COVID-19 among those eligible for therapies under Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) Emergency Use Authorizations (EUAs).11,12
The Panel’s approach to risk stratification and prioritization considers COVID-19 vaccination
status, immune function, clinical risk factors, the strength of the evidence that demonstrates an
association between each clinical risk factor and severe disease, and expert opinion.7-10,13-27 See
Special Considerations in Children for more information on clinical risk factors. The Panel suggests
that decisions regarding treatment be individualized, particularly for patients in the intermediate risk
category. Clinicians should consider the type, number, and severity of comorbid conditions, the child’s
vaccination status, and the time since vaccination.
Comorbid conditions associated with severe COVID-19 are separated into the following categories in
Table 3b:
• Strong or Consistent Association With Progression to Severe COVID-19: Comorbid conditions for
which the published literature most consistently supports an increased risk of severe COVID-19.
Patients in this category are moderately or severely immunocompromised, at risk of severe
COVID-19, and not expected to develop an adequate immune response to COVID-19 vaccination.
• Moderate or Inconsistent Association With Progression to Severe COVID-19: Comorbid
conditions and ages for which the published literature supports an association with severe
COVID-19, but the association may be moderate or inconsistent across studies. In addition, the
absolute risk of progression to severe disease or death is likely modest for any of the patients in
this category.
• Weak or Unknown Association With Progression to Severe COVID-19: Comorbid conditions
for which the data suggesting an association with severe COVID-19 are weak or for which an
association is unknown. Patients with no comorbidities are included in this category.

Vaccination Status
Because COVID-19 vaccines are highly effective in preventing severe disease, individuals who are not
immunocompromised and are up to date on their vaccines28 are likely to have a low absolute risk of
severe disease. Therefore, the potential benefit from antiviral treatment is less clear for these patients.
Patients who are not up to date may have a lower level of protection against severe disease than patients
who are up to date, but the data comparing these groups are limited. Evidence suggests that vaccine
protection against severe COVID-19 wanes over time, particularly protection against the Omicron
variant and its subvariants.29-32 Several studies suggested that people who have had SARS-CoV-2
infection and were vaccinated have more durable protection than those who have had only an infection
or only been vaccinated.33,34 Clinicians should consider the time since a child’s vaccination when making
treatment decisions.
Health Disparities
COVID-19–related outcomes are worse among medically underserved populations, although this factor
is not strictly a comorbid condition. Some racial and ethnic minority groups experience disproportionate
rates of COVID-19 hospitalization and are less likely to receive specific therapies.23,35-37 These factors
may be relevant when making clinical decisions about treatment.38,39 See Special Considerations in
Children for more information.
Rationale for the Panel’s Recommendations

Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid)
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir has received an FDA EUA for the treatment of mild to moderate
COVID-19 in nonhospitalized adolescents aged ≥12 years and weighing ≥40 kg who are at high risk of
progression to severe COVID-19.40
The EPIC-HR trial enrolled adults aged ≥18 years who were at high risk of severe COVID-19.41
They were randomized to receive ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir or placebo. The primary outcome of
COVID-19–related hospitalization or all-cause mortality occurred in 8 of 1,039 patients (0.8%) who
received ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and in 66 of 1,046 patients (6.3%) who received placebo, an 89%
relative risk reduction. No pediatric patients were included in the trial, and no pediatric safety data were
made available.
Ritonavir has been used extensively in pediatric patients as a pharmacokinetic booster for the treatment
of HIV and hepatitis C virus infection, and it has a known and tolerable side effect profile. In the FDA
EUA, the dose of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir authorized for adolescents aged ≥12 years and weighing
≥40 kg is expected to result in a drug exposure similar to that observed in adults.40
Given the high efficacy of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in adults, its overall manageable side effect
profile, the pediatric clinical experience with ritonavir, and the convenience of an oral medication,
the Panel recommends the use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) for nonhospitalized
adolescents aged ≥12 years and weighing ≥40 kg who have mild to moderate COVID-19 and are at the
highest risk of progression to severe COVID-19 (BIII). Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is expected to be
active against circulating variants, although clinical efficacy data are currently limited in children.42-44
Because of the potential for significant drug-drug interactions with some concomitant medications,
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir may not be the safest choice for some patients. See Ritonavir-Boosted
Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid)
and Concomitant Medications for more information.

Remdesivir
Remdesivir is approved by the FDA for use in hospitalized and nonhospitalized pediatric patients aged
≥28 days and weighing ≥3.0 kg.45 Remdesivir is expected to be active against circulating variants,
although clinical efficacy data are currently limited in children.44,46-48
In a study that included nonhospitalized adults with mild to moderate COVID-19 who were at high risk
of progression to severe disease, administering an intravenous infusion of remdesivir once daily for 3
days resulted in an 87% relative reduction in the risk of hospitalization or death when compared with
placebo.49 Although adolescents aged ≥12 years were eligible for inclusion, the trial included only 8
patients aged <18 years. Therefore, no conclusions regarding the efficacy of remdesivir in children can
be made from this trial. In addition, clinical experience data from hospitalized children with COVID-19
who received remdesivir through a compassionate use program have been reported.2,50 Given the
demonstrated efficacy of remdesivir in the overall study population, its overall favorable side effect
profile, and clinical experience with remdesivir in hospitalized children, remdesivir, as an alternative to
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, can be considered for children aged ≥12 years who are at the highest risk
of progression to severe COVID-19 (CIII).
There is insufficient evidence to recommend either for or against the routine use of remdesivir for
the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized children aged <12 years who are at the highest risk of
progression to severe disease or who are at intermediate risk of severe disease. Administering remdesivir
requires performing an intravenous infusion once daily for 3 days, so logistical constraints may preclude
the use of remdesivir in many settings.
Pharmacologic Therapies Not Recommended

Molnupiravir
The FDA EUA for molnupiravir is limited to people aged ≥18 years, and there are no data on the safety
of using molnupiravir in children.51 The mechanism of action of molnupiravir has raised concerns
about potential mutagenesis in mammalian cells. See Molnupiravir and Therapeutic Management of
Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for additional information.
Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids are not indicated for the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized children. However,
corticosteroids should be used per usual standards of care in children with asthma and croup triggered by
SARS-CoV-2 infection. Children with COVID-19 who are receiving corticosteroids for an underlying
condition should continue this therapy as directed by their health care providers.
Other Therapeutic Agents

For other therapies that have been studied or are under investigation for the treatment of COVID-19, see
Therapies.
References
1. Schuster JE, Halasa NB, Nakamura M, et al. A description of COVID-19-directed therapy in children admitted
to US intensive care units 2020. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2022;11(5):191-198. Available at: https://www.
2. Goldman DL, Aldrich ML, Hagmann SHF, et al. Compassionate use of remdesivir in children with severe
COVID-19. Pediatrics. 2021;147(5):e2020047803. Available at:

3. Vora SB, Englund JA, Trehan I, et al. Monoclonal antibody and antiviral therapy for mild-to-moderate
COVID-19 in pediatric patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2023;42(1):32-34. Available at:
10. Havers FP, Whitaker M, Self JL, et al. Hospitalization of adolescents aged 12–17 years with laboratory-
confirmed COVID-19—COVID-NET, 14 states, March 1, 2020–April 24, 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly
11. Willis ZI, Oliveira CR, Abzug MJ, et al. Guidance for prevention and management of COVID-19 in children
and adolescents: a consensus statement from the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society Pediatric COVID-19
Therapies Taskforce. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2024;Published online ahead of print. Available at:
12. American Academy of Pediatrics. Management strategies in children and adolescents with mild to moderate
COVID-19. 2023. Available at: https://www.aap.org/en/pages/2019-novel-coronavirus-covid-19-infections/
clinical-guidance/outpatient-covid-19-management-strategies-in-children-and-adolescents. Accessed February
19, 2024.
13. Graff K, Smith C, Silveira L, et al. Risk factors for severe COVID-19 in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J.
14. Fernandes DM, Oliveira CR, Guerguis S, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 clinical
syndromes and predictors of disease severity in hospitalized children and youth. J Pediatr. 2021;230:23-31.
18. Mukkada S, Bhakta N, Chantada GL, et al. Global characteristics and outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection
in children and adolescents with cancer (GRCCC): a cohort study. Lancet Oncol. 2021;22(10):1416-1426.

20. Farrar DS, Drouin O, Moore Hepburn C, et al. Risk factors for severe COVID-19 in hospitalized children in
Canada: a national prospective study from March 2020–May 2021. Lancet Reg Health Am. 2022;15:100337.
21. Averbuch D, de la Camara R, Tridello G, et al. Risk factors for a severe disease course in children
with SARS-COV-2 infection following hematopoietic cell transplantation in the pre-Omicron period:
a prospective multinational infectious disease working party from the European Society for Blood and
Marrow Transplantation group (EBMT) and the Spanish Group of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation
(GETH) study. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2023;58(5):558-566. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/36849806.
22. Oliveira MCL, Simões E Silva AC, Colosimo EA, et al. Clinical impact and risk factors of mortality
in hospitalized children and adolescents with hematologic diseases and COVID-19: an observational
retrospective cohort study. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2023;45(3):e315-e322. Available at:
23. Woodruff RC, Campbell AP, Taylor CA, et al. Risk factors for severe COVID-19 in children. Pediatrics.
2022;149(1):e2021053418. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34935038.
24. Sallih ASM, Wee MW, Zaki RA, et al. The outcome of COVID-19 in children with chronic lung disease:
systematic review and meta-analyses. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2023;58(6):1784-1797. Available at:
25. Yeh MJ, Bergersen L, Gauvreau K, et al. COVID-19 international experience in paediatric patients with
congenital heart disease. Heart. 2023;109(9):710-718. Available at:
26. Choudhary R, Webber BJ, Womack LS, et al. Factors associated with severe illness in patients aged <21 years
hospitalized for COVID-19. Hosp Pediatr. 2022;12(9):760-783. Available at:
27. Vasconcelos MA, Mendonça ACQ, Colosimo EA, et al. Outcomes and risk factors for death among
hospitalized children and adolescents with kidney diseases and COVID-19: an analysis of a nationwide
database. Pediatr Nephrol. 2023;38(1):181-191. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35488136.
28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Stay up to date with COVID-19 vaccines. 2024. Available at:
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/stay-up-to-date.html. Accessed February 14, 2024.
29. Dorabawila V, Hoefer D, Bauer UE, et al. Risk of infection and hospitalization among vaccinated and
unvaccinated children and adolescents in New York after the emergence of the Omicron variant. JAMA.
30. Klein NP, Stockwell MS, Demarco M, et al. Effectiveness of COVID-19 Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2
mRNA vaccination in preventing COVID-19-associated emergency department and urgent care encounters
and hospitalizations among nonimmunocompromised children and adolescents aged 5–17 years—VISION
Network, 10 states, April 2021–January 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71(9):352-358. Available
31. Castelli JM, Rearte A, Olszevicki S, et al. Effectiveness of mRNA-1273, BNT162b2, and BBIBP-CorV
vaccines against infection and mortality in children in Argentina, during predominance of Delta and Omicron
COVID-19 variants: test negative, case-control study. BMJ. 2022;379:e073070. Available at:
32. Chemaitelly H, AlMukdad S, Ayoub HH, et al. COVID-19 vaccine protection among children and adolescents
in Qatar. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(20):1865-1876. Available at:

33. Lin DY, Xu Y, Gu Y, et al. Effects of COVID-19 vaccination and previous SARS-CoV-2 infection on Omicron
infection and severe outcomes in children under 12 years of age in the USA: an observational cohort study.
Lancet Infect Dis. 2023;23(11):1257-1265. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37336222.
34. Lin DY, Gu Y, Xu Y, et al. Effects of vaccination and previous infection on Omicron infections in children. N
Engl J Med. 2022;387(12):1141-1143. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36069811.
35. Antoon JW, Grijalva CG, Thurm C, et al. Factors associated with COVID-19 disease severity in US
children and adolescents. J Hosp Med. 2021;16(10):603-610. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/34613896.
36. Parcha V, Booker KS, Kalra R, et al. A retrospective cohort study of 12,306 pediatric COVID-19 patients in
the United States. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):10231. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33986390.
Paxlovid. 2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/155050/download.
42. Greasley SE, Noell S, Plotnikova O, et al. Structural basis for the in vitro efficacy of nirmatrelvir against
SARS-CoV-2 variants. J Biol Chem. 2022;298(6):101972. Available at:
43. Rai DK, Yurgelonis I, McMonagle P, et al. Nirmatrelvir, an orally active MPRO inhibitor, is a potent inhibitor
of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. bioRxiv. 2022;Preprint. Available at:
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.01.17.476644v1.
44. Vangeel L, Chiu W, De Jonghe S, et al. Remdesivir, molnupiravir and nirmatrelvir remain active against
SARS-CoV-2 Omicron and other variants of concern. Antiviral Res. 2022;198:105252. Available at:
45. Remdesivir (Veklury) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2023. Available at:
46. Fiaschi L, Dragoni F, Schiaroli E, et al. Efficacy of licensed monoclonal antibodies and antiviral agents against
the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron sublineages BA.1 and BA.2. Viruses. 2022;14(7):1374. Available at:
47. Takashita E, Kinoshita N, Yamayoshi S, et al. Efficacy of antiviral agents against the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron
subvariant BA.2. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(15):1475-1477. Available at:
48. Takashita E, Yamayoshi S, Simon V, et al. Efficacy of antibodies and antiviral drugs against Omicron
BA.2.12.1, BA.4, and BA.5 subvariants. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(5):468-470. Available at:

50. Méndez-Echevarría A, Pérez-Martínez A, Gonzalez Del Valle L, et al. Compassionate use of remdesivir in
children with COVID-19. Eur J Pediatr. 2021;180(4):1317-1322. Available at:

Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized
This section outlines the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations for the
therapeutic management of children (i.e., pediatric patients aged <18 years) who are hospitalized for
COVID-19. Throughout this section, the term “COVID-19” refers to the acute, primarily respiratory
illness due to infection with SARS-CoV-2. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C)
refers to the postinfectious inflammatory condition.
Treatment Considerations for Children With COVID-19

To date, no comparative clinical trials evaluating the treatment of COVID-19 in children have been
published. Evaluations of pharmacologic therapies in children with COVID-19 have been limited to
small pharmacokinetic studies and retrospective observational reports.1-5 Therefore, more high-quality
randomized trials, observational studies, and pharmacokinetic studies are urgently needed. Whenever
possible, clinical trials of therapeutics and multicenter observational cohorts should enroll children with
COVID-19.
because most children experience a mild course of illness with COVID-19.3 Relative to adults, children
with COVID-19 have substantially lower mortality and less need for hospitalization.9-11 Because of these
differences in epidemiology and disease severity, the effect sizes of treatments for children are likely
to be smaller than those observed in adults. Therefore, to produce a beneficial outcome in children, the
number needed to treat is higher. Collectively, these factors influence the risk versus benefit balance for
pharmacologic therapies in children.
Other challenges are the uncertainty about which comorbid conditions place children at the highest
risk of severe COVID-19 and the uncertainty about the absolute magnitude of the increased risk from
those comorbid conditions. For children with COVID-19, the type, number, and severity of comorbid
conditions influence decisions about pharmacologic treatment. For more information on risk factors
in children with COVID-19, see Special Considerations in Children and Therapeutic Management of
Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19.
Recommendations
In the absence of sufficient clinical trial data on the treatment of children with COVID-19, the Panel’s
recommendations for the therapeutic management of hospitalized children are based largely on safety
and efficacy data from clinical trials in adults, the child’s risk of disease progression, and expert
opinion (see Table 3c). For the Panel’s recommendations for adults, see Therapeutic Management of
Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
In general, data from clinical trials in adults are most applicable to the treatment of older children
with severe COVID-19 and predominantly lower respiratory tract disease. Using data from clinical
trials in adults to develop recommendations for children with SARS-CoV-2 infection who have
clinical syndromes associated with other respiratory viruses (e.g., bronchiolitis, croup, asthma) is a
challenge. No evidence suggests that these syndromes should be managed differently when caused by

SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clinical judgment is needed when applying recommendations for treatment in
adults to children, particularly young children, with these clinical syndromes.
Table 3c. Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19
Disease Severity Panel’s Recommendations
For children aged ≥12 years admitted for COVID-19, use prophylactic anticoagulation
Hospitalized for COVID-19
unless contraindicated (BIII).a
For children admitted for COVID-19 who are at the highest risk of progression
to severe COVID-19b (especially those who are severely immunocompromised),
consider using remdesivirc for children aged 12–17 years (CIII). There is insufficient
Does Not Require Supplemental evidence for using remdesivir in children aged 28 days to <12 years and weighing
Oxygen ≥3 kg.
For children admitted for reasons other than COVID-19 who have mild to moderate
COVID-19 and are at the highest risk of progression,b refer to Therapeutic
Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19.
• Remdesivirc (BIII)
Requires Conventional Oxygend
• Dexamethasone plus remdesivirc for children with increasing oxygen needs,
particularly adolescents (BIII)
• Dexamethasone (BIII)
Requires Oxygen Through High- • Dexamethasone plus remdesivirc (BIII)
Flow Device or NIVe For children who do not have rapid (e.g., within 24 hours) improvement in oxygenation
after initiation of dexamethasone, baricitinibf or tocilizumab can be considered for
children aged 12–17 years (BIII) and for children aged 2–11 years (CIII).
Dexamethasoneg (AIII)
Requires MV or ECMOg For children who do not have rapid (e.g., within 24 hours) improvement in oxygenation
after initiation of dexamethasone, baricitinibf or tocilizumab may be considered for
children aged 12–17 years (BIII) and for children aged 2–11 years (CIII).
a
eighing the risk factors for thrombosis and bleeding, some Panel members would use prophylactic anticoagulation for
W
children aged <12 years who are hospitalized for COVID-19.
b
See Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19 for a list of conditions that will put children at
highest risk for progression to severe COVID-19.
c
The clinical benefit of remdesivir is greatest if it is initiated within 10 days of symptom onset. Remdesivir should be given
for 5 days or until hospital discharge, whichever comes first. Examples of patients who may benefit most from adding
remdesivir >10 days from symptom onset include patients who are severely immunocompromised, particularly if they
have evidence of ongoing viral replication (e.g., those with a low Ct value, as measured by an RT-PCR result or with a
positive rapid antigen test result).
d
Conventional oxygen refers to oxygen supplementation that is not high-flow oxygen, NIV, MV, or ECMO.
e
Patients who are receiving NIV or MV at baseline and require a substantial increase in baseline support should be treated
per the recommendations for patients requiring new NIV or MV.
f
Tofacitinib is an alternative if baricitinib is not available (BIII).
g
For children who started receiving remdesivir before admission to the ICU, the remdesivir should be continued to complete
the treatment course.
Key: Ct = cycle threshold; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; ICU = intensive care unit; MV = mechanical
ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; RT-PCR = reverse
transcription polymerase chain reaction

Rationale for the Panel’s Recommendations for Drug Therapies
Remdesivir
Remdesivir is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for hospitalized and
nonhospitalized pediatric patients aged ≥28 days and weighing ≥3 kg.12 Remdesivir is expected to be
active against circulating variants, although clinical efficacy data in children are currently limited.13-16
For most hospitalized patients, remdesivir should be administered for 5 days or until the patient is ready
for discharge, whichever comes first. Treatment may be extended to 10 days for patients who have not
clinically improved or for patients who are severely immunocompromised. See Remdesivir and Special
Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised for more information.
In a trial conducted mostly among hospitalized adults with COVID-19 who did not receive supplemental
oxygen at enrollment, a 5-day course of remdesivir was associated with greater clinical improvement
when compared with the standard of care.17 Remdesivir was also studied in ACTT-1, a double-blind,
placebo-controlled, randomized trial for hospitalized adults with COVID-19 who received remdesivir
for 10 days (or until hospital discharge) or placebo.18 The study reported that the remdesivir arm had
a shorter time to clinical recovery than the placebo arm (10 days vs. 15 days; P < 0.001). A subgroup
analysis demonstrated that patients who received conventional oxygen therapy had the greatest benefit.
No benefit was detected for patients who did not receive supplemental oxygen or for those who received
noninvasive ventilation (NIV) or mechanical ventilation. No statistically significant differences in
mortality or in the need for new mechanical ventilation were detected, and the benefit of remdesivir in
this study was limited to patients with symptoms for <10 days.
Three open-label trials in adults compared remdesivir to a local standard of care. The World Health
Organization’s Solidarity trial enrolled hospitalized adult patients with COVID-19 in 35 countries.19 In
the overall cohort, no difference in hospital mortality was demonstrated (14.5% in the remdesivir arm
vs. 15.6% in the usual care arm; rate ratio 0.91; 95% CI, 0.82–1.02; P = 0.12). However, in the large
subset of patients receiving supplemental oxygen but not NIV or mechanical ventilation, remdesivir
significantly reduced the risk of in-hospital mortality by 13% (14.6% vs. 16.3%; rate ratio 0.87; 95% CI,
0.76–0.99; P = 0.03).
The CATCO study demonstrated similar findings.20 Treatment with remdesivir, when compared with
standard care, reduced the need for mechanical ventilation in hospitalized adults with COVID-19
(8% vs. 15%; relative risk 0.53; 95% CI, 0.38–0.75). In this study, 87% of adult patients in both the
remdesivir arm and standard of care arm received dexamethasone. In contrast to these 2 studies, the
DisCoVeRy trial demonstrated no difference for any clinical outcome when the use of remdesivir plus
usual care was compared to usual care alone.21
The efficacy of remdesivir has not been evaluated in clinical trials of hospitalized children with
COVID-19. A Phase 2/3, single-arm, open-label study evaluated the safety, tolerability, and
pharmacokinetics of remdesivir in 53 hospitalized children with COVID-19.22 Children weighing 3 to
<40 kg received remdesivir 5 mg/kg on Day 1, followed by remdesivir 2.5 mg/kg daily. Adverse events
included acute kidney injury (11%) and an increase in alanine transaminase levels (8%). However, this
study did not have a placebo group, limiting the ability to draw conclusions regarding the significance
of these adverse events. Published observational data are limited to descriptive case series.1,2,23 Other
uncontrolled case series reported similar safety profiles.4,23-25
Findings from the adult trials and the pediatric pharmacokinetic study led the Panel to recommend
remdesivir for hospitalized children who have a new or increasing need for conventional oxygen
(BIII) and to recommend dexamethasone plus remdesivir for children who require oxygen through
a high-flow device or NIV (BIII). It is not known if remdesivir offers an additional clinical benefit to

standard care in younger children with SARS-CoV-2 infection who are receiving respiratory support for
bronchiolitis, asthma, or croup.
For children hospitalized for COVID-19 who do not require supplemental oxygen, the Panel
recommends remdesivir for children aged 12 to 17 years who are at the highest risk for progression to
severe disease, especially those who are severely immunocompromised (CIII). This recommendation
was extrapolated from the findings of the PINETREE study, which demonstrated a reduction in
hospitalization among high-risk, unvaccinated adults treated in the outpatient setting.26 However, there
is insufficient evidence for or against the use of remdesivir in children aged 28 days to <12 years and
weighing ≥3 kg who do not require supplemental oxygen. Given the reported clinical experience with
the use of remdesivir in younger patients,22 the use of remdesivir in high-risk, younger children who do
not require supplemental oxygen may be considered on a case-by-case basis.
Dexamethasone
Dexamethasone was evaluated in the RECOVERY trial, which was an open-label, randomized trial
conducted in the United Kingdom.27 The trial compared the use of up to 10 days of dexamethasone 6
mg, administered by intravenous injection or orally, with usual care among hospitalized adults with
COVID-19. The primary outcome was all-cause mortality at 28 days, which occurred in 22.9% of
patients randomized to receive dexamethasone versus 25.7% of patients randomized to receive usual
care (age-adjusted rate ratio 0.83; 95% CI, 0.75–0.93; P < 0.001). Patients who required mechanical
ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) had the greatest effect size (29.3% vs.
41.4%; rate ratio 0.64; 95% CI, 0.51–0.81). No difference in outcomes was observed in patients who did
not require supplemental oxygen (17.8% vs. 14.0%; rate ratio 1.19; 95% CI, 0.92–1.55). For the 28-day
mortality outcome, a difference between arms was observed in patients who required supplemental
oxygen (23.3% vs. 26.2%; rate ratio 0.82; 95% CI, 0.72–0.94). However, it should be noted that these
patients were a heterogeneous group, including those who received either conventional oxygen or NIV.
See Systemic Corticosteroids for detailed information.
The safety and efficacy of using dexamethasone or other corticosteroids for the treatment of COVID-19
have not been evaluated in pediatric patients. Given that the mortality for adults in the placebo arm in
the RECOVERY trial was substantially greater than the mortality generally reported for children with
COVID-19, caution is warranted when extrapolating from recommendations for adults and applying
them to patients aged <18 years.
However, because of the effect size observed in the RECOVERY trial, the Panel recommends the use
of dexamethasone for children who require mechanical ventilation or ECMO (AIII). The Panel also
recommends the use of dexamethasone, with or without concurrent remdesivir, for children who
require oxygen through a high-flow device or NIV (BIII). The Panel does not recommend routine
use of corticosteroids for children who require only conventional oxygen, but corticosteroids can be
considered in combination with remdesivir for patients with increasing oxygen needs, particularly
adolescents (BIII).
Evidence has demonstrated that the use of corticosteroids does not benefit infants with viral bronchiolitis
not related to COVID-19, and current American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines recommend against
the use of corticosteroids in this population.28 There are no data specific to COVID-19 that support
the use of corticosteroids in children with bronchiolitis due to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Corticosteroids
should be used per the usual standards of care in children with asthma or croup triggered by SARS-CoV-
2.
The use of dexamethasone for the treatment of severe COVID-19 in children who are profoundly

immunocompromised has not been evaluated, and there is a potential risk of harm. Therefore, the
use of corticosteroids should be considered on a case-by-case basis in consultation with relevant
specialists, and the benefits and risks of the therapy should be weighed. If dexamethasone is not
available, alternative glucocorticoids such as prednisone, methylprednisolone, or hydrocortisone can be
considered. The dexamethasone dose for pediatric patients is 0.15 mg/kg (with a maximum dose of 6
mg) once daily for ≤10 days or until hospital discharge, whichever comes first.
Baricitinib
The Janus kinase inhibitor baricitinib was approved by the FDA for the treatment of COVID-19 in
hospitalized adults. An FDA Emergency Use Authorization for baricitinib remains active for the
treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized children aged 2 to 17 years who require supplemental oxygen,
NIV, mechanical ventilation, or ECMO.29
In the COV-BARRIER trial, adults with COVID-19 pneumonia were randomized to receive baricitinib
or standard care. Patients treated with baricitinib showed a reduction in mortality when compared
with those who received standard care.30 The reduction was greatest in patients who received
high-flow oxygen or NIV. Similarly, the ACTT-2 trial in adults showed that patients who received
baricitinib plus remdesivir had improved time to recovery when compared with patients who received
remdesivir alone.31 This effect was most pronounced in patients who received high-flow oxygen or
NIV. In the ACTT-4 trial, 1,010 patients were randomized 1:1 to receive baricitinib plus remdesivir or
dexamethasone plus remdesivir.32 The study reported no difference between the arms for the outcome of
mechanical ventilation–free survival.
In the RECOVERY trial, 8,156 patients, including 33 children aged 2 to 17 years, were randomized
to receive baricitinib or usual care (95% received corticosteroids).33 Treatment with baricitinib was
associated with a 13% proportional reduction in mortality, with the greatest effect size occurring in
patients who received NIV. The RECOVERY investigators included these patients in a meta-analysis
and found that treatment with baricitinib was associated with a 20% relative reduction in mortality (rate
ratio 0.80; 95% CI, 0.72–0.89; P < 0.0001). See Janus Kinase Inhibitors and Therapeutic Management
of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for additional information. These data in adults indicate that
baricitinib is likely to be most beneficial for patients receiving noninvasive forms of respiratory support.
Several open-label trials and cohort studies have evaluated baricitinib in children with autoinflammatory
and rheumatic diseases, including many children aged <5 years, and found the treatment was well
tolerated; however, the pharmacokinetics of baricitinib in younger children are not well studied.34-37
Information on the safety and effectiveness of the use of baricitinib in children with COVID-19 is
limited to case reports.
In contrast to the strong recommendation for its use in adults, baricitinib is not considered the standard
of care for all children who require high-flow oxygen or NIV because of the low mortality in children
with COVID-19 (especially young children) and the limited data on the use of baricitinib in these
children.
Extrapolating from clinical trials among adults with COVID-19, the Panel recommends that:
• For children who require oxygen through a high-flow device or NIV and do not have rapid (e.g.,
within 24 hours) improvement in oxygenation after initiation of dexamethasone, baricitinib can
be considered for children aged 12 to 17 years (BIII) and for children aged 2 to 11 years (CIII).
• For children who require mechanical ventilation or ECMO and do not have rapid (e.g., within
24 hours) improvement in oxygenation after initiation of dexamethasone, baricitinib may be

considered for children aged 12 to 17 years (BIII) and for children aged 2 to 11 years (CIII).
Clinicians should consult with specialists experienced in treating children with immunosuppression
(e.g., in pediatric infectious disease, pediatric rheumatology) when considering the use of baricitinib
in hospitalized children with COVID-19. Data from adults indicate that baricitinib should be initiated
promptly. Ideally, it should be initiated at the onset of clinical deterioration or respiratory failure.
Tofacitinib
There are no data on the efficacy of tofacitinib in pediatric patients with COVID-19; the Panel’s
recommendation is extrapolated from data in adults. The STOP-COVID trial compared tofacitinib to
the standard of care in adults hospitalized for COVID-19 pneumonia.38 The standard of care included
glucocorticoids for most patients. The study demonstrated a reduction in mortality and respiratory failure
at Day 28 for the tofacitinib arm when compared with the placebo arm. Tofacitinib has been studied
less extensively than baricitinib for the treatment of COVID-19. Thus, tofacitinib, as an alternative to
baricitinib, is recommended to be used in combination with dexamethasone in adults with COVID-19
who require high-flow oxygen or NIV. See Janus Kinase Inhibitors and Therapeutic Management of
Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for additional information.
No trials have evaluated the safety of using tofacitinib in children with COVID-19. Overall, there has
been more clinical experience with the use of tofacitinib than baricitinib in children, particularly when
used in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) as young as 2 years of age. A Phase 1 study
was conducted to define the pharmacokinetics and safety of using tofacitinib in children,39 and a Phase
3, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial investigated the efficacy of using tofacitinib in
children with JIA.40 Tofacitinib is available as a liquid formulation for children.
Given the established safety of tofacitinib in the pediatric population, tofacitinib can be considered an
alternative for children hospitalized for COVID-19 if baricitinib is not available (BIII). The dose of
tofacitinib that should be used to treat hospitalized children with COVID-19 has not been established.
As with baricitinib, the dose of tofacitinib for hospitalized children with COVID-19 likely needs to be
higher than the dose typically used to treat pediatric rheumatologic diseases. Therefore, clinicians should
consult with specialists experienced in treating children with immunosuppression (e.g., in pediatric
infectious disease, pediatric rheumatology) when considering administering tofacitinib to hospitalized
children with COVID-19.
Tocilizumab
Tocilizumab is an interleukin-6 inhibitor that has received an FDA Emergency Use Authorization for
the treatment of hospitalized adults and children with COVID-19 who are aged ≥2 years; receiving
systemic corticosteroids; and require supplemental oxygen, NIV, mechanical ventilation, or ECMO.41
Two large randomized controlled trials (REMAP-CAP and RECOVERY) conducted among hospitalized
adults with COVID-19 have demonstrated reductions in mortality with the use of tocilizumab.42,43 See
Interleukin-6 Inhibitors and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for
additional information.
The RECOVERY trial was an open-label study that included hospitalized adults who had an oxygen
saturation of <92% on room air or were receiving supplemental oxygen therapy; patients also had
C-reactive protein levels ≥75 mg/L.43 Patients were randomized to receive tocilizumab plus usual care
or usual care alone. Mortality at 28 days was significantly lower in the tocilizumab arm compared to
the usual care arm. The REMAP-CAP trial included adults with suspected or confirmed COVID-19
who were admitted to an intensive care unit and received either respiratory (i.e., NIV or mechanical
ventilation) or cardiovascular organ (i.e., vasopressor/inotrope) support.42 Patients were randomized

within 24 hours of organ failure to receive either tocilizumab or sarilumab (the majority received
tocilizumab) or to receive standard care. The median number of organ support-free days was higher for
those who received tocilizumab than for those who received standard care, and in-hospital mortality
was lower in the combined tocilizumab or sarilumab arm than in the standard care arm. In both
studies, the majority of patients received dexamethasone (82% in the RECOVERY trial and 93% in the
REMAP-CAP trial).
Studies have evaluated the use of tocilizumab for the treatment of non–COVID-19 conditions in
children, including JIA44-48 and cytokine release syndrome related to chimeric antigen receptor T cell
therapy.49 The FDA approved tocilizumab for use in children aged ≥2 years for these indications.44-48 The
use of tocilizumab in children with severe cases of COVID-19 has been described only in case series.50-52
Extrapolating from clinical trials among adults with COVID-19, the Panel recommends that:
• For children who require oxygen through a high-flow device or NIV and do not have rapid (e.g.,
within 24 hours) improvement in oxygenation after initiation of dexamethasone, tocilizumab can
be considered for children aged 12 to 17 years (BIII) and for children aged 2 to 11 years (CIII).
• For children who require mechanical ventilation or ECMO and do not have rapid (e.g., within 24
hours) improvement in oxygenation after initiation of dexamethasone, if tocilizumab has not been
started, addition of tocilizumab may be considered for children aged 12 to 17 years (BIII) and for
children aged 2 to 11 years (CIII).
Data from REMAP-CAP and RECOVERY are most likely to be applicable to high-risk adolescent
patients. Clinicians should consult with specialists experienced in treating children with
immunosuppression (e.g., in pediatric infectious disease, pediatric rheumatology) when considering the
use of tocilizumab in younger children with COVID-19.
Sarilumab
Sarilumab, a monoclonal antibody that blocks interleukin-6 receptors, is not authorized by the FDA
for the treatment of COVID-19. Data on the efficacy of sarilumab for the treatment of COVID-19
hyperinflammation are limited, and there is a lack of pediatric dosing information. Therefore, the Panel
recommends against the use of sarilumab in hospitalized children with COVID-19, except in a clinical
trial (AIII).
Anticoagulation in Children With COVID-19

Recommendations
• The Panel recommends prophylactic anticoagulation for children aged ≥12 years who are
hospitalized for COVID-19, unless there are contraindications (BIII).
• Weighing the risk factors for thrombosis and bleeding, some Panel members would use
prophylactic anticoagulation for children aged <12 years who are hospitalized for COVID-19.
Institutional standards for anticoagulation should be followed.
therapeutic anticoagulation for venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in children of any age with
COVID-19.
Limited data characterize the risk of thromboembolic disease in children with COVID-19.
Among children who do not have COVID-19, most thromboembolic events occur in neonates and
adolescents.53,54 In a multicenter, retrospective cohort study that included 814 pediatric patients with

COVID-19 or MIS-C,55 thromboembolic events were detected in 2.1% of patients with COVID-19
and in 6.5% of patients with MIS-C. A single-center study found that 1 of 596 participants (0.2%) with
COVID-19 and 2 of 94 participants (2.1%) with MIS-C experienced thrombosis.56
Limited data inform the clinical use of anticoagulation in children with COVID-19. Only the
COVAC-TP trial has evaluated the dose, safety, and efficacy of prophylactic anticoagulants in children
with COVID-19 or MIS-C.57 In this multicenter, Phase 2 clinical trial of children hospitalized with
COVID-19–related illness (including MIS-C) in the United States, a starting dose of enoxaparin 0.5
mg/kg achieved targeted anticoagulant activity (as measured by antifactor Xa level) in the majority
of patients with few dose changes, and no patients experienced clinically relevant bleeding as defined
by the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis.58 In this trial, thromboembolic events
occurred in 2 patients (5.3%; 90% CI, 1.0%–15.7%); both events were related to central venous
catheters.57 These results raise the question of whether prophylactic doses of anticoagulants sufficiently
reduce thromboembolism risk in children hospitalized with COVID or MIS-C.
To date, no clinical trial has evaluated the safety and efficacy of therapeutic anticoagulation in
hospitalized children with COVID-19. Therefore, the Panel has determined that there is insufficient
evidence to recommend either for or against the use of therapeutic anticoagulation for venous
thromboembolism prophylaxis in children of any age with COVID-19.
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21. Ader F, Bouscambert-Duchamp M, Hites M, et al. Remdesivir plus standard of care versus standard of care
alone for the treatment of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (DisCoVeRy): a Phase 3, randomised,
controlled, open-label trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(2):209-221. Available at:
22. Ahmed A, Rojo P, Agwu A, et al. Remdesivir treatment for COVID-19 in hospitalized children: CARAVAN
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in-hospitalized-children-caravan-interim-results. Accessed February 5, 2024.
23. Samuel AM, Hacker LL, Zebracki J, et al. Remdesivir use in pediatric patients for SARS-CoV-2 treatment:
single academic center study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2023;42(4):310-314. Available at:
24. Singhal T, Mehrotra J, Sen S. Safety and tolerability of remdesivir in infants and children with COVID-19.
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26. Gottlieb RL, Vaca CE, Paredes R, et al. Early remdesivir to prevent progression to severe COVID-19
in outpatients. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(4):305-315. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/34937145.

28. Ralston SL, Lieberthal AS, Meissner HC, et al. Clinical practice guideline: the diagnosis, management, and
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29. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) of
baricitinib. 2022. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/143823/download.
34. Montealegre Sanchez GA, Reinhardt A, Ramsey S, et al. JAK1/2 inhibition with baricitinib in the treatment of
autoinflammatory interferonopathies. J Clin Invest. 2018;128(7):3041-3052. Available at:
35. Kim H, Dill S, O’Brien M, et al. Janus kinase (JAK) inhibition with baricitinib in refractory juvenile
dermatomyositis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2021;80(3):406-408. Available at:
36. Vanderver A, Adang L, Gavazzi F, et al. Janus kinase inhibition in the Aicardi-Goutières syndrome. N Engl J
Med. 2020;383(10):986-989. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32877590.
37. Kim H, Brooks KM, Tang CC, et al. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and proposed dosing of the
oral JAK1 and JAK2 inhibitor baricitinib in pediatric and young adult CANDLE and SAVI patients. Clin
Pharmacol Ther. 2018;104(2):364-373. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29134648.
39. Ruperto N, Brunner HI, Zuber Z, et al. Pharmacokinetic and safety profile of tofacitinib in children with
polyarticular course juvenile idiopathic arthritis: results of a Phase 1, open-label, multicenter study. Pediatr
Rheumatol Online J. 2017;15(1):86. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29282090.
40. Ruperto N, Brunner HI, Synoverska O, et al. Tofacitinib in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a double-blind,
placebo-controlled, withdrawal Phase 3 randomised trial. Lancet. 2021;398(10315):1984-1996. Available at:
41. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Actemra
(tocilizumab). 2021. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/150321/download.
44. Brunner HI, Ruperto N, Zuber Z, et al. Efficacy and safety of tocilizumab in patients with polyarticular-course
juvenile idiopathic arthritis: results from a Phase 3, randomised, double-blind withdrawal trial. Ann Rheum

Dis. 2015;74(6):1110-1117. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24834925.
45. Brunner HI, Ruperto N, Zuber Z, et al. Efficacy and safety of tocilizumab for polyarticular-course
juvenile idiopathic arthritis in the open-label two-year extension of a Phase III trial. Arthritis Rheumatol.
46. De Benedetti F, Brunner HI, Ruperto N, et al. Randomized trial of tocilizumab in systemic juvenile idiopathic
arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(25):2385-2395. Available at:
47. DeWitt EM, Kimura Y, Beukelman T, et al. Consensus treatment plans for new-onset systemic juvenile
idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2012;64(7):1001-1010. Available at:
48. Horneff G, Schulz AC, Klotsche J, et al. Experience with etanercept, tocilizumab and interleukin-1
inhibitors in systemic onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis patients from the BIKER registry. Arthritis Res Ther.
2017;19(1):256. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29166924.
49. Kotch C, Barrett D, Teachey DT. Tocilizumab for the treatment of chimeric antigen receptor T cell-induced
cytokine release syndrome. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2019;15(8):813-822. Available at:
50. Derespina KR, Kaushik S, Plichta A, et al. Clinical manifestations and outcomes of critically ill children and
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51. Shekerdemian LS, Mahmood NR, Wolfe KK, et al. Characteristics and outcomes of children with coronavirus
disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection admitted to US and Canadian pediatric intensive care units. JAMA
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53. Stein PD, Kayali F, Olson RE. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in infants and children: data from the
National Hospital Discharge Survey. J Pediatr. 2004;145(4):563-556. Available at:
54. O’Brien SH, Stanek JR, Witmer CM, Raffini L. The continued rise of venous thromboembolism across US
children’s hospitals. Pediatrics. 2022;149(3):e2021054649. Available at:
55. Whitworth H, Sartain SE, Kumar R, et al. Rate of thrombosis in children and adolescents hospitalized with
COVID-19 or MIS-C. Blood. 2021;138(2):190-198. Available at:
56. Guner Ozenen G, Akaslan Kara A, Boncuoglu E, et al. Evaluation of antithrombotic prophylaxis and
thrombotic events in children with COVID-19 or MIS-C: A tertiary pediatric center experience. Arch Pediatr.
57. Sochet AA, Morrison JM, Jaffray J, et al. Enoxaparin thromboprophylaxis in children hospitalized for
COVID-19: a Phase 2 trial. Pediatrics. 2022;150(1):e2022056726. Available at:
58. Mitchell LG, Goldenberg NA, Male C, et al. Definition of clinical efficacy and safety outcomes for clinical
trials in deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in children. J Thromb Haemost. 2011;9(9):1856-

Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With
MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A
This section outlines the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations for
the therapeutic management of pediatric patients with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children
(MIS-C). The case definition for MIS-C from the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists
(CSTE) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention includes individuals aged <21 years.1 The
recommendations in this section encompass this age group. There are few randomized controlled trials
that directly compared different treatment approaches for MIS-C, and these trials have limitations.
Because of those limitations, the Panel’s recommendations for the therapeutic management of
patients with MIS-C are primarily based on data from large descriptive and observational comparative
effectiveness studies. For information on the clinical manifestations of MIS-C, see Special
Considerations in Children.
Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Adults

Adults can present with a syndrome similar to MIS-C, termed multisystem inflammatory syndrome in
adults (MIS-A).2 The published literature on MIS-A is restricted to small case series and observational
epidemiologic studies that provide little data to guide treatment decisions in patients with MIS-A.3-5
Although the therapeutic management of MIS-A has not been studied, it is reasonable to extrapolate
from data on treating patients with MIS-C to aid in the management of individuals with MIS-A.

Table 3d. Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Patients With MIS-C
Initial treatment for MIS-C includes both immunomodulatory and antithrombotic therapy.
Initial Immunomodulatory Therapy
• IVIG 2 g/kg IBW IV (up to a maximum total dose of 100 g) plus low to moderate dose
methylprednisolone (1–2 mg/kg/day IV)a or another glucocorticoid at an equivalent dosea
(AIIb).
• Glucocorticoid monotherapy, only if IVIG is unavailable or contraindicated (BIIa).
• IVIG monotherapy, only if glucocorticoids are contraindicated (BIIb).
Intensification Immunomodulatory Therapy
• Intensification therapy is recommended for children with refractory MIS-C who do not improve
within 24 hours of receiving initial immunomodulatory therapy (AIII). One of the following can
be used (listed in alphabetical order):
• High-dose anakinra 5–10 mg/kg/day IV (preferred) or SUBQ in 1–4 divided dosesb (BIIb)
• Higher-dose glucocorticoid (e.g., methylprednisolone 10–30 mg/kg/day IV for 1–3 days,
MIS-C up to a maximum of 1,000 mg/day, or equivalent glucocorticoid for 1–3 days)a,b (BIIb)
• Infliximab 5–10 mg/kg IV for 1 doseb,c (BIIb)
• Low-dose aspirin (3–5 mg/kg PO once daily, up to a maximum dose of 81 mg) for all patients
without risk factors for bleeding (AIII), AND
• Anticoagulation for patients who fall under 1 of the following clinical scenarios:
• Therapeutic anticoagulation for patients with large CAAs according to the American Heart
Association guidelines for Kawasaki disease (AIII).
• Therapeutic anticoagulation for patients with moderate to severe LV dysfunction who have
no risk factors for bleeding (AIII).
• For patients with MIS-C who do not have large CAAs or moderate to severe LV dysfunction,
consider prophylactic or therapeutic anticoagulation on an individual basis, taking
into consideration risk factors for thrombosis and bleeding. See Table 3e for additional
information.
a
T he duration of glucocorticoid therapy may vary. When a patient shows clinical improvement (e.g., resolution of fever,
improvement of organ function, reduction of levels of inflammatory markers), a steroid taper should be initiated. Typically,
the patient’s clinical status guides the taper, and it continues for several weeks to avoid rebound inflammation. See Table
3e and text below.
b
In certain patients with severe illness, intensification therapy may include dual therapy with higher-dose glucocorticoids
plus anakinra (BIII) or higher-dose glucocorticoids plus infliximab (BIII). Anakinra and infliximab should not be used in
combination.
c
Infliximab should not be used in patients with macrophage activation syndrome.
Key: CAA = coronary artery aneurysm; IBW = ideal body weight; IV = intravenous; IVIG = intravenous immunoglobulin; LV =
left ventricular; MIS-C = multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children; PO = oral; SUBQ = subcutaneous

Table 3e. Dosing Regimens for the Drugs Recommended for the Treatment of MIS-C
Dosing Regimens
For infants, children, and adolescents unless
otherwise specified. Monitoring
Adverse Events
The doses listed are for FDA-approved Parameters
indications for other diseases or from reported
experiences or clinical trials.
Intravenous IVIG 2 g/kg IBW IV (up to a maximum total dose • Hypersensitivity • Renal function
Immunoglobulin of 100 g) • Fever • Urine output
In the event of cardiac dysfunction or fluid • Chills • CBC with differential
overload, consider administering IVIG in divided
• Flushing • Infusion-related AEs
doses (i.e., IVIG 1 g/kg IBW IV, up to 50 g daily for
2 doses). • Hemolytic anemia • Anaphylaxis
• Signs and symptoms
of hemolysis
Methyl- Methylprednisolone 1–2 mg/kg IV every 12 hours • Adrenal suppression • Blood pressure
prednisolone Intensification immunomodulatory therapy: If the • Hyperglycemia • CBC with differential
patient does not respond to 1–2 mg/kg IV every • Sodium retention • BMP
12 hours, increase the dose to 10–30 mg/kg/day
• Fluid retention
IV for 1–3 days (up to a maximum of 1,000 mg/
day). • Leukocytosis
Glucocorticoids should be tapered gradually after • Immune suppression
signs of clinical improvement. The duration of the • Psychiatric disturbances
taper will depend on the patient’s clinical status.
Anakinra Anakinra 5–10 mg/kg/day IV (preferred) or SUBQ • Headache • CBC with differential
in 1 to 4 divided doses • Fever • LFTs
• Hypersensitivity • SCr
• Immune suppression
• Transaminase elevation
• Injection site reactions
(for SUBQ)
Infliximab Infliximab 5–10 mg/kg IV for 1 dose • Infusion-related reaction • Monitor vital signs
• Headache every 2–10 minutes
during infusion.
• Immune suppression
• CBC with differential
Aspirin Aspirin 3–5 mg/kg PO once daily (up to a • Gastrointestinal ulcers • Signs or symptoms
maximum of 81 mg) • Hypersensitivity of bleeding
• Renal function
Enoxaparin For Prophylaxis • Increased risk of • CBC with differential
Aged >2 Months to <18 Years bleeding • Renal function
• 0.5 mg/kg SUBQ every 12 hours (up to
maximum of 30 mg)
For Treatment
Aged >2 Months to <18 Years
• 1 mg/kg SUBQ every 12 hours
• Monitor antifactor Xa activity (treatment goal:
0.5–1 unit/mL).
Key: AE = adverse event; BMP = basic metabolic panel; CBC = complete blood count; FDA = Food and Drug Administration;
IBW = ideal body weight; IV = intravenous; IVIG = intravenous immunoglobulin; LFT = liver function test; MIS-C =
multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children; PO = oral; SCr = serum creatinine; SUBQ = subcutaneous

Treatment Considerations for Children With MIS-C
Initial Immunomodulatory Therapy for MIS-C
The Panel recommends consulting with a multidisciplinary team when managing immunomodulatory
therapy for children with MIS-C (AIII). The multidisciplinary team may include experts in cardiology,
hematology, infectious disease, intensive care, and rheumatology. MIS-C is defined by multiorgan
dysfunction, and input from other pediatric subspecialists may be needed depending on the presentation
of the individual patient. Thus, children with MIS-C should be cared for at centers with access to these
pediatric specialists.
Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and glucocorticoids are the most commonly used
immunomodulatory medications in reported cohorts of children with MIS-C.6-14 The American College
of Rheumatology has outlined initial diagnostic and treatment considerations for patients with MIS-C
and recommends using IVIG in combination with glucocorticoids as first-tier therapy for most
hospitalized children with MIS-C.15 Several nonrandomized studies suggest that the use of IVIG plus
glucocorticoids is associated with less treatment failure, faster recovery of cardiac function, shorter
intensive care unit (ICU) stays, and less need for treatment escalation than IVIG monotherapy.7,16-22
Based on these data, the Panel recommends using IVIG in combination with low to moderate doses of
glucocorticoids for children hospitalized with MIS-C (AIIb).
IVIG should be administered at a dose of 2 g/kg of ideal body weight, with a maximum total dose of 100
g. The patient’s cardiac function and fluid status should be monitored carefully during the IVIG infusion.
IVIG can be given in divided doses of 1 g/kg of ideal body weight over 2 days if there is a concern
about the patient’s fluid status. Methylprednisolone 1 to 2 mg/kg/day, or another glucocorticoid at an
equivalent dose, is considered low to moderate glucocorticoid dosing. When the patient has improved
clinically (e.g., when the patient is afebrile, end-organ dysfunction resolves, and inflammatory markers
trend downward), a steroid taper should be initiated. Typically, the patient’s clinical status guides the
taper, and it continues for several weeks to avoid rebound inflammation.
Glucocorticoid monotherapy is an alternative initial treatment for MIS-C. Some studies have shown
that patients treated with this approach had similar outcomes to patients treated with IVIG monotherapy
or IVIG plus glucocorticoids.18,20,23,24 However, secondary analyses indicate that patients who were
initially treated with IVIG plus glucocorticoids had faster time to improvement, less need for treatment
escalation, and faster time to defervescence than patients who received glucocorticoid monotherapy.20
Thus, the combination of IVIG and glucocorticoids appears to provide additional benefits that are not
provided by glucocorticoid monotherapy.
Initial treatment that includes IVIG is also beneficial because it reduces the frequency of coronary
artery aneurysms (CAAs) in patients with Kawasaki disease.14,25 Kawasaki disease is increasingly
difficult to differentiate from MIS-C, and more recent SARS-CoV-2 variants have resulted in MIS-C
presentations that are similar to Kawasaki disease.26 Distinguishing MIS-C from Kawasaki disease is
further complicated by the fact that seropositivity for SARS-CoV-2 is now widespread, which makes
establishing the epidemiological link required for the MIS-C diagnosis difficult. For these reasons,
the Panel recommends using IVIG plus glucocorticoids as the initial therapy for patients with MIS-C
(AIIb). Glucocorticoid monotherapy is recommended only if IVIG is unavailable or contraindicated
(BIIa). IVIG monotherapy is recommended only if glucocorticoids are contraindicated (BIIb).
Clinical Data on Initial Immunomodulatory Therapy for MIS-C

Intravenous Immunoglobulin in Combination With Glucocorticoids
No randomized clinical trials evaluating the use of IVIG plus glucocorticoids for the treatment of MIS-C

have been completed. The comparative benefit of adding steroids to IVIG for MIS-C treatment has been
estimated in observational cohort studies that used statistical techniques to adjust for confounders. The
first of these studies employed observational data from a national surveillance system cohort in France
and used propensity matching to compare short-term outcomes in children with MIS-C who were treated
initially with IVIG 2 gm/kg alone or IVIG plus methylprednisolone (most patients received 1.6–2 mg/
kg/day for 5 days).16 The study team observed a lower risk of treatment failure (defined as a fever that
persisted for 2 days after treatment or recurrent fever within 7 days), less need for hemodynamic support,
less severe left ventricular dysfunction, and shorter ICU stays among the children who were initially
treated with the combination therapy. This was a small study, and only 32 patients treated with IVIG plus
methylprednisolone and 64 patients treated with IVIG alone could be matched based on propensity score.
A larger study in the United States analyzed data from the Overcoming COVID-19 surveillance registry
to evaluate immunomodulatory therapy for MIS-C.17 The study included 103 patients who received initial
treatment with IVIG plus glucocorticoids and an equal number of propensity score–matched patients
who received IVIG alone. The risk of cardiovascular dysfunction on or after Day 2 was measured among
these patients using a composite outcome of left ventricular ejection fraction of <55% or vasopressor use.
The composite outcome occurred in 17% of patients in the IVIG plus glucocorticoids arm and in 31%
of patients in the IVIG alone arm (risk ratio 0.56; 95% CI, 0.34–0.94). In addition, patients treated with
the combination of IVIG and glucocorticoids were less likely to require adjunctive immunomodulatory
therapy than those treated with IVIG alone. Methylprednisolone, the glucocorticoid that was prescribed
most often, was administered to 353 patients (68% of patients, including nonpropensity score–matched
patients, in the entire cohort). Among these patients, the dosing of methylprednisolone ranged from 2 mg/
kg/day in 284 patients (80%) to 10 to 30 mg/kg/day in 69 patients (20%).
A third study, the international, observational BATS study, compared patients with MIS-C who received
IVIG alone (n = 246) with those who received IVIG plus glucocorticoids (n = 208).18 This study found
similar rates for the composite outcome of inotropic support or mechanical ventilation by Day 2 or later
or death in both treatment arms. The composite outcome occurred in 44 of 221 patients (21%) in the
IVIG alone arm and in 56 of 180 patients (31%) in the IVIG plus glucocorticoids arm (OR 0.77; 95% CI,
0.33–1.82). However, escalation of immunomodulatory treatment was less common among the patients
who received IVIG plus glucocorticoids than among those who received IVIG alone (OR 0.18; 95% CI,
0.10–0.33). Notably, the study allowed for the inclusion of patients who had any inflammatory illness
after acute COVID-19 but who did not meet the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or World
Health Organization (WHO) criteria for MIS-C. This multicenter study included sites from 34 countries,
which introduced the potential for more variability in supportive care. In addition, the overall percentage
of patients with abnormal cardiac findings (12% of the 538 patients) was lower than in other cohorts.
Intravenous Immunoglobulin Monotherapy
The use of IVIG is long established for patients with Kawasaki disease, a syndrome that has overlapping
manifestations with MIS-C. Thus, the product’s safety profile is well understood. In patients with
Kawasaki disease, IVIG reduces the development of CAAs,25,27 a complication also observed in some
patients with MIS-C. IVIG is the most frequently used therapy for MIS-C. In a national survey of U.S.
institutional protocols for managing MIS-C, IVIG was the first-line therapy in 98% of 40 participating
centers.28
Data on the efficacy of IVIG in patients with MIS-C is extrapolated from case series that show mostly
favorable outcomes. In a series of 539 MIS-C cases, 77% of the children received IVIG.14 A sizeable
proportion of these children had reduced left ventricular ejection fraction at admission (172 of 503
evaluable patients [34.2%]). The symptom resolved by Day 30 in 156 of the children (90.7%). Although
these studies have not described the occurrence of specific adverse events related to IVIG use, the

dosing used (IVIG 2 g/kg) has a well-established safety profile when used for Kawasaki disease.
A limitation of all published studies on IVIG use for MIS-C is the frequent and often rapid sequential
addition of other immunomodulatory therapies, such as corticosteroids. In addition, there is
accumulating evidence that glucocorticoids administered in combination with IVIG are more effective
as treatment for MIS-C. However, IVIG monotherapy may be a reasonable treatment option for a small
subset of patients with MIS-C who are stable (i.e., not in shock or with organ-threatening disease) and
have contraindications for glucocorticoid therapy. Such contraindications may include concern about the
impact of corticosteroids on the diagnostic evaluation or an underlying medical condition.
Glucocorticoid Monotherapy
The observational BATS study also compared initial IVIG monotherapy treatment (n = 246) with
glucocorticoid treatment (n = 99) and found no differences in primary or secondary outcomes between
these 2 cohorts.18 However, in a subgroup analysis of patients who met the WHO criteria for MIS-C, the
glucocorticoid arm (n = 78) had significantly fewer patients who required respiratory support by Day 2
or later or died than the IVIG arm (n = 192).
In a subsequent publication, the BATS consortium reported on additional patients with MIS-C who were
enrolled in the study (over 2,000 patients in total).20 The study had 2 primary outcomes. The first was
a composite of the need for inotropic or ventilator support on or after Day 2 or death. The second was
time to improvement by 1 level on an ordinal severity scale. In this larger study, there was once again
no difference in the primary outcomes among the arms in a propensity-weighted analysis (combination
therapy with IVIG plus glucocorticoids was compared to IVIG alone, and glucocorticoid monotherapy
was compared to IVIG alone).
In secondary analyses, patients who received combination therapy had a lower rate of treatment
escalation than those who received IVIG alone, and patients who received glucocorticoid monotherapy
had a lower rate of treatment escalation than those who received IVIG alone.20 The combination therapy
arm had a faster time to improvement, less need for treatment escalation, and a lower rate of persistent
fever on Day 2 than the glucocorticoid monotherapy arm. These treatment arms had similar frequencies
of CAAs measured at hospital discharge and similar CAA severity. Among the 236 patients with
documented CAAs during the initial hospitalization, 196 patients had follow-up echocardiograms. More
than 90% of the CAAs resolved, with similar rates of resolution across the treatment groups.
As reported in the initial publication for the observational BATS study, the inclusion criteria were broad,
and the patients did not need to meet the full WHO case definition for MIS-C.20 Compared to the other
treatment arms, the IVIG plus glucocorticoid arm had a greater proportion of patients that met the WHO
case definition for MIS-C, were ventilated and/or treated with inotropes at Day 0, and had CAAs (even
before the initiation of immunomodulators). Many patients received additional immunomodulatory
agents after Day 1, including 230 of 487 patients in the initial glucocorticoids alone group who also
received IVIG. Finally, COVID-19 vaccination has been associated with reduced incidence and severity
of MIS-C,29-31 but vaccination was not evaluated in the study.
To date, the only randomized trial that evaluated treatments in patients with MIS-C was conducted
in Switzerland.23 This open-label, multicenter study compared methylprednisolone 10 mg/kg per day
for 3 days (n = 37) to a single dose of IVIG 2 gm/kg (n = 38). In this study, patients met the criteria
for the case definition of pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome—temporally associated with
SARS-CoV-2 (PIMS-TS). There was no difference between the arms for the primary outcome of length
of hospital stay or death. The length of hospital stay from admission to discharge was 6 days for both
arms (estimated effect size -0.037 of the log10 transformed times; 95% CI, -0.13 to 0.065; P = 0.42). No
deaths were reported in either arm.

In a secondary analysis, 27% of patients in the glucocorticoid arm required respiratory support compared
to 55% of those in the IVIG arm, which was a statistically significant result.23 There was no difference
between the arms for the occurrence of coronary artery enlargement. The small sample size in this study
limited the power for treatment comparisons, and many patients received additional therapies for MIS-C
after randomization.
Intensification Immunomodulatory Therapy for MIS-C

Children with MIS-C typically respond briskly to immunomodulatory therapy and show clinical
improvements within the first 24 hours of treatment. Treatment response is characterized by
resolution of fever, improvement of organ function, and reduction of levels of inflammatory markers,
particularly C-reactive protein. In contrast, refractory disease is often accompanied by persistent fever,
worsening organ dysfunction, and increasing levels of inflammatory markers. Intensification therapy
is recommended for children with refractory MIS-C who do not improve within 24 hours of receiving
initial immunomodulatory therapy (AIII). Children with uncontrolled MIS-C despite treatment with
IVIG and low to moderate doses of glucocorticoids will often continue to deteriorate, and this decline in
clinical status can be quite rapid.
No studies have compared the different intensification therapies used for patients with MIS-C. The
data on this topic are limited to results from cohort studies in patients with MIS-C, opinions from
experts, and clinician experiences treating children with other hyperinflammatory syndromes, such
as Kawasaki disease and macrophage activation syndrome. For children with refractory MIS-C, the
Panel recommends providing additional immunomodulatory therapy (listed in alphabetical order) with
high-dose anakinra (BIIb), higher-dose glucocorticoids (BIIb), or infliximab (BIIb). Currently,
there is insufficient evidence to determine which of these agents is most effective for intensification
therapy in patients with refractory MIS-C. In certain patients with severe illness, intensification therapy
may include dual therapy with higher-dose glucocorticoids plus anakinra (BIII) or higher-dose
glucocorticoids plus infliximab (BIII). Anakinra and infliximab should not be used in combination.
A second dose of IVIG is not commonly reported in the literature as a strategy for intensification therapy
in patients with MIS-C. This may be due to the high rates of IVIG resistance, the rapid pace of disease
escalation, and the risk for fluid overload in patients with MIS-C.10 Therefore, the Panel recommends
against a second dose of IVIG for intensification therapy in patients with refractory MIS-C (BIII).
Patients with MIS-C who receive multiple immunomodulatory agents are at risk for infection and need
to be monitored carefully. Most children with MIS-C were previously healthy. In patients who have an
immune disorder or are taking immunosuppression therapy, the risk of infection is greater. The risks and
benefits of using immunomodulatory agents in patients with MIS-C who are immunocompromised need
to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
Clinical Data on Intensification Immunomodulatory Therapy for MIS-C

High-Dose Glucocorticoids
The use of high-dose glucocorticoids in pediatric patients with other inflammatory conditions,
such as Kawasaki disease and macrophage activation syndrome, is well established.32,33 High-dose
glucocorticoid therapy is defined as intravenous (IV) administration of 10 to 30 mg/kg/day of
methylprednisolone (or an equivalent corticosteroid). Often, this higher dose of glucocorticoids is
administered for 1 to 3 days before returning to low to moderate doses (1–2 mg/kg/day). Multiple
observational studies have evaluated the use of high-dose glucocorticoids in children with MIS-C.17,34
In addition, single-center treatment protocols for MIS-C that incorporate high-dose glucocorticoids into
the treatment algorithm have been published.19 Implementation of the protocols has resulted in positive
clinical outcomes in patients with MIS-C.

Anakinra
Anakinra is the most commonly used biologic medication for the treatment of MIS-C in the United
States.28 Multiple noncomparative, observational cohorts have reported on the use of anakinra in patients
with MIS-C.10,11,13,35-39 This medication has been used extensively and has a good safety record in
pediatric patients with other hyperinflammatory syndromes (e.g., systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis,
macrophage activation syndrome).40-42 Anakinra has also been used successfully to treat IVIG-resistant
Kawasaki disease. Anakinra has a short half-life (4–6 hours), and the medication can be stopped quickly,
which many providers regard as a benefit relative to longer-acting immunomodulators. The Panel’s
recommendation for the use of high-dose anakinra (5–10 mg/kg/day) in patients with MIS-C is based
on the demonstrated efficacy of high-dose anakinra in patients with macrophage activation syndrome.
The duration of anakinra therapy varies in the literature. Some clinicians prescribe anakinra as a steroid-
sparing agent to manage MIS-C for longer periods (e.g., up to 2 weeks).
Infliximab
The Panel recommends a single dose of infliximab 5 to 10 mg/kg IV as an option for intensification
therapy. Infliximab has been studied for the treatment of MIS-C in a single-center retrospective study
that compared patients treated with IVIG alone (n = 20) to those treated with IVIG and a single dose of
infliximab 10 mg/kg IV (n = 52).43 Infliximab was used as the first-line therapy in this study, and the
patients were not treated with glucocorticoids. The patients who received IVIG and infliximab were
more likely to be admitted to the ICU and had more severe illness than those who received IVIG alone.
However, the patients who received the combination therapy were less likely to require additional
therapy after 24 hours (the primary outcome). In addition, patients who received IVIG and infliximab
had shorter stays in the ICU and improved cardiac outcomes. These results suggest that infliximab has a
therapeutic effect in patients with MIS-C.
Infliximab is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for use in children with inflammatory
bowel disease and is used widely to treat juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Infliximab has also been used to
treat IVIG-resistant Kawasaki disease.44,45 Although the half-life of infliximab in patients with MIS-C is
unknown, it likely has effects that persist for several weeks. This extended period of drug activity may
provide a steroid-sparing effect in patients with MIS-C.
Antithrombotic Therapy for MIS-C

The Panel recommends the use of low-dose aspirin for patients with MIS-C who do not have risk
factors for bleeding (AIII). This recommendation is largely derived from experience treating children
with Kawasaki disease and the increased likelihood of analogous platelet activation and endothelial
dysfunction in children with MIS-C.46 Children treated with aspirin and steroids should also receive
prophylactic H2 blockers or proton pump inhibitors. Patients with MIS-C who have large CAAs
(Z-score ≥10) should receive therapeutic anticoagulation according to the American Heart Association
guidelines for Kawasaki disease (AIII). Children with left ventricular dysfunction are at risk for
intracardiac thrombosis. Patients with MIS-C and moderate to severe left ventricular dysfunction who
have no risk factors for bleeding should receive therapeutic anticoagulation (AIII).
There is less consensus on the use of either prophylactic or therapeutic anticoagulation in patients with
MIS-C who do not have large CAAs or moderate to severe left ventricular dysfunction. Children with
MIS-C have marked elevations in D-dimer levels and other abnormalities of coagulation, which suggests
that they may be at increased risk for thrombosis.47 In a multicenter retrospective study of children with
acute COVID-19 and MIS-C, the independent risk factors for thrombosis included indwelling catheters,
older age (>12 years), malignancy, admission to the ICU, and elevated D-dimer levels.48 In a multicenter,
Phase 2 trial of enoxaparin thromboprophylaxis in children hospitalized for COVID-19 and MIS-C

(COVAC-TP), children with MIS-C frequently exhibited hyperfibrinogenemia and had significantly
elevated D-dimer levels compared to children with primary SARS-CoV-2 infection.49
Published data on the risk of bleeding in children with MIS-C who are managed with anticoagulant
thromboprophylaxis are limited. Major bleeding events (as defined by the International Society
on Thrombosis and Haemostasis) were observed in patients with MIS-C who were treated with
anticoagulation in the aforementioned retrospective study48 but not in the COVAC-TP trial, which
employed prophylactic dosing of enoxaparin and permitted the use of aspirin at a dose of up to 5 mg/
kg/day.49 However, 5% of patients developed catheter-related thromboembolic events despite the use of
enoxaparin thromboprophylaxis in the COVAC-TP trial.
Given the uncertainty regarding the benefit of anticoagulation in the treatment of MIS-C, prophylactic or
therapeutic anticoagulation for children with MIS-C who do not have large CAAs or moderate to severe
left ventricular dysfunction should be considered on a case-by-case basis, taking into account the risk
factors for thrombosis and bleeding.
Antiviral Therapy for MIS-C

The role of SARS-CoV-2 antiviral therapy in treating MIS-C has not been systematically studied.
However, it is not expected to be beneficial because MIS-C is considered an immune-mediated
phenomenon that occurs weeks after primary SARS-CoV-2 infection. Therefore, the Panel recommends
against the use of SARS-CoV-2 antiviral therapy for patients with MIS-C (AIII).
Critical Care Management

Shock occurs in approximately 50% of patients with MIS-C and may include elements of distributive,
cardiogenic, or hypovolemic shock.14,50,51 In general, clinicians should manage shock in patients with
MIS-C per the usual critical care standards outlined in the pediatric Surviving Sepsis Campaign
guidelines.52
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37. Chang JC, Young CC, Muscal E, et al. Variation in early anakinra use and short-term outcomes in multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2023;75(8):1466-1476. Available at:
38. Licciardi F, Covizzi C, Dellepiane M, et al. Outcomes of MIS-C patients treated with anakinra: a retrospective
multicenter national study. Front Pediatr. 2023;11:1137051. Available at:
39. Taddio A, Della Paolera S, Abbagnato L, et al. Early anakinra treatment improves cardiac outcome of
multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children, regardless of disease severity. Rheumatology (Oxford).

40. Eloseily EM, Weiser P, Crayne CB, et al. Benefit of anakinra in treating pediatric secondary hemophagocytic
lymphohistiocytosis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2020;72(2):326-334. Available at:
41. Quartier P, Allantaz F, Cimaz R, et al. A multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with
the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist anakinra in patients with systemic-onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis
(ANAJIS trial). Ann Rheum Dis. 2011;70(5):747-754. Available at:
42. Ter Haar NM, van Dijkhuizen EHP, Swart JF, et al. Treatment to target using recombinant interleukin-1
receptor antagonist as first-line monotherapy in new-onset systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis: results from a
five-year follow-up study. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2019;71(7):1163-1173. Available at:
43. Cole LD, Osborne CM, Silveira LJ, et al. IVIG compared to IVIG plus infliximab in multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children. Pediatrics. 2021;148(6):e2021052702. Available at:
44. Mori M, Hara T, Kikuchi M, et al. Infliximab versus intravenous immunoglobulin for refractory Kawasaki
disease: a Phase 3, randomized, open-label, active-controlled, parallel-group, multicenter trial. Sci Rep.
45. Yamaji N, da Silva Lopes K, Shoda T, et al. TNF-alpha blockers for the treatment of Kawasaki disease in
children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;8(8):CD012448. Available at:
46. McCrindle BW, Rowley AH, Newburger JW, et al. Diagnosis, treatment, and long-term management of
Kawasaki disease: a scientific statement for health professionals from the American Heart Association.
Circulation. 2017;135(17):e927-e999. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28356445.
47. Ankola AA, Bradford VR, Newburger JW, et al. Coagulation profiles and viscoelastic testing in multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2021;68(12):e29355. Available at:
49. Sochet AA, Morrison JM, Jaffray J, et al. Enoxaparin thromboprophylaxis in children hospitalized for
COVID-19: a Phase 2 trial. Pediatrics. 2022;150(1):e2022056726. Available at:
52. Weiss SL, Peters MJ, Agus MSD, et al. Perspective of the Surviving Sepsis Campaign on the management
of pediatric sepsis in the era of coronavirus disease 2019. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2020;21(11):e1031-e1037.

Care of Critically Ill Adults With COVID-19
Hemodynamics
• For adults with COVID-19 and shock, the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends using dynamic
parameters, capillary refill time, and/or lactate levels over static parameters to assess fluid responsiveness (BIIa).
• For acute resuscitation in adults who have COVID-19 and shock, there is insufficient evidence for the Panel to
recommend either for or against the use of balanced crystalloids, such as Ringer’s lactate solution, over normal saline.
• For acute resuscitation in adults with COVID-19 and shock, the Panel recommends against the initial use of albumin
(BI).
• For adults with COVID-19 and shock, the Panel recommends norepinephrine as the first-choice vasopressor (AI).
• For adults with COVID-19 and shock, the Panel recommends titrating vasoactive agents and targeting a mean arterial
pressure (MAP) of 60 to 65 mm Hg over targeting a higher MAP (BI).
• The Panel recommends against using hydroxyethyl starches for intravascular volume replacement in adult patients
with COVID-19 and sepsis or septic shock (AI).
• As a second-line vasopressor, the Panel recommends adding either vasopressin (up to 0.03 units/min) (BIIa) or
epinephrine (BIIb) to norepinephrine to raise MAP to the target or adding vasopressin (up to 0.03 units/min) (BIIa) to
decrease the norepinephrine dose.
• The Panel recommends against using low-dose dopamine for renal protection (AI).
• The Panel recommends using dobutamine in adult patients with COVID-19 who show evidence of cardiac dysfunction
and persistent hypoperfusion despite adequate fluid loading and the use of vasopressor agents (BIII).
• The Panel recommends that all adult patients with COVID-19 who require vasopressors have an arterial catheter placed
as soon as practical, if resources are available (BIII).
• For adult patients with refractory septic shock who have completed a course of corticosteroids to treat COVID-19, the
Panel recommends using low-dose corticosteroid therapy (“shock-reversal”) over no corticosteroid therapy (BIIa).
Oxygenation and Ventilation
• For adults with COVID-19 and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure despite conventional oxygen therapy, the Panel
recommends starting therapy with high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) oxygen; if patients fail to respond, noninvasive
ventilation or intubation and mechanical ventilation should be initiated (BIIa).
• For adults with COVID-19 and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure despite conventional oxygen therapy who do not
have an indication for endotracheal intubation and for whom HFNC oxygen is not available, the Panel recommends
performing a closely monitored trial of noninvasive ventilation (BIIa).
• For adults with persistent hypoxemia who require HFNC oxygen and for whom endotracheal intubation is not indicated,
the Panel recommends a trial of awake prone positioning (BIIa).
• The Panel recommends against the use of awake prone positioning as a rescue therapy for refractory hypoxemia to
avoid intubation in patients who otherwise meet the indications for intubation and mechanical ventilation (AIII).
• If intubation becomes necessary, the procedure should be performed by an experienced practitioner in a controlled
setting due to the enhanced risk of exposing health care practitioners to SARS-CoV-2 during intubation (AIII).
• For mechanically ventilated adults with COVID-19 and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS):
• The Panel recommends using low tidal volume (VT) ventilation (VT 4–8 mL/kg of predicted body weight) over higher
VT ventilation (VT >8 mL/kg) (AI).
• The Panel recommends targeting plateau pressures of <30 cm H2O (AIIa).
• The Panel recommends using a conservative fluid strategy over a liberal fluid strategy (BIIa).
• The Panel recommends against the routine use of inhaled nitric oxide (AIIa).

Summary Recommendations, continued
• For mechanically ventilated adults with COVID-19 and moderate to severe ARDS:
• The Panel recommends using a higher positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) strategy over a lower PEEP strategy
(BIIa).
• For mechanically ventilated adults with COVID-19 and refractory hypoxemia despite optimized ventilation, the Panel
recommends prone ventilation for 12 to 16 hours per day over no prone ventilation (BIIa).
• The Panel recommends using, as needed, intermittent boluses of neuromuscular blocking agents or a continuous
neuromuscular blocking agent infusion to facilitate protective lung ventilation (BIIa).
• For mechanically ventilated adults with COVID-19, severe ARDS, and hypoxemia despite optimized ventilation and other
rescue strategies:
• The Panel recommends using an inhaled pulmonary vasodilator as a rescue therapy; if rapid improvement in
oxygenation is not observed, the treatment should be tapered (CIII).
• The Panel recommends using recruitment maneuvers rather than not using recruitment maneuvers (CIIa).
• If recruitment maneuvers are used, the Panel recommends against the use of staircase (incremental PEEP)
recruitment maneuvers (AIIa).
Pharmacologic Interventions
• In the absence of a proven or suspected secondary infection, the Panel recommends against the use of empiric
broad-spectrum antimicrobials in patients with severe or critical COVID-19 (BIII).
• As with any hospitalized patient, patients with COVID-19 who receive antimicrobials should be reassessed daily to
minimize the adverse consequences of unnecessary antimicrobial therapy (AIII).
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of extracorporeal membrane
oxygenation in adults with COVID-19–associated ARDS and refractory hypoxemia.

Introduction to Critical Care Management of
Adults With COVID-19
COVID-19 can progress to critical illness, including hypoxemic respiratory failure, acute respiratory
distress syndrome (ARDS), septic shock, thromboembolic disease, renal and hepatic dysfunction,
cardiac dysfunction, central nervous system disease, and exacerbation of underlying comorbidities in
both adults and children.
In these Guidelines, many of the early recommendations for managing critically ill adults with
COVID-19 were extrapolated from experience with other causes of sepsis and respiratory failure.1
However, the amount of research on the management of these patients has grown, and the COVID-19
Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) current recommendations have been informed by that research.
Treating patients with COVID-19 in the intensive care unit (ICU) often requires managing underlying
illnesses or COVID-19–related morbidities. Clinicians also need to focus on preventing ICU-related
complications, as they would for any patient admitted to the ICU.
Selected Clinical Manifestations of COVID-19 Critical Illness

Severe Pulmonary Disease
Most patients who are critically ill with COVID-19 have severe pulmonary disease. Almost all of
these patients meet the diagnostic criteria for ARDS. Patients with COVID-19 and severe pulmonary
involvement often manifest extrapulmonary disease and exhibit laboratory markers of acute
inflammation. Patients typically progress to critical illness 10 to 12 days after the onset of COVID-19
symptoms.
Inflammatory Response
Many critically ill patients with COVID-19 meet the criteria for virus-induced sepsis because they have
life-threatening organ dysfunction related to a dysregulated host response to SARS-CoV-2 infection.2
Patients with COVID-19 may express increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and anti-
inflammatory cytokines, a condition that has been called “cytokine release syndrome” or a “cytokine
storm,” but these terms are imprecise and misnomers. The magnitude of cytokine elevation in many
critically ill patients with COVID-19 is modest compared to the levels in patients with sepsis and ARDS
not related to COVID-19.3,4
Thromboembolic Events
Prothrombotic states and higher rates of venous thromboembolic disease have been observed in
adults who are critically ill with COVID-19. In some studies, thromboemboli were diagnosed in
patients who received prophylactic doses of heparin.5-7 Autopsy studies provide additional evidence of
thromboembolic disease and microvascular thrombosis in patients with COVID-19.8 See Antithrombotic
Therapy in Patients With COVID-19 for a more detailed discussion.
Renal and Hepatic Dysfunction

Although SARS-CoV-2 is primarily a pulmonary pathogen, renal and hepatic dysfunction are
consistently described in adults with severe COVID-19.9,10 In a cohort of critically ill adults in Brazil, the
development of acute kidney injury that required renal replacement therapy was associated with a poor

prognosis.11 In addition, liver and renal dysfunction may be related to medication side effects or result
from shock and poor oxygen delivery.10
Cardiac Dysfunction, Including Myocarditis

The published literature describes cardiac injury or dysfunction in some (up to 24% in the early years
of the pandemic) hospitalized adults with COVID-19.12 COVID-19 may be associated with an array
of cardiovascular complications, including acute coronary syndrome, myocarditis, stress (takotsubo)
cardiomyopathy, arrhythmias, and thromboembolic disease.13
Central and Peripheral Nervous System Dysfunction

Neurologic manifestations in critically ill patients with acute COVID-19 include thromboembolic or
hemorrhagic stroke, cerebral sinus venous thrombosis, seizure, myopathy, and meningoencephalitis.14,15
Neurologic manifestations are more common in patients with severe disease.16 Neuropathologic autopsy
studies have reported both macrovascular and microvascular thrombosis with evidence of hypoxic
ischemia.17 Guillain-Barré syndrome has been associated with recent SARS-CoV-2 infection.18 Critically
ill patients with COVID-19 may present with delirium or develop delirium during hospitalization.19 Risk
factors associated with delirium include the use of mechanical ventilation, restraints, benzodiazepines,
opioids, vasopressors, and antipsychotics.19,20 Adequate management of critically ill patients with
COVID-19 includes the use of best practices for sedation and monitoring for stroke.
Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Adults

Case reports have described patients who had minimal respiratory symptoms during a recent or current
SARS-CoV-2 infection but who were hospitalized with symptoms such as fever or signs of shock.21
Laboratory evidence indicated that these patients had severe inflammation. The patients also had signs
of cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, dermatologic, and neurologic disease. This constellation of signs and
symptoms has been designated multisystem inflammatory syndrome in adults (MIS-A). The Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention has developed a case definition for MIS-A. This syndrome is similar to
multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), which has been well described.
A diagnosis of MIS-A may be made after other causes for the condition (e.g., bacterial sepsis) have
been excluded. Although there are currently no controlled clinical trial data from patients with MIS-A to
guide treatment of the syndrome, case reports have described the use of intravenous immunoglobulin,
corticosteroids, or interleukin-1 inhibitor therapy.22-24 Some observational evidence supports the Panel’s
recommendations for the therapeutic management of MIS-C, and those recommendations can be applied
to MIS-A in most circumstances. See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C,
Plus a Discussion on MIS-A for more information.
Other Complications Related to Intensive Care Units

When treating patients with COVID-19, clinicians need to minimize the risk of conventional ICU
complications. Patients who are critically ill with COVID-19 are at risk for nosocomial infections, such
as ventilator-associated pneumonia, hospital-acquired pneumonia, and catheter-related bloodstream
infections, and for other complications of critical illness care.
Additional Considerations
Drug-Drug Interactions
All patients in the ICU should be routinely monitored for drug-drug interactions. The potential for
drug-drug interactions between investigational medications or any medications used off-label to treat

COVID-19 and concurrent drugs should be considered.
Sedation Management
International guidelines provide recommendations on the prevention, detection, and treatment of pain,
sedation, and delirium in ICU patients.25,26 Sedation management strategies, such as maintaining a light
level of sedation (when appropriate) and minimizing sedative exposure, have shortened the duration of
mechanical ventilation and the length of ICU stay among patients without COVID-19.27,28
The Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) ICU Liberation Campaign promotes the ICU Liberation
Bundle (A–F) to improve post-ICU patient outcomes.29 The A–F Liberation Bundle includes the
following elements:
A. Assess, prevent, and manage pain
B. Both spontaneous awakening trials and breathing trials
C. Choice of analgesia and sedation
D. Delirium: assess, prevent, and manage
E. Early mobility and exercise
F. Family engagement and empowerment
The A–F Liberation Bundle provides frontline staff with practical application strategies for each
element, and an interprofessional team model should be used to incorporate the elements.29 This
approach helps standardize communication among team members, improves survival, and reduces
long-term cognitive dysfunction of patients.30 The elements of the A–F Liberation Bundle represent the
steps required to implement the SCCM Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Management
of Pain, Agitation/Sedation, Delirium, Immobility, and Sleep Disruption in Adult Patients in the ICU.25
Despite the known benefits of the A–F Liberation Bundle,29 its impact has not been directly assessed in
patients with COVID-19. However, implementing the elements of the bundle should be encouraged to
improve patient outcomes in the ICU.
Some factors may impede routine implementation of the A–F Liberation Bundle and increase the risk of
ICU and post-ICU complications. For example, staff workload increases when patients with COVID-19
require prolonged mechanical ventilation, deep sedation, or neuromuscular blockade. In addition, drug
shortages, which were common early in the pandemic, may affect the choice of analgesia or sedation.
During a drug shortage, older sedatives that have prolonged durations of action and active metabolites
are more likely to be prescribed.
Post-Intensive Care Syndrome

Post-intensive care syndrome (PICS) is a spectrum of physical, cognitive, and/or psychiatric disability
that affects survivors of critical illness and persists after a patient leaves the ICU.31,32 Patients with PICS
may present with varying levels of impairment, including profound muscle weakness (ICU-acquired
weakness); problems with thinking and judgment (cognitive dysfunction); and mental health problems,
such as problems sleeping, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety. ICU-acquired
weakness affects 33% of all patients who receive mechanical ventilation, 50% of patients with sepsis,
and ≤50% of patients who remain in the ICU for ≥1 week.33-35 Cognitive dysfunction affects 30% to 80%
of patients discharged from the ICU.36-38 About 50% of ICU survivors do not return to work within 1
year after discharge.39
Although no single risk factor has been associated with PICS, there are opportunities to minimize

the risk of PICS through medication management (using the A–F Liberation Bundle), physical
rehabilitation, follow-up clinics, family support, and improved education about the syndrome. PICS also
affects family members who participate in the care of their loved ones. One study reported that a third
of family members who had major decision-making roles experienced mental health problems, such as
depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.40
Some patients with COVID-19 who have been treated in the ICU express manifestations of PICS.41
Although specific therapies for PICS induced by COVID-19 are not yet available, health care providers
should be aware that cognitive impairment or related problems may develop in patients who have had
severe or critical COVID-19.
Advance Care Planning and Goals of Care

The advance care plans and the goals of care for all critically ill patients must be assessed at hospital
admission and regularly thereafter. This is an essential element of care for all patients. Information
on palliative care for patients with COVID-19 can be found at the National Coalition for Hospice and
Palliative Care website.
To guide shared decision making in cases of serious illness, advance care planning should include
identifying existing advance directives that outline a patient’s preferences and values. Values and care
preferences should be discussed, documented, and revisited regularly for patients with or without prior
directives. Specialty palliative care teams can facilitate communication between clinicians and surrogate
decision makers, support frontline clinicians, and provide direct patient care services.
At hospital admission, surrogate decision makers should be identified for all critically ill patients
with COVID-19. Early in the pandemic, infection-control policies for COVID-19 often created
communication barriers for surrogate decision makers. At that time, most discussions between clinicians
and surrogate decision makers about treatment options occurred through telecommunication. However,
many of those policies have been rescinded, and health care providers and surrogate decision makers
should communicate in person when possible.
Acknowledgments
The Surviving Sepsis Campaign (SSC), an initiative supported by SCCM and the European Society
of Intensive Care Medicine, issued the Guidelines on the Management of Critically Ill Adults with
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in March 2020, and a revised version was published in March
2021.1 The Panel based its recommendations for the care of critically ill adults with COVID-19 on the
SSC COVID-19 guidelines with permission, and the Panel gratefully acknowledges the work of the SSC
COVID-19 Guidelines panel. The Panel also acknowledges the contributions and expertise of Andrew
Rhodes, MBBS, MD, of St. George’s University Hospitals in London, England, and Waleed Alhazzani,
MBBS, MSc, of McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada.
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Hemodynamics for Adults
Most of the hemodynamic recommendations below are similar to those published in Surviving Sepsis
Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021.1 Ultimately,
adult patients with COVID-19 who require fluid resuscitation or hemodynamic management of shock
should be treated and managed as adult patients with septic shock.
Recommendation
• For adults with COVID-19 and shock, the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel)
recommends using dynamic parameters, capillary refill time, and/or lactate levels over static
parameters to assess fluid responsiveness (BIIa).
Rationale
In a systematic review and meta-analysis of 13 randomized clinical trials in intensive care unit (ICU)
patients without COVID-19 (n = 1,652), the use of dynamic assessment to guide fluid therapy reduced
mortality (risk ratio 0.59; 95% CI, 0.42–0.83), ICU length of stay (weighted mean difference -1.16
days; 95% CI, -1.97 to -0.36), and duration of mechanical ventilation (weighted mean difference -2.98
hours; 95% CI, -5.08 to -0.89).2 The dynamic parameters used in these trials included stroke volume
variation, pulse pressure variation, and stroke volume change after a passive leg raise or fluid challenge.
Passive leg raising followed by assessment of pulse pressure variation and stroke volume variation
appears to predict fluid responsiveness with the greatest accuracy.3 The static parameters included some
components of early goal-directed therapy (e.g., central venous pressure, mean arterial pressure [MAP]).
In patients who did not have COVID-19, resuscitation therapies for shock, as indicated by serum lactate
levels, were summarized in a systematic review and meta-analysis of 7 randomized controlled trials
(n = 1,301).4 When compared with therapy guided by central venous oxygen saturation levels, therapy
directed by early lactate clearance was associated with a reduction in mortality (relative ratio 0.68;
95% CI, 0.56–0.82), shorter ICU stay (mean difference -1.64 days; 95% CI, -3.23 to -0.05), and shorter
duration of mechanical ventilation (mean difference -10.22 hours; 95% CI, -15.94 to -4.50).
Recommendation
• For acute resuscitation in adults who have COVID-19 and shock, there is insufficient evidence
for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of balanced crystalloids, such as Ringer’s
lactate solution, over normal saline.
Rationale
The composition of sodium, potassium, and chloride found in balanced crystalloids, such as Ringer’s
lactate solution, is similar to the composition found in extracellular fluid. The use of balanced
crystalloids may prevent hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis, which has been associated with
administration of large quantities of normal saline.5 Observational data have suggested an association
between normal saline and acute kidney injury and higher risk of death,6 and many Panel members with
experience in acute fluid resuscitation use balanced crystalloids.
A pragmatic randomized trial compared the use of balanced and unbalanced crystalloids for intravenous
fluid administration in critically ill adults without COVID-19 (n = 15,802).7 The rate of the composite

outcome of death, new renal-replacement therapy, or persistent renal dysfunction was lower in the
balanced crystalloids arm than in the unbalanced crystalloids arm (OR 0.90; 95% CI, 0.82–0.99; P =
0.04). A secondary analysis compared outcomes in a subset of patients with sepsis (n = 1,641).8 Compared
to treatment with unbalanced crystalloids, treatment with balanced crystalloids resulted in fewer deaths
(aOR 0.74; 95% CI, 0.59–0.93; P = 0.01) and more days free of vasopressors and renal replacements.
A subsequent meta-analysis of 21 non–COVID-19 randomized controlled trials (n = 20,213), which
included the pragmatic trial cited above,7 compared balanced crystalloids to 0.9% saline for resuscitation
in critically ill adults and children.9 The meta-analysis reported nonsignificant differences between
the treatment arms for hospital mortality (OR 0.91; 95% CI, 0.83–1.01) and acute kidney injury (OR
0.92; 95% CI, 0.84–1.00). In a trial of more than 11,000 patients who were in the ICU and required
fluid resuscitation, the use of balanced fluids, compared with the use of normal saline, did not reduce
mortality at 90 days.10 Similarly, in a large trial of critically ill adults in Australia and New Zealand, the
use of balanced crystalloids for fluid therapy, compared with the use of normal saline, did not reduce the
incidence of acute kidney injury or the risk of death at 90 days.11
Recommendation
• For acute resuscitation in adults with COVID-19 and shock, the Panel recommends against the
initial use of albumin (BI).
Rationale
A meta-analysis of 20 non–COVID-19 randomized controlled trials (n = 13,047) that compared the use
of albumin or fresh-frozen plasma to crystalloids in critically ill patients found no difference in all-cause
mortality between the treatment arms.12 In contrast, a meta-analysis of 17 non–COVID-19 randomized
controlled trials (n = 1,977) that compared the use of albumin to crystalloids in patients with sepsis
reported a reduction in mortality among the patients who received albumin (OR 0.82; 95% CI, 0.67–1.0;
P = 0.047).13 Given the higher cost of albumin and the lack of a definitive clinical benefit, for acute
resuscitation in adults with COVID-19 and shock, the Panel recommends against the initial use of
albumin (BI).
Recommendation
• For adults with COVID-19 and shock, the Panel recommends norepinephrine as the first-choice
vasopressor (AI).
Rationale
Due to its vasoconstrictive effects, norepinephrine increases MAP with little change to heart rate and
less increase in stroke volume than dopamine. Dopamine increases MAP and cardiac output, primarily
due to increases in stroke volume and heart rate. Norepinephrine is more potent than dopamine and may
be more effective at reversing hypotension in patients with septic shock. Dopamine may be particularly
useful in patients with compromised systolic function, but it causes more tachycardia and may be more
arrhythmogenic than norepinephrine.14 Dopamine may also influence the endocrine response via the
hypothalamic pituitary axis and have immunosuppressive effects.15 A systematic review and meta-
analysis of 11 non–COVID-19 randomized controlled trials that compared vasopressors used to treat
patients with septic shock found that norepinephrine use resulted in lower all-cause mortality (risk ratio
0.89; 95% CI, 0.81–0.98) and a lower risk of arrhythmias (risk ratio 0.48; 95% CI, 0.40–0.58) than
dopamine use.16 Although the beta-1 activity of dopamine would be useful in patients with myocardial
dysfunction, the greater risk of arrhythmias limits its use.17,18

Recommendation
• For adults with COVID-19 and shock, the Panel recommends titrating vasoactive agents and
targeting a MAP of 60 to 65 mm Hg over targeting a higher MAP (BI).
Rationale
A meta-analysis of individual patient data from 2 non–COVID-19 randomized controlled trials (n =
894) compared higher versus lower blood pressure targets for vasopressor therapy in adult patients with
shock.19 The study reported no significant differences between the higher-target and lower-target arms
for 28-day mortality (OR 1.15; 95% CI, 0.87–1.52), 90-day mortality (OR 1.08; 95% CI, 0.84–1.44),
myocardial injury (OR 1.47; 95% CI, 0.64–3.56), or limb ischemia (OR 0.92; 95% CI, 0.36–2.10). The
risk of arrhythmia was increased in the higher-target arm (OR 2.50; 95% CI, 1.35–4.77).
Similarly, the 65 trial, a randomized controlled trial in patients without COVID-19 (n = 2,463), reported
no significant difference in mortality between patients that received vasopressor therapy guided by a
target MAP of 60 to 65 mm Hg and those that received treatment guided by a higher, standard-of-care
target MAP (41% vs. 43.8%; relative risk 0.93; 95% CI, 0.85–1.03).20 Given the indication of improved
outcome with lower MAP targets (and no firm indication of harm), the Panel recommends titrating
vasoactive agents and targeting a MAP of 60 to 65 over targeting a higher MAP (BI).
Additional Recommendations for Adults With COVID-19 and Shock

• The Panel recommends against using hydroxyethyl starches for intravascular volume
replacement in adult patients with COVID-19 and sepsis or septic shock (AI).
• As a second-line vasopressor, the Panel recommends adding either vasopressin (up to 0.03
units/min) (BIIa) or epinephrine (BIIb) to norepinephrine to raise MAP to the target or adding
vasopressin (up to 0.03 units/min) (BIIa) to decrease the norepinephrine dose.
• The Panel recommends against using low-dose dopamine for renal protection (AI).
• The Panel recommends using dobutamine in adult patients with COVID-19 who show evidence
of cardiac dysfunction and persistent hypoperfusion despite adequate fluid loading and the use of
vasopressor agents (BIII).
• The Panel recommends that all adult patients with COVID-19 who require vasopressors have an
arterial catheter placed as soon as practical, if resources are available (BIII).
• For adult patients with refractory septic shock who have completed a course of corticosteroids to
treat COVID-19, the Panel recommends using low-dose corticosteroid therapy (“shock-reversal”)
over no corticosteroid therapy (BIIa).
• A typical corticosteroid regimen in septic shock is intravenous hydrocortisone 200 mg once
daily administered either as an infusion or in intermittent doses. The duration of hydrocortisone
therapy is usually a clinical decision.
• Adult patients who are receiving corticosteroids for COVID-19 are receiving sufficient
replacement therapy and do not require additional hydrocortisone.
References
1. Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management
of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Intensive Care Med. 2021;47(11):1181-1247. Available at: https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34599691.
2. Bednarczyk JM, Fridfinnson JA, Kumar A, et al. Incorporating dynamic assessment of fluid responsiveness
into goal-directed therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2017;45(9):1538-1545.

3. Bentzer P, Griesdale DE, Boyd J, et al. Will this hemodynamically unstable patient respond to a bolus
of intravenous fluids? JAMA. 2016;316(12):1298-1309. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/27673307.
4. Pan J, Peng M, Liao C, et al. Relative efficacy and safety of early lactate clearance-guided therapy
resuscitation in patients with sepsis: a meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98(8):e14453. Available at:
5. Reddy S, Weinberg L, Young P. Crystalloid fluid therapy. Crit Care. 2016;20:59. Available at:
6. Semler MW, Kellum JA. Balanced crystalloid solutions. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019;199(8):952-960.
7. Semler MW, Self WH, Wanderer JP, et al. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults. N Engl J
8. Brown RM, Wang L, Coston TD, et al. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in sepsis. A secondary analysis of
the SMART clinical trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019;200(12):1487-1495. Available at:
9. Antequera Martín AM, Barea Mendoza JA, Muriel A, et al. Buffered solutions versus 0.9% saline for
resuscitation in critically ill adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;7(7):CD012247. Available
10. Zampieri FG, Machado FR, Biondi RS, et al. Effect of intravenous fluid treatment with a balanced solution
vs 0.9% saline solution on mortality in critically ill patients: the BaSICS randomized clinical trial. JAMA.
11. Finfer S, Micallef S, Hammond N, et al. Balanced multielectrolyte solution versus saline in critically ill adults.
N Engl J Med. 2022;386(9):815-826. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35041780.
12. Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, et al. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill
people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;8(8):CD000567. Available at:
13. Delaney AP, Dan A, McCaffrey J, Finfer S. The role of albumin as a resuscitation fluid for patients with
sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2011;39(2):386-391. Available at:
14. Regnier B, Rapin M, Gory G, et al. Haemodynamic effects of dopamine in septic shock. Intensive Care Med.
15. Beck G, Brinkkoetter P, Hanusch C, et al. Clinical review: immunomodulatory effects of dopamine in general
inflammation. Crit Care. 2004;8(6):485-491. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15566620.
16. Avni T, Lador A, Lev S, et al. Vasopressors for the treatment of septic shock: systematic review and meta-
analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(8):e0129305. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26237037.
17. Regnier B, Safran D, Carlet J, Teisseire B. Comparative haemodynamic effects of dopamine and dobutamine
in septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 1979;5(3):115-120. Available at:
18. De Backer D, Creteur J, Silva E, Vincent JL. Effects of dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine on the
splanchnic circulation in septic shock: which is best? Crit Care Med. 2003;31(6):1659-1667. Available at:
19. Lamontagne F, Day AG, Meade MO, et al. Pooled analysis of higher versus lower blood pressure targets
for vasopressor therapy septic and vasodilatory shock. Intensive Care Med. 2018;44(1):12-21. Available at:
20. Lamontagne F, Richards-Belle A, Thomas K, et al. Effect of reduced exposure to vasopressors on 90-day
mortality in older critically ill patients with vasodilatory hypotension: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA.

Oxygenation and Ventilation for Adults
The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations in this section were
informed by the Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for managing sepsis and guidelines for managing
COVID-19 in adults.
Severe illness in people with COVID-19 typically occurs approximately 1 week after the onset of
symptoms. The most common symptom is dyspnea, which is often accompanied by hypoxemia. Patients
with severe disease typically require supplemental oxygen and should be monitored closely for worsening
respiratory status, because some patients may progress to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).
Goal of Oxygenation
The optimal oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry (SpO2) in adults with COVID-19 who are
receiving supplemental oxygen is unknown. However, a target SpO2 of 92% to 96% seems logical,
considering that indirect evidence from patients without COVID-19 suggests that an SpO2 <92% or
>96% may be harmful.1,2 Special care should be taken when assessing SpO2 in patients with darker skin
pigmentation, as recent reports indicate that occult hypoxemia (defined as arterial oxygen saturation
[SaO2] <88% despite an SpO2 >92%) is more common in these patients.3,4 See Clinical Spectrum of
SARS-CoV-2 Infection for more information.
The potential harm of maintaining an SpO2 <92% was demonstrated during a trial that randomly assigned
patients with ARDS who did not have COVID-19 to either a conservative oxygen strategy (target SpO2 of
88% to 92%) or a liberal oxygen strategy (target SpO2 ≥96%).1 The trial was stopped early due to futility
after enrolling 205 patients, but increased mortality was observed at Day 90 in the conservative oxygen
strategy arm (between-group risk difference 14%; 95% CI, 0.7% to 27%), and a trend toward increased
mortality was observed at Day 28 (between-group risk difference 8%; 95% CI, -5% to 21%).
The results of a meta-analysis of 25 randomized trials that involved patients without COVID-19
demonstrated the potential harm of maintaining an SpO2 >96%.2 This study found that a liberal oxygen
supplementation strategy (a median fraction of inspired oxygen [FiO2] of 0.52) was associated with an
increased risk of in-hospital mortality (relative risk 1.21; 95% CI, 1.03–1.43) when compared with a
more conservative SpO2 supplementation strategy (a median FiO2 of 0.21).
Acute Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure

In adults with COVID-19 and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure, conventional oxygen therapy may be
insufficient to meet the oxygen needs of the patient. Options for providing enhanced respiratory support
include using high-flow nasal canula (HFNC) oxygen, noninvasive ventilation (NIV), intubation and
mechanical ventilation, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. In this section, mechanical ventilation
refers to the delivery of positive pressure ventilation through an endotracheal or tracheostomy tube. NIV
refers to the delivery of either continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or bilevel positive airway
pressure (e.g., BiPAP) through a noninvasive interface, such as a face mask or nasal mask.
Nonmechanically Ventilated Adults With Acute Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure

High-Flow Nasal Cannula Oxygen and Noninvasive Ventilation
Recommendations
• For adults with COVID-19 and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure despite conventional oxygen

therapy, the Panel recommends starting therapy with HFNC oxygen; if patients fail to respond,
NIV or intubation and mechanical ventilation should be initiated (BIIa).
• For adults with COVID-19 and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure despite conventional oxygen
therapy who do not have an indication for endotracheal intubation and for whom HFNC oxygen is
not available, the Panel recommends performing a closely monitored trial of NIV (BIIa).
Rationale
Several studies have informed clinical practice on the optimal oxygen delivery system for patients
with COVID-19 and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. A randomized study of 711 patients with
COVID-19 in 34 intensive care units (ICUs) in France compared HFNC oxygen delivery to oxygen
delivery through a nonrebreather mask.5 The patients had acute respiratory failure with a ratio of arterial
partial pressure of oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO2/FiO2) ≤200 mm Hg. The mean FiO2 was
0.58 in both arms. Although the difference between arms for the primary endpoint of 28-day mortality
was not statistically significant (10% in the HFNC oxygen arm vs. 11% in the conventional oxygen arm;
absolute difference -1.2%; 95% CI, -5.8% to 3.4%; P = 0.60), the intubation rate was significantly lower
in the HFNC oxygen arm than in the conventional oxygen arm. Unless a contraindication exists, most
Panel members would switch to HFNC oxygen delivery for patients with respiratory failure who do not
require mechanical ventilation but have worsening hypoxemia or increased work of breathing despite
receiving conventional oxygen at flow rates up to 10 L/min.
For patients with COVID-19 and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure who do not respond to
conventional oxygen therapy, HFNC oxygen is preferred over NIV. No studies directly compare HFNC
oxygen with mask-delivered NIV in patients with COVID-19; therefore, this guidance is based on an
unblinded clinical trial in patients without COVID-19 who had acute hypoxemic respiratory failure.6
Study participants were randomized to receive HFNC oxygen, conventional oxygen therapy, or NIV.
The patients in the HFNC oxygen arm had more ventilator-free days (mean 24 days) than those in the
conventional oxygen therapy arm (mean 22 days) or the NIV arm (mean 19 days; P = 0.02). In addition,
the conventional oxygen therapy arm (HR 2.01; 95% CI, 1.01–3.99) and the NIV arm (HR 2.50; 95%
CI, 1.31–4.78) had higher 90-day mortality than the HFNC oxygen arm. In the subgroup of patients with
severe hypoxemia (those with PaO2/FiO2 ≤200 mm Hg), the HFNC oxygen arm had a lower intubation
rate than the conventional oxygen therapy arm (HR 2.07) and the NIV arm (HR 2.57).
The trial’s findings were corroborated by a meta-analysis of 8 trials with 1,084 participants that assessed
the effectiveness of oxygenation strategies.7 Compared to NIV, HFNC oxygen reduced the rate of
intubation (OR 0.48; 95% CI, 0.31–0.73) and ICU mortality (OR 0.36; 95% CI, 0.20–0.63).
One small study compared the use of NIV delivered by a helmet device to HFNC oxygen in patients
with COVID-19. The HENIVOT trial randomized 109 patients with moderate to severe COVID-19
(defined as those who had PaO2/FiO2 ≤200 mm Hg) to receive either NIV via a helmet device or HFNC
oxygen.8 The study found no difference between the arms for the primary outcome of respiratory
support–free days. However, only 30% of patients in the NIV arm required endotracheal intubation
compared to 51% of patients in the HFNC oxygen arm (P = 0.03).
Two larger studies compared the use of NIV with conventional oxygen therapy in patients with
COVID-19. The RECOVERY-RS trial was an adaptive randomized controlled trial that was essentially
conducted as 2 separate trials that compared NIV and HFNC oxygen to the same conventional oxygen
therapy control group.9 The trial was stopped early and enrolled fewer than a third of the planned sample
size of 4,002 participants. Between April 2020 and May 2021, 1,273 adults with acute hypoxemic
respiratory failure related to COVID-19 were randomized to receive NIV (n = 380), HFNC oxygen (n =
418), or conventional oxygen therapy (n = 475). The primary endpoint was a composite of endotracheal
intubation or death within 30 days. The proportion of patients who met the primary endpoint was

significantly lower in the NIV arm than in the conventional oxygen therapy arm (36.3% vs. 44.4%; P =
0.03). This difference was not due to mortality but was entirely due to a reduction in the number of patients
who required intubation. There was no significant difference between the HFNC oxygen arm and the
conventional oxygen therapy arm in the occurrence of the primary endpoint (44.3% vs. 45.1%; P = 0.83).
There was substantial crossover between the arms, but an inverse probability weighting analysis that
corrected for the bias this may have introduced did not change the results.9 Adverse events were more
common in the NIV arm. Initially, a comparison between NIV and HFNC oxygen was not planned, but a
post hoc analysis found that the proportion of patients who required endotracheal intubation or who died
was lower in the NIV arm than in the HFNC oxygen arm (34.6% vs. 44.3%; P = 0.02).
In contrast to the RECOVERY-RS trial, the HiFlo-COVID trial randomized 220 patients with COVID-19
to receive HFNC oxygen or conventional oxygen therapy and found that a smaller proportion of patients
in the HFNC oxygen arm required intubation (34.3% vs. 51.0%; P = 0.03).10 Patients in the HFNC arm
also had a shorter median time to recovery (11 vs. 14 days; P = 0.047).
The conflicting results of these studies make drawing inferences from the data difficult. Additionally, the
RECOVERY-RS trial was stopped long before it reached its planned sample size for reasons not related
to futility, efficacy, or harm; inferring benefit in this context is questionable. The Panel recognizes that for
patients who need more oxygen support than a conventional nasal cannula can provide, most clinicians
will administer oxygen via HFNC and subsequently progress to NIV if needed. Therefore, the pertinent
clinical question is whether HFNC oxygen or NIV should be used when a patient does not respond to
conventional oxygen therapy. Other than the post hoc analysis in the RECOVERY-RS trial, no study has
specifically investigated this question.
NIV is an aerosol-generating procedure, and studies of SARS-CoV show that it may increase the risk of
nosocomial transmission.11,12 For patients with SARS-CoV-2, it remains unclear whether the use of HFNC
oxygen results in a lower risk of nosocomial transmission than the use of NIV.
Awake Prone Positioning in Nonmechanically Ventilated Adults

Recommendations
• For adults with persistent hypoxemia who require HFNC oxygen and for whom endotracheal
intubation is not indicated, the Panel recommends a trial of awake prone positioning (BIIa).
• The Panel recommends against the use of awake prone positioning as a rescue therapy for
refractory hypoxemia to avoid intubation in patients who otherwise meet the indications for
intubation and mechanical ventilation (AIII).
• Patients who can adjust their position independently and tolerate lying prone can be considered for
awake prone positioning.
• Awake prone positioning is acceptable and feasible for pregnant patients and can be performed in
the left lateral decubitus position or the fully prone position.13
• Some patients do not tolerate awake prone positioning. Failure rates as high as 63% have been
reported in the literature.14
• Awake prone positioning should not be used as a substitute for intubation and mechanical
ventilation in patients with refractory hypoxemia who otherwise meet the indications for these
interventions.
• Awake prone positioning may be infeasible or impractical in patients with:

• Spinal instability
• Facial or pelvic fractures
• An open chest or unstable chest wall
• Awake prone positioning should be used with caution in patients with confusion, delirium, or
hemodynamic instability; patients who cannot independently change position; or patients who
have had recent abdominal surgery, nausea, or vomiting.
Rationale
Awake prone positioning, or having a nonintubated patient lie on the stomach, may improve oxygenation
and prevent the patient from progressing to requiring intubation and mechanical ventilation. Although
prone positioning has been shown to improve oxygenation and outcomes in patients with moderate to
severe ARDS who are receiving mechanical ventilation,15,16 there is less evidence regarding the benefit
of prone positioning in awake patients who require supplemental oxygen without mechanical ventilation.
Several case series of patients with COVID-19 who required oxygen or NIV have reported that awake
prone positioning improved oxygenation,17-20 and some series have also reported low intubation rates
after awake prone positioning.19,20
The Awake Prone Positioning Meta-Trial Group has conducted the largest trial on awake prone
positioning.21 This study was a prospective, multinational meta-trial of 6 open-label, randomized,
controlled, superiority trials that compared awake prone positioning to standard care in adults who
required HFNC oxygen for acute hypoxemic respiratory failure due to COVID-19.
The study enrolled 1,126 patients between April 2, 2020, and January 26, 2021, and the intention-to-treat
analysis included 1,121 patients.21 Of the 564 patients who underwent awake prone positioning, 223
(40%) met the composite primary endpoint of intubation or death within 28 days of enrollment. Among
the 557 patients who received standard care, 257 (46%) met the primary endpoint (relative risk 0.86;
95% CI, 0.75−0.98). The incidence of intubation by Day 28 was lower in the awake prone positioning
arm than in the standard care arm (HR intubation 0.75; 95% CI, 0.62−0.91). There was no difference
in 28-day mortality between the awake prone positioning arm and the standard care arm (HR mortality
0.87; 95% CI, 0.68−1.11).
During the first 14 days of the study, the median daily duration of awake prone positioning was 5.0
hours (IQR 1.6–8.8 hours).21 However, the median daily duration varied from 1.6 hours to 8.6 hours
across the individual trials. Longer daily durations for awake prone positioning were associated with
treatment success by Day 28. This study evaluated the incidences of certain adverse events, including
skin breakdown, vomiting, and central or arterial line dislodgment. These events occurred infrequently
during the study, and the incidences were similar in each arm. No cardiac arrests occurred during awake
prone positioning.
The optimal daily duration of awake prone positioning is unclear. In the meta-trial of awake prone
positioning, only 25 of 151 patients (17%) who had an average of ≥8 hours of awake prone positioning
per day met the primary endpoint of intubation or death when compared with 198 of 413 patients (48%)
who remained in awake prone positioning for <8 hours per day.21 This result is consistent with past
clinical trials of prone positioning in mechanically ventilated patients with ARDS, in which clinical
benefits were observed after longer durations of prone positioning.15,16
Intubation for Mechanical Ventilation

Recommendation
• If intubation becomes necessary, the procedure should be performed by an experienced

practitioner in a controlled setting due to the enhanced risk of exposing health care practitioners to
SARS-CoV-2 during intubation (AIII).
Rationale
It is essential to closely monitor hypoxemic patients with COVID-19 for signs of respiratory
decompensation. To ensure the safety of both patients and health care workers, intubation should be
performed in a controlled setting by an experienced practitioner.
Mechanically Ventilated Adults

General Considerations
Recommendations
For mechanically ventilated adults with COVID-19 and ARDS:
• The Panel recommends using low tidal volume (VT) ventilation (VT 4–8 mL/kg of predicted body
weight) over higher VT ventilation (VT >8 mL/kg) (AI).
• The Panel recommends targeting plateau pressures of <30 cm H2O (AIIa).
• The Panel recommends using a conservative fluid strategy over a liberal fluid strategy (BIIa).
• The Panel recommends against the routine use of inhaled nitric oxide (AIIa).
Rationale
There is no evidence that the ventilator management of patients with hypoxemic respiratory failure due
to COVID-19 should differ from the ventilator management of patients with hypoxemic respiratory
failure due to other causes.
Positive End-Expiratory Pressure and Prone Positioning in Mechanically Ventilated Adults

With Moderate to Severe ARDS
Recommendations
For mechanically ventilated adults with COVID-19 and moderate to severe ARDS:
• The Panel recommends using a higher positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) strategy over a
lower PEEP strategy (BIIa).
• For mechanically ventilated adults with COVID-19 and refractory hypoxemia despite optimized
ventilation, the Panel recommends prone ventilation for 12 to 16 hours per day over no prone
ventilation (BIIa).
Rationale
PEEP is beneficial in patients with ARDS because it prevents alveolar collapse, improves oxygenation,
and minimizes atelectrauma, a source of ventilator-induced lung injury. A meta-analysis of individual
patient data from the 3 largest trials that compared lower and higher levels of PEEP in patients without
COVID-19 found that less ICU mortality and in-hospital mortality was associated with higher levels
of PEEP in those with moderate (PaO2/FiO2 100–200 mm Hg) and severe (PaO2/FiO2 <100 mm Hg)
ARDS.22
Although there is no clear standard for a high level of PEEP, a conventional threshold is >10 cm H2O.23
Recent reports have suggested that, in contrast to patients with ARDS not caused by COVID-19, some
patients with moderate or severe ARDS due to COVID-19 have normal static lung compliance. In these
patients, high levels of PEEP may cause harm by compromising hemodynamics and cardiovascular
performance.24,25 Other studies have reported that patients with moderate to severe ARDS due to

COVID-19 had low lung compliance, similar to the lung compliance seen in patients with conventional
ARDS.26-29 These seemingly contradictory observations suggest that patients with COVID-19 and ARDS
are a heterogeneous population, and assessments for responsiveness to high levels of PEEP should be
individualized based on oxygenation and lung compliance. Clinicians should monitor patients for known
side effects of high levels of PEEP, such as barotrauma and hypotension.
In the prepandemic PROSEVA study of patients with moderate to severe early ARDS (PaO2/FiO2 <150
mm Hg) who required mechanical ventilation, the patients who were randomized to undergo prone
positioning for ≥16 hours per day had improved survival compared to those who remained in the supine
position throughout the course of mechanical ventilation.15 A meta-analysis evaluated the results of the
PROSEVA study and 7 other randomized controlled trials that investigated the use of prone positioning
in people with ARDS.30 A subgroup analysis revealed that mortality was reduced among patients who
remained prone for ≥12 hours per day when compared with patients who remained in the supine position
(risk ratio 0.74; 95% CI, 0.56–0.99). Prone positioning improved oxygenation in all the trials. Patients
in the prone positioning arms had higher PaO2/FiO2 on Day 4 than those in the supine positioning arms
(mean difference 23.5 mm Hg; 95% CI, 12.4–34.5).
The use of prone positioning may be associated with serious adverse events, including unplanned
extubation or central catheter removal. However, the meta-analysis found no differences between the
prone positioning and supine positioning arms in the frequency of these events.30 The use of prone
positioning was associated with an increased risk of pressure sores (risk ratio 1.22; 95% CI, 1.06–1.41)
and endotracheal tube obstruction (risk ratio 1.76; 95% CI, 1.24–2.50) in the 3 studies that evaluated
these complications.
Neuromuscular Blockade in Mechanically Ventilated Adults With Moderate to Severe ARDS

Recommendation
For mechanically ventilated adults with COVID-19 and moderate to severe ARDS:
• The Panel recommends using, as needed, intermittent boluses of neuromuscular blocking agents
(NMBAs) or a continuous NMBA infusion to facilitate protective lung ventilation (BIIa).
Rationale
Although the use of NMBAs in patients with ARDS reduces ventilator dyssynchrony, a large multicenter
trial across several ICUs reported no significant difference in mortality between patients who received
deep sedation and continuous NMBA infusion and patients who received a usual-care approach of
lighter sedation without routine NMBAs.31
Rescue Therapies for Mechanically Ventilated Adults With ARDS

Recommendations
For mechanically ventilated adults with COVID-19, severe ARDS, and hypoxemia despite optimized
ventilation and other rescue strategies:
• The Panel recommends using an inhaled pulmonary vasodilator as a rescue therapy; if rapid
improvement in oxygenation is not observed, the treatment should be tapered (CIII).
• The Panel recommends using recruitment maneuvers rather than not using recruitment maneuvers
(CIIa).
• If recruitment maneuvers are used, the Panel recommends against the use of staircase
(incremental PEEP) recruitment maneuvers (AIIa).

Rationale
A recruitment maneuver refers to a temporary increase in airway pressure during mechanical ventilation
to open collapsed alveoli and improve oxygenation. No studies have assessed the effect of recruitment
maneuvers on oxygenation in patients with severe ARDS due to COVID-19. However, a systematic
review and meta-analysis of 6 trials of recruitment maneuvers in patients with ARDS who did not have
COVID-19 found that recruitment maneuvers reduced mortality, improved oxygenation 24 hours after
the maneuver, and decreased the need for rescue therapy.32 Because recruitment maneuvers can cause
barotrauma or hypotension, patients should be closely monitored during the maneuvers. If a patient
decompensates during recruitment maneuvers, the maneuvers should be stopped immediately.
The importance of properly performing recruitment maneuvers was illustrated by an analysis of 8
randomized controlled trials in patients without COVID-19 (n = 2,544) that found that recruitment
maneuvers did not reduce in-hospital mortality (risk ratio 0.90; 95% CI, 0.78–1.04).23 However, a
subgroup analysis found that traditional recruitment maneuvers significantly reduced in-hospital
mortality (risk ratio 0.85; 95% CI, 0.75–0.97). Mortality was higher among patients treated with
incremental PEEP titration recruitment maneuvers than among those treated with traditional recruitment
maneuvers, but this difference was not statistically significant (risk ratio 1.06; 95% CI, 0.97–1.17).
There are no prospective trials of pulmonary vasodilators in people with COVID-19. However, a meta-
analysis of mostly small, retrospective trials did not show improved outcomes.33 A Cochrane review of
13 trials evaluated the use of inhaled nitric oxide in patients with ARDS who did not have COVID-19
and found no reduction in mortality.34 Because the review showed a transient benefit for oxygenation,
it is reasonable to attempt using inhaled nitric oxide as a rescue therapy in patients with COVID-19 and
severe ARDS after other options have failed. However, if the use of nitric oxide does not improve a
patient’s oxygenation, it should be tapered quickly to avoid rebound pulmonary vasoconstriction, which
may occur when nitric oxide is discontinued after prolonged use.
References
1. Barrot L, Asfar P, Mauny F, et al. Liberal or conservative oxygen therapy for acute respiratory distress
syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(11):999-1008. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/32160661.
2. Chu DK, Kim LH, Young PJ, et al. Mortality and morbidity in acutely ill adults treated with liberal versus
conservative oxygen therapy (IOTA): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018;391(10131):1693-
5. Frat JP, Quenot JP, Badie J, et al. Effect of high-flow nasal cannula oxygen vs standard oxygen therapy on
mortality in patients with respiratory failure due to COVID-19: the SOHO-COVID randomized clinical trial.
JAMA. 2022;328(12):1212-1222. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36166027.
6. Frat JP, Thille AW, Mercat A, et al. High-flow oxygen through nasal cannula in acute hypoxemic
respiratory failure. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(23):2185-2196. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/25981908.
7. Ni YN, Luo J, Yu H, et al. The effect of high-flow nasal cannula in reducing the mortality and the rate of
endotracheal intubation when used before mechanical ventilation compared with conventional oxygen therapy

and noninvasive positive pressure ventilation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Emerg Med.
8. Grieco DL, Menga LS, Cesarano M, et al. Effect of helmet noninvasive ventilation vs high-flow nasal oxygen
on days free of respiratory support in patients with COVID-19 and moderate to severe hypoxemic respiratory
failure: the HENIVOT randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021;325(17):1731-1743. Available at:
9. Perkins GD, Ji C, Connolly BA, et al. Effect of noninvasive respiratory strategies on intubation or mortality
among patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure and COVID-19: the RECOVERY-RS randomized
clinical trial. JAMA. 2022;327(6):546-558. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35072713.
10. Ospina-Tascón GA, Calderón-Tapia LE, García AF, et al. Effect of high-flow oxygen therapy vs conventional
oxygen therapy on invasive mechanical ventilation and clinical recovery in patients with severe COVID-19: a
randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021;326(21):2161-2171. Available at:
11. Yu IT, Xie ZH, Tsoi KK, et al. Why did outbreaks of severe acute respiratory syndrome occur in some hospital
wards but not in others? Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44(8):1017-1025. Available at:
12. Tran K, Cimon K, Severn M, Pessoa-Silva CL, Conly J. Aerosol generating procedures and risk of
transmission of acute respiratory infections to healthcare workers: a systematic review. PLoS One.
14. Hallifax RJ, Porter BM, Elder PJ, et al. Successful awake proning is associated with improved clinical
outcomes in patients with COVID-19: single-centre high-dependency unit experience. BMJ Open Respir Res.
15. Guérin C, Reignier J, Richard JC, et al. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N
16. Fan E, Del Sorbo L, Goligher EC, et al. An official American Thoracic Society/European Society of Intensive
Care Medicine/Society of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice guideline: mechanical ventilation in adult
patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;195(9):1253-1263.
17. Caputo ND, Strayer RJ, Levitan R. Early self-proning in awake, non-intubated patients in the emergency
department: a single ED’s experience during the COVID-19 pandemic. Acad Emerg Med. 2020;27(5):375-
18. Elharrar X, Trigui Y, Dols AM, et al. Use of prone positioning in nonintubated patients with COVID-19 and
hypoxemic acute respiratory failure. JAMA. 2020;323(22):2336-2338. Available at:
19. Sartini C, Tresoldi M, Scarpellini P, et al. Respiratory parameters in patients with COVID-19 after using
noninvasive ventilation in the prone position outside the intensive care unit. JAMA. 2020;323(22):2338-2340.
20. Sun Q, Qiu H, Huang M, Yang Y. Lower mortality of COVID-19 by early recognition and intervention:
experience from Jiangsu province. Ann Intensive Care. 2020;10(1):33. Available at:
21. Ehrmann S, Li J, Ibarra-Estrada M, et al. Awake prone positioning for COVID-19 acute hypoxaemic
respiratory failure: a randomised, controlled, multinational, open-label meta-trial. Lancet Respir Med.
22. Briel M, Meade M, Mercat A, et al. Higher vs. lower positive end-expiratory pressure in patients with

acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA.
23. Alhazzani W, Møller MH, Arabi YM, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: guidelines on the management of
critically ill adults with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(5):854-887.
24. Marini JJ, Gattinoni L. Management of COVID-19 respiratory distress. JAMA. 2020;323(22):2329-2330.
25. Tsolaki V, Siempos I, Magira E, et al. PEEP levels in COVID-19 pneumonia. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):303.
26. Bhatraju PK, Ghassemieh BJ, Nichols M, et al. COVID-19 in critically ill patients in the Seattle region—case
series. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(21):2012-2022. Available at:
27. Cummings MJ, Baldwin MR, Abrams D, et al. Epidemiology, clinical course, and outcomes of critically ill
adults with COVID-19 in New York City: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10239):1763-1770.
28. Schenck EJ, Hoffman K, Goyal P, et al. Respiratory mechanics and gas exchange in COVID-19-associated
respiratory failure. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2020;17(9):1158-1161. Available at:
29. Ziehr DR, Alladina J, Petri CR, et al. Respiratory pathophysiology of mechanically ventilated patients with
COVID-19: a cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020;201(12):1560-1564. Available at:
30. Munshi L, Del Sorbo L, Adhikari NKJ, et al. Prone position for acute respiratory distress syndrome. A
systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2017;14(suppl 4):S280-S288. Available at:
31. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute PETAL Clinical Trials Network. Early neuromuscular blockade in
the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(21):1997-2008. Available at:
32. Goligher EC, Hodgson CL, Adhikari NKJ, et al. Lung recruitment maneuvers for adult patients with acute
respiratory distress syndrome. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2017;14(suppl
4):S304-S311. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29043837.
33. Khokher W, Malhas S, Beran A, et al. Inhaled pulmonary vasodilators in COVID-19 infection: a systematic
review and meta-analysis. J Intensive Care Med. 2022;37(10):1370-1382. Available at:
34. Gebistorf F, Karam O, Wetterslev J, Afshari A. Inhaled nitric oxide for acute respiratory distress syndrome
(ARDS) in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016(6):CD002787. Available at:

Pharmacologic Interventions for Critically Ill
Patients
Empiric Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Therapy

Recommendations
• In the absence of a proven or suspected secondary infection, the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines
Panel (the Panel) recommends against the use of empiric broad-spectrum antimicrobials in
patients with severe or critical COVID-19 (BIII).
• As with any hospitalized patient, patients with COVID-19 who receive antimicrobials should
be reassessed daily to minimize the adverse consequences of unnecessary antimicrobial therapy
(AIII).
Rationale
Variable rates of community- and hospital-acquired infections have been reported in adult patients
with COVID-19. Bacterial coinfection at the time of hospitalization has been reported in 1% to 3.5%
of patients with COVID-19.1,2 Secondary infections have been reported in 14% to 37% of patients in
intensive care units, but the reported rates have been influenced by differences in the severity of illness,
duration of hospitalization, method of diagnosis, and time period studied.3,4
No clinical trials have evaluated the use of empiric broad-spectrum antimicrobials in patients with
severe or critical COVID-19 or other coronavirus infections. Routine, empiric use of antimicrobials
in patients with severe or critical COVID-19 is not recommended (BIII). This recommendation is
intended to mitigate the unintended consequences of antimicrobial side effects and resistance. The use
of antimicrobials may be considered in specific situations, such as the presence of a lobar infiltrate on a
chest X-ray, leukocytosis, an elevated serum lactate level, microbiologic data, or shock.
The use of antimicrobials in patients with severe or critical COVID-19 should follow guidelines
established for other hospitalized patients (i.e., for hospital-acquired pneumonia, ventilator-associated
pneumonia, or bloodstream infections associated with central lines). It is unclear whether using
corticosteroids or other immunomodulatory agents recommended in the Guidelines should alter such
approaches.
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19

For the Panel’s recommendations on the use of abatacept, baricitinib, dexamethasone, infliximab,
remdesivir, and tocilizumab, see Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
Immune-Based Therapy
For recommendations on the use of immunomodulators in patients with COVID-19, see
Immunomodulators.
For the Panel’s recommendations regarding the use of antithrombotic therapy in critical care settings,
see Antithrombotic Therapy in Patients With COVID-19 and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized

Adults With COVID-19.
References
1. Langford BJ, So M, Raybardhan S, et al. Bacterial co-infection and secondary infection in patients with
COVID-19: a living rapid review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;26(12):1622-1629. Available
2. Garcia-Vidal C, Sanjuan G, Moreno-García E, et al. Incidence of co-infections and superinfections in
hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2021;27(1):83-88.
3. Zangrillo A, Beretta L, Scandroglio AM, et al. Characteristics, treatment, outcomes and cause of death of
invasively ventilated patients with COVID-19 ARDS in Milan, Italy. Crit Care Resusc. 2020;22(3):200-211.
4. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia
in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(5):475-

Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for
Adults
Recommendation
• There is insufficient evidence for the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel to recommend
either for or against the use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in adults with
COVID-19–associated acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and refractory hypoxemia.
Rationale
ECMO has been used as a rescue therapy in patients with ARDS caused by COVID-19 and refractory
hypoxemia. However, there is no conclusive evidence that ECMO is responsible for better clinical
outcomes, regardless of the cause of hypoxemic respiratory failure.1-4
The clinical outcomes for patients with ARDS who are treated with ECMO are variable and depend
on multiple factors, including the etiology of hypoxemic respiratory failure, the severity of pulmonary
and extrapulmonary illness, the presence of comorbidities, and the ECMO experience of the individual
center.5-7 Several multicenter, observational cohort studies from the first half of 20208-10 reported that
patients who required ECMO for COVID-19 had similar mortality to patients in a 2018 randomized
study who did not have COVID-19 but had ARDS and received ECMO.3
However, subsequent observational studies reported that in patients who required ECMO for COVID-19,
outcomes in late 2020 and early 2021 were worse than outcomes in spring 2020.11,12 The largest analysis
used data from 4,812 patients in the international Extracorporeal Life Support Organization Registry
who had COVID-19 and received ECMO in 2020.11 At centers that provided ECMO throughout 2020,
patients who started ECMO before May 1, 2020, had a 90-day mortality of 36.9% after ECMO initiation
(95% CI, 34.1% to 39.7%). At the same centers, patients who initiated ECMO between May 2 and
December 31, 2020, had a 90-day mortality of 51.9% (95% CI, 50.0% to 53.8%). Furthermore, at
centers that started using ECMO for patients with COVID-19 after May 1, 2020, the 90-day mortality
after ECMO initiation was 58.9% (95% CI, 55.4% to 62.3%). These observational data should be
interpreted with caution, as they may reflect a changing case mix of patients with COVID-19 who were
referred for ECMO.
Three target emulation trials compared the efficacy of ECMO and conventional mechanical ventilation
in patients with severe COVID-19–associated ARDS.10,13,14 The largest of these trials included 844
patients with COVID-19 who had hypoxemic respiratory failure and were receiving ECMO.14 The
study reported that the patients who received ECMO had lower 60-day mortality than the patients who
received only conventional mechanical ventilation (26% vs. 33.2%; risk difference −7.1%; 95% CI,
−8.2% to −6.1%; risk ratio 0.78; 95% CI, 0.75–0.82). Favorable ECMO outcomes were associated with
the following factors: aged <65 years, a ratio of arterial partial pressure of oxygen to fraction of inspired
oxygen <80 mm Hg, ≤10-day duration of mechanical ventilation, and >15 cm H2O driving pressure.
Ultimately, the benefits of ECMO cannot be clearly defined for patients with COVID-19 and severe
ARDS because no randomized controlled trials have evaluated the use of ECMO in this population.
Clinicians interested in pursuing ECMO for patients with COVID-19 and severe ARDS should consider
transferring care to high-volume ECMO centers. These patients should be entered into clinical trials or

registries so more informative data can be obtained. More information on the use of ECMO in patients
with COVID-19 can be found on the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization website.
References
1. Peek GJ, Mugford M, Tiruvoipati R, et al. Efficacy and economic assessment of conventional ventilatory
support versus extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe adult respiratory failure (CESAR): a
multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009;374(9698):1351-1363. Available at: https://www.ncbi.
2. Pham T, Combes A, Rozé H, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for pandemic influenza A(H1N1)-
induced acute respiratory distress syndrome: a cohort study and propensity-matched analysis. Am J Respir Crit
3. Combes A, Hajage D, Capellier G, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe acute respiratory
distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(21):1965-1975. Available at:
4. Munshi L, Walkey A, Goligher E, et al. Venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for acute
respiratory distress syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Respir Med. 2019;7(2):163-172.
5. Bullen EC, Teijeiro-Paradis R, Fan E. How I select which patients with ARDS should be treated with
venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Chest. 2020;158(3):1036-1045. Available at:
6. Henry BM, Lippi G. Poor survival with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in acute respiratory distress
syndrome (ARDS) due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): pooled analysis of early reports. J Crit Care.
2020;58:27-28. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32279018.
7. Mustafa AK, Alexander PJ, Joshi DJ, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for patients with
COVID-19 in severe respiratory failure. JAMA Surg. 2020;155(10):990-992. Available at:
8. Barbaro RP, MacLaren G, Boonstra PS, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support in
COVID-19: an international cohort study of the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization Registry. Lancet.
9. Schmidt M, Hajage D, Lebreton G, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe acute
respiratory distress syndrome associated with COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Respir Med.
10. Shaefi S, Brenner SK, Gupta S, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in patients with severe
respiratory failure from COVID-19. Intensive Care Med. 2021;47(2):208-221. Available at:
11. Barbaro RP, MacLaren G, Boonstra PS, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for COVID-19:
evolving outcomes from the international Extracorporeal Life Support Organization Registry. Lancet.
12. Broman LM, Eksborg S, Lo Coco V, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for COVID-19 during first
and second waves. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(8):e80-e81. Available at:
13. Hajage D, Combes A, Guervilly C, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe acute respiratory
distress syndrome associated with COVID-19: an emulated target trial analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
14. Urner M, Barnett AG, Bassi GL, et al. Venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in patients with
acute COVID-19 associated respiratory failure: comparative effectiveness study. BMJ. 2022;377:e068723.

Introduction to Critical Care Management of
COVID-19 may lead to critical illness in children, including hypoxemic respiratory failure, acute
respiratory distress syndrome, septic shock, cardiac dysfunction, thromboembolic disease, hepatic or
renal dysfunction, central nervous system disease, and exacerbation of underlying comorbidities. In
addition, multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) is a rare, postinfectious complication
of SARS-CoV-2 and is frequently associated with critical illness.
Data informing the optimal management of children with acute COVID-19 or MIS-C are limited. In
general, care for children with acute COVID-19 or MIS-C should follow the usual principles of pediatric
critical care, such as the 2023 Pediatric Acute Lung Injury Consensus Conference (2023 PALICC-2)
recommendations and the Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for pediatric sepsis. For patients with
COVID-19 in the intensive care unit (ICU), treatment often requires managing underlying illnesses
other than COVID-19 that may have contributed to the need for ICU admission, as well as managing
COVID-19 complications. Finally, prevention of ICU-related complications is critical to achieving
optimal clinical outcomes for any patient admitted to the ICU.
Selected Clinical Manifestations of COVID-19 Critical Illness

Inflammatory Response
Patients with COVID-19 may develop a hyperinflammatory state, which appears to be distinct from
classic “cytokine storm” syndromes (e.g., macrophage activation syndrome in juvenile idiopathic
arthritis, familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis). This hyperinflammatory state has been well
described in adults but not in children.

MIS-C is a rare, postinfectious complication of SARS-CoV-2 that is characterized by persistent fever,
systemic inflammation, and multisystem organ dysfunction. The majority of children with MIS-C
require ICU-level care, primarily for shock and for vasopressor and inotropic support.1-3 For details on
the definition of MIS-C, clinical features, and recommended treatments, see Special Considerations in
Children and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on
MIS-A.
Cardiac Dysfunction, Including Myocarditis

Although cardiac involvement is common in patients with MIS-C,2,4 cardiac manifestations have rarely
been described in children with acute COVID-19. Myocarditis, cardiac conduction abnormalities, and
coronary artery aneurysms have been reported in patients with MIS-C. Myocarditis may also occur after
SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, particularly in adolescent males, although the clinical course generally is
relatively mild.5
Thromboembolic Events
Limited data characterize the prevalence of thromboembolic disease in children with COVID-19 or
MIS-C. In a multicenter, retrospective cohort study including 814 hospitalized patients with COVID-19
or MIS-C, thromboembolic events were detected in 2.1% of patients with COVID-19 and 6.5% of
patients with MIS-C.6 The same study conducted a multivariable analysis and found that the following

variables were associated with an increased risk of thromboembolic events: children aged ≥12 years,
MIS-C, central venous catheters, and underlying malignancies. See Antithrombotic Therapy in Patients
With COVID-19 for additional recommendations.
Acute Kidney Injury

Acute kidney injury is estimated to occur in 12% to 44% of hospitalized children with COVID-19 or
MIS-C, but the need for renal replacement therapy is extremely rare.7-10
Neurologic Involvement
Neurologic involvement is common in children with COVID-19 or MIS-C and is estimated to occur
in approximately 30% to 40% of children hospitalized with these conditions.2,11 Severe neurologic
manifestations, including severe encephalopathy, stroke, demyelinating conditions, cerebral edema, and
Guillain-Barré syndrome, have also been described.11
Considerations for the care of children with COVID-19 or MIS-C should generally follow the usual
principles of pediatric critical care. Sedation management and considerations related to post-intensive
care syndrome–pediatric (PICS-p) are discussed below. See Oxygenation and Ventilation for Children,
Hemodynamic Considerations for Children, and Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for Children
for more information on pediatric critical care.
Sedation Management
Guidelines for the management of pain, agitation, neuromuscular blockade, delirium, and early mobility
(PANDEM) in infants and children admitted to the pediatric ICU have recently been published.12 In
general, children with COVID-19 or MIS-C who require mechanical ventilation should be managed
per the usual principles of critical care for patients with respiratory failure who require mechanical
ventilation. The usual care includes sedation with the minimal effective dose required to tolerate
mechanical ventilation, optimize gas exchange, and minimize the risk of ventilator-induced lung injury.
Using validated pain and sedation scales, the critical care team should set a sedation/pain target based on
the phase of ventilation.
Two large randomized controlled trials examined the use of protocols to manage sedation titration
in children receiving mechanical ventilation.13,14 In both studies, participants received usual care
or protocol-driven care implemented by nurses. Use of the protocols did not significantly reduce
the duration of ventilation or affect other study outcomes. However, a patient’s risk of harm from
protocolized sedation is generally low, which led the Society of Critical Care Medicine to issue a
conditional recommendation, based on low-level evidence, in its PANDEM clinical practice guidelines
for the use of protocolized sedation in children who are critically ill and receiving mechanical
ventilation.12
Studies evaluating data on the effect of early mobility protocols on critically ill children are limited.
One trial evaluated the safety and feasibility of early mobilization in 58 patients who were randomized
to receive usual care or early physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech therapy consultation
within 72 hours of admission to the pediatric ICU.15 Although no differences between the arms
were demonstrated for clinical, functional, or quality of life outcomes, the study found that the early
rehabilitation consultations were safe and feasible.
Ongoing trials are measuring the effect of early mobilization on patient-centered outcomes in children
receiving mechanical ventilation. The PANDEM guideline statement issued by the Society of Critical

Care Medicine conditionally recommends, based on a low quality of evidence, implementing early
mobilization strategies in children when feasible, which likely would apply to children with COVID-19
or MIS-C.12
Post-Intensive Care Syndrome

In recent years, awareness has been growing that post-intensive care syndrome can occur in pediatric
patients. PICS-p has been demonstrated to have a multifaceted effect on the physical, cognitive,
emotional, and social health of child survivors of critical illness and their families.16 Furthermore, many
pediatric survivors of sepsis or acute respiratory distress syndrome manifest significant impairments
in physical, cognitive, and emotional health.17-19 Although no clear data characterize the prevalence of
PICS-p or long-term morbidity in children with COVID-19 or MIS-C, the prevalence is expected to be
similar to that observed in other populations with similar illness severities.
Acknowledgments
For these pediatric recommendations, the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel integrated the
recommendations from pediatric-specific guidelines, including the European Society of Paediatric and
Neonatal Intensive Care’s recommendations20 for the care of critically ill children with COVID-19
and the Surviving Sepsis Campaign’s perspective on managing sepsis in children with COVID-19.21
In addition, recommendations from several treatment guidelines not related to COVID-19, such as the
Surviving Sepsis Campaign International Guidelines for the Management of Septic Shock and Sepsis-
Associated Organ Dysfunction in Children,22 the 2023 PALICC-2 recommendations,23 and the Society of
Critical Care Medicine’s PANDEM guidelines,12 were integrated.
References
3. Alsaied T, Tremoulet AH, Burns JC, et al. Review of cardiac involvement in multisystem inflammatory
syndrome in children. Circulation. 2021;143(1):78-88. Available at:
4. Valverde I, Singh Y, Sanchez-de-Toledo J, et al. Acute cardiovascular manifestations in 286 children
with multisystem inflammatory syndrome associated with COVID-19 infection in Europe. Circulation.
5. Jain SS, Steele JM, Fonseca B, et al. COVID-19 vaccination-associated myocarditis in adolescents. Pediatrics.
7. Raina R, Chakraborty R, Mawby I, et al. Critical analysis of acute kidney injury in pediatric COVID-19
patients in the intensive care unit. Pediatr Nephrol. 2021;36(9):2627-2638. Available at:
8. Kari JA, Shalaby MA, Albanna AS, et al. Acute kidney injury in children with COVID-19: a retrospective
study. BMC Nephrol. 2021;22(1):202. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34059010.
9. Basalely A, Gurusinghe S, Schneider J, et al. Acute kidney injury in pediatric patients hospitalized with acute

COVID-19 and multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children associated with COVID-19. Kidney Int.
10. Bjornstad EC, Krallman KA, Askenazi D, et al. Preliminary assessment of acute kidney injury in critically
ill children associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection: a multicenter cross-sectional analysis. Clin J Am Soc
Nephrol. 2021;16(3):446-448. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33144276.
11. LaRovere KL, Riggs BJ, Poussaint TY, et al. Neurologic involvement in children and adolescents hospitalized
in the United States for COVID-19 or multisystem inflammatory syndrome. JAMA Neurol. 2021;78(5):536-
12. Smith HAB, Besunder JB, Betters KA, et al. 2022 Society of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice
guidelines on prevention and management of pain, agitation, neuromuscular blockade, and delirium in
critically ill pediatric patients with consideration of the ICU environment and early mobility. Pediatr Crit Care
Med. 2022;23(2):e74-e110. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35119438.
13. Curley MA, Wypij D, Watson RS, et al. Protocolized sedation vs usual care in pediatric patients mechanically
ventilated for acute respiratory failure: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015;313(4):379-389. Available at:
14. Blackwood B, Tume LN, Morris KP, et al. Effect of a sedation and ventilator liberation protocol vs usual care
on duration of invasive mechanical ventilation in pediatric intensive care units: a randomized clinical trial.
15. Fink EL, Beers SR, Houtrow AJ, et al. Early protocolized versus usual care rehabilitation for pediatric
neurocritical care patients: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2019;20(6):540-550.
16. Manning JC, Pinto NP, Rennick JE, Colville G, Curley MAQ. Conceptualizing post intensive care syndrome
in children—the PICS-p framework. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2018;19(4):298-300. Available at:
17. Herrup EA, Wieczorek B, Kudchadkar SR. Characteristics of postintensive care syndrome in survivors of
pediatric critical illness: a systematic review. World J Crit Care Med. 2017;6(2):124-134. Available at:
18. Keim G, Watson RS, Thomas NJ, Yehya N. New morbidity and discharge disposition of pediatric acute
respiratory distress syndrome survivors. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(11):1731-1738. Available at:
19. Watson RS, Asaro LA, Hutchins L, et al. Risk factors for functional decline and impaired quality of life after
pediatric respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019;200(7):900-909. Available at:
20. Rimensberger PC, Kneyber MCJ, Deep A, et al. Caring for critically ill children with suspected or proven
coronavirus disease 2019 infection: recommendations by the Scientific Sections’ Collaborative of the
European Society of Pediatric and Neonatal Intensive Care. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2021;22(1):56-67.
22. Weiss SL, Peters MJ, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign international guidelines for the
management of septic shock and sepsis-associated organ dysfunction in children. Pediatr Crit Care Med.
23. Emeriaud G, López-Férnandez YM, Iyer NP, et al. Executive summary of the second international guidelines
for the diagnosis and management of pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome (PALICC-2). Pediatr Crit

Hemodynamic Considerations for Children
Children with acute COVID-19 infrequently experience shock requiring hemodynamic support.
However, similar to children with sepsis or septic shock from other causes, children with COVID-19 and
shock should be evaluated and managed per the Surviving Sepsis Campaign International Guidelines for
the Management of Septic Shock and Sepsis-Associated Organ Dysfunction in Children.1,2
Shock occurs in approximately half of the patients with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in
children (MIS-C); reported prevalence ranges from 35% to 80%.3-5 Limited data inform the optimal
hemodynamic management for MIS-C. Given that the physiology observed in patients with MIS-C
results from a combination of distributive, cardiogenic, and, occasionally, hypovolemic shock, the
COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) suggests that clinicians use the management
principles outlined in the Surviving Sepsis Campaign’s guidelines for children, as well as the
principles for clinical management of heart failure and general critical care, as appropriate. The Panel’s
recommendations apply to the care of children and infants >37 weeks gestational age.
Recommendation
• For children with COVID-19 or MIS-C and shock, the Panel recommends targeting a mean arterial
pressure (MAP) between the 5th and 50th percentiles for age or >50th percentile for age (AIII).
Rationale
No clinical trials support specific hemodynamic targets for children with septic shock due to COVID-19,
MIS-C, or any other etiology. The panel members for the pediatric Surviving Sepsis Campaign
guidelines were divided on the most appropriate MAP target and made no specific recommendation
for a target MAP.2 Therefore, for children with COVID-19 or MIS-C and shock, clinicians should use
the same approach used for children without COVID-19 and target a MAP between the 5th and 50th
percentiles for age or >50th percentile for age. When MAP cannot be reliably measured, systolic blood
pressure is a reasonable alternative.
Recommendation
• The Panel recommends that, when available, a combination of serial clinical assessments; cardiac
ultrasound or echocardiography; and laboratory markers, including lactate levels, should be used
to monitor the response to resuscitation in children with COVID-19 or MIS-C and shock (BIII).
Rationale
Observational data from children with sepsis not related to COVID-19 suggest that using clinical
assessment alone limits the ability to classify patients with sepsis as having “warm” (i.e., likely to
require fluid or vasopressors) or “cold” (i.e., likely to require inotropes) shock, when compared with
assessments that include objective measures of cardiac output/index or systemic vascular resistance.6,7
Cardiac ultrasonography can be performed at the bedside and serially, and it may provide additional
clinical data on volume responsiveness and cardiac function.8 Data from studies evaluating the use
of cardiac ultrasound in children with COVID-19 and MIS-C are limited to reports from case series.9
However, cardiac ultrasonography may have particular value when patients with MIS-C are being
monitored, as these patients can exhibit a wide range of hemodynamic perturbations, and approximately

a third will exhibit left ventricular dysfunction.4
Elevated lactate levels are associated with worse outcomes in children with sepsis not related to
COVID-19, although the specific threshold is unknown and has varied from 2 to 4 mmol/L across
studies.10,11 Data on serial lactate measures are limited to a single observational study that demonstrated
an association between normalization in lactate and a decreased risk of persistent organ dysfunction
in children with sepsis not related to COVID-19 (adjusted relative risk 0.47; 95% CI, 0.29–0.78).12
The role of serial lactate measures has not been systematically evaluated for COVID-19 or MIS-C.
An observational study of 1,080 children with MIS-C demonstrated an association between elevated
markers of inflammation (e.g., C-reactive protein, procalcitonin), brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) or
N-terminal pro b-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), and troponin and the presence of cardiac
dysfunction, shock, and the need for intensive care unit admission.3 However, the study did not have
access to data on the timing of the laboratory values, so the elevated markers may reflect, rather than
predict, severe illness.
Recommendation
• The Panel recommends administration of balanced crystalloids rather than 0.9% saline for the
initial resuscitation of children with shock due to COVID-19 or MIS-C (BIIa).
Rationale
In a randomized trial in India, 708 children with septic shock received either a balanced crystalloid
solution (e.g., Plasma-Lyte) or 0.9% saline.13 The incidence of the primary outcome of new or
progressive acute kidney injury was lower in the balanced crystalloid solution arm than in the saline arm
(21% vs. 33%; relative risk 0.62; 95% CI, 0.49–0.80; P < 0.001). There was no difference in mortality
between the arms. Another randomized trial comparing balanced fluids to 0.9% saline is ongoing
(ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT04102371).
Two observational studies used administrative data to compare the use of balanced/buffered crystalloids
with 0.9% saline in propensity-matched cohorts of children with severe sepsis or septic shock not
related to COVID-19.14,15 One of the studies compared patients who received any or only Ringer’s
lactate solution in the first 3 days of admission with patients who received only normal saline.14 The
study demonstrated no differences between the arms for 30-day mortality or frequency of acute kidney
injury. The other study compared patients receiving only balanced fluids with those receiving only 0.9%
saline.15 The study demonstrated that the balanced fluid arm had lower mortality (12.5% vs. 15.9%; OR
0.76; 95% CI, 0.62–0.93; P = 0.007), reduced acute kidney injury (16.0% vs. 19.2%; OR 0.82; 95%
CI, 0.68–0.98; P = 0.028), and fewer days on vasoactive infusions (3.0 days vs. 3.3 days; P < 0.001)
than the saline arm. No published studies focused on patients with COVID-19 or MIS-C, although
hyponatremia is common in patients with MIS-C, and decisions about the type of fluid therapy used
should be individualized for this population.
Recommendations
• The Panel recommends the use of epinephrine or norepinephrine rather than dopamine in
children with COVID-19 or MIS-C and shock (BIIa).
• There is insufficient evidence to differentiate between norepinephrine and epinephrine as a
first-line vasoactive drug in children with COVID-19 or MIS-C. The choice of vasoactive agent
should be individualized and based on clinical examination, laboratory data, and data from cardiac
ultrasound or echocardiography.

Rationale
Use of vasoactive infusions should be considered for children with shock due to COVID-19 if signs of
shock persist after resuscitation with 40 to 60 mL/kg of fluid, or sooner if there is evidence of cardiac
dysfunction or signs of fluid overload (e.g., tachypnea, hepatomegaly). Similar principles may be
applied to patients with MIS-C, particularly because their clinical presentation overlaps significantly
with the clinical presentation of children with septic shock due to other causes. However, given the
high prevalence of cardiac dysfunction in patients with MIS-C, clinicians should consider performing
echocardiography or cardiac ultrasound early in the initial resuscitation if MIS-C is suspected and
consider initiating a vasoactive infusion if cardiac dysfunction is identified.
Data from pediatric studies comparing vasopressors are limited, and there are no data specific to
patients with COVID-19 or MIS-C. Two small pediatric trials compared epinephrine with dopamine
in patients with fluid-refractory septic shock not related to COVID-19.16,17 One study randomized 63
children to receive dopamine 5 to 10 µg/kg/min and 57 children to receive epinephrine 0.1 to 0.3 µg/
kg/min.16 Mortality by Day 28 was 14% in the dopamine arm and 7% in the epinephrine arm (OR 6.5;
95% CI, 1.1–37.8; P = 0.03). In the other study, 31 children were randomized to receive incremental
doses of dopamine 10 to 20 µg/kg/min, and 29 children were randomized to receive incremental doses
of epinephrine 0.1 to 0.3 µg/kg/min.17 The primary outcome of shock resolution within 1 hour occurred
in 4 children (13%) receiving dopamine and 12 children (41%) receiving epinephrine (OR 4.8; 95% CI,
1.3–17.2; P = 0.019).
No pediatric trials have compared norepinephrine to other vasoactive agents in patients with sepsis, but
based on data from studies of adults, the pharmacologic properties of norepinephrine and dopamine (see
Hemodynamics for Adults), and the Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for children, norepinephrine
is suggested over dopamine.2
Collectively, this evidence is insufficient to recommend norepinephrine versus epinephrine as a first-line
vasoactive agent in children with COVID-19 or MIS-C. Further, given the varied physiology observed
with MIS-C in particular, decisions about which vasopressor to use should be individualized based on
clinical and laboratory data and on findings from bedside cardiac ultrasound or echocardiography.
Recommendation
inodilators (including dobutamine or milrinone) in children with COVID-19 or MIS-C who show
evidence of cardiac dysfunction and persistent hypoperfusion despite adequate fluid loading and
the use of vasopressor agents.
Rationale
Data from studies evaluating the use of inodilators in children in COVID-19, MIS-C, and non-COVID-
19-related sepsis are limited to reports from case series. However, the majority of the pediatric Surviving
Sepsis Campaign guidelines panel (77%) would use an inodilator at least some of the time for patients
with sepsis not related to COVID-19, cardiac dysfunction, and persistent hypoperfusion despite adequate
fluid loading and the use of vasopressor agents.2 Expert consultation from specialists in pediatric
cardiology and critical care medicine is recommended in this scenario.
Additional Recommendations
• For the acute resuscitation of children with COVID-19 or MIS-C and shock, the Panel
recommends the use of crystalloids rather than albumin (AIIb).

• The Panel recommends against using hydroxyethyl starches for intravascular volume
replacement in children with COVID-19 or MIS-C and sepsis or septic shock (AIII).
• For children with refractory shock who have recently completed a course of corticosteroids to treat
COVID-19, the Panel recommends using low-dose corticosteroid therapy (“shock-reversal”) over
no corticosteroid therapy (CIII).
• Children who are currently receiving corticosteroids for COVID-19 or MIS-C are generally
receiving sufficient glucocorticoid replacement therapy and do not require additional
hydrocortisone for refractory shock.
References
6. Egan JR, Festa M, Cole AD, et al. Clinical assessment of cardiac performance in infants and children
following cardiac surgery. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31(4):568-573. Available at:
7. Razavi A, Newth CJL, Khemani RG, Beltramo F, Ross PA. Cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance:
clinical assessment compared with a noninvasive objective measurement in children with shock. J Crit Care.
8. Ranjit S, Aram G, Kissoon N, et al. Multimodal monitoring for hemodynamic categorization and management
of pediatric septic shock: a pilot observational study. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2014;15(1):e17-e26. Available at:
9. Kennedy TM, Dessie A, Kessler DO, et al. Point-of-care ultrasound findings in multisystem inflammatory
syndrome in children: a cross-sectional study. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2021;37(6):334-339. Available at:
10. Scott HF, Brou L, Deakyne SJ, et al. Association between early lactate levels and 30-day mortality in clinically
suspected sepsis in children. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(3):249-255. Available at:
11. Bai Z, Zhu X, Li M, et al. Effectiveness of predicting in-hospital mortality in critically ill children by
assessing blood lactate levels at admission. BMC Pediatr. 2014;14:83. Available at:
12. Scott HF, Brou L, Deakyne SJ, et al. Lactate clearance and normalization and prolonged organ dysfunction in
pediatric sepsis. J Pediatr. 2016;170:149-155.e1-4. Available at:
13. Sankar J, Muralidharan J, Lalitha AV, et al. Multiple electrolytes solution versus saline as bolus fluid

for resuscitation in pediatric septic shock: a multicenter randomized clinical trial. Crit Care Med.
14. Weiss SL, Keele L, Balamuth F, et al. Crystalloid fluid choice and clinical outcomes in pediatric sepsis: a
matched retrospective cohort study. J Pediatr. 2017;182:304-310.e10. Available at:
15. Emrath ET, Fortenberry JD, Travers C, McCracken CE, Hebbar KB. Resuscitation with balanced fluids is
associated with improved survival in pediatric severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2017;45(7):1177-1183. Available
16. Ventura AM, Shieh HH, Bousso A, et al. Double-blind prospective randomized controlled trial of dopamine
versus epinephrine as first-line vasoactive drugs in pediatric septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2015;43(11):2292-
17. Ramaswamy KN, Singhi S, Jayashree M, Bansal A, Nallasamy K. Double-blind randomized clinical trial
comparing dopamine and epinephrine in pediatric fluid-refractory hypotensive septic shock. Pediatr Crit Care
Med. 2016;17(11):e502-e512. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27673385.

Oxygenation and Ventilation for Children
The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations in this section were
informed by recommendations from the Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for managing adult
sepsis, pediatric sepsis, and COVID-19, as well as by recommendations from the 2023 Pediatric Acute
Lung Injury Consensus Conference (2023 PALICC-2).
Goal of Oxygenation
Recommendations
• A target oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry (SpO2) of 92% to 97% is recommended
for most children with COVID-19 who require supplemental oxygen (AIIb).
• For children with severe pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome (PARDS; i.e., with an
oxygenation index ≥16 or an oxygen saturation index ≥12), an SpO2 <92% can be considered to
minimize exposure to a high fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2), but prolonged periods of an SpO2
<88% should be avoided (CIII).
Rationale
The optimal SpO2 in children with COVID-19 is unknown. However, there is no evidence that the
target SpO2 should differ from the 2023 PALICC-2 recommendation.1 An SpO2 of 92% to 97% is
recommended for most children with COVID-19 who require supplemental oxygen. The potential harm
of hyperoxia in children was demonstrated in a meta-analysis of 11 observational studies of children
without COVID-19.2 The study demonstrated that critically ill children with hyperoxia had greater odds
of mortality than those without hyperoxia (OR 1.59; 95% CI, 1.00–2.51). However, across the included
studies, there was significant heterogeneity for populations, definitions of hyperoxia, and the timing of
assessments for mortality outcomes. For children with severe PARDS, an SpO2 <92% can be considered
to minimize exposure to a high FiO2.1 Although no evidence clearly identifies a safe minimum SpO2
in children, prolonged exposure to an SpO2 <88% should be avoided. When a patient’s SpO2 is <92%,
monitoring oxygen delivery markers, including central venous SpO2, is suggested.3
The limitations of currently available measurement devices should be considered when using pulse
oximetry to manage children with COVID-19 or PARDS. Observational studies in children have
reported that pulse oximetry may be inaccurate, particularly at lower oxygen saturations (≤90%) and
for children who are Black.4,5 These reports are consistent with several observational studies in adults
that identified inaccuracies in pulse oximetry measurements, particularly for patients with darker skin
pigmentation.6-8 See Clinical Spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 Infection for more information.
Although procedures vary across institutions, the treatment of most patients with PARDS is managed
without the use of arterial lines or arterial blood gas testing because arterial line placement in children,
especially young children, can result in complications.9-11 Clinicians should monitor for adequate
delivery of oxygen or consider lowering the threshold for arterial line placement if a patient’s SpO2
measurements could be unreliable (e.g., for children who have darker skin or low SpO2 levels).
Monitoring methods could include observing the patient for altered mentation, measuring venous
oxygen saturation, or using near-infrared spectroscopy.

High-Flow Nasal Cannula Oxygen and Noninvasive Ventilation in Children With
COVID-19 and Acute Respiratory Failure
Recommendations
• For infants and children with COVID-19 and persistent respiratory failure despite conventional
oxygen therapy who have no indicators for endotracheal intubation, a time-limited trial of
noninvasive ventilation (NIV) or high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) oxygen is recommended
(AIIa).
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of HFNC
oxygen over NIV or the use of NIV over HFNC oxygen in infants and children with COVID-19.
Rationale
No high-quality studies have evaluated the use of HFNC oxygen or NIV in children with COVID-19.
Therefore, when choosing a mode of respiratory support for children with COVID-19, the principles
of management used for patients without COVID-19 should be followed. Both the Surviving Sepsis
Campaign International Guidelines for the Management of Septic Shock and Sepsis-Associated
Organ Dysfunction in Children and the 2023 PALICC-2 recommend the use of NIV for children with
respiratory failure who have no indication for intubation.12,13
Furthermore, the response to NIV, particularly in children with more severe hypoxemia or high work
of breathing, should be gauged early (within the first several hours).13 If the patient does not show
improvement, intubation should be considered. To unload respiratory muscles, bilevel modes of NIV (with
inspiratory pressure augmentation, such as BiPAP), if tolerated, are preferred over the use of continuous
positive airway pressure (CPAP) alone, although CPAP is an alternative for children who cannot achieve an
adequate seal with the NIV interface or who have significant patient-ventilator asynchrony.
HFNC oxygen is a relatively new, but increasingly used, mode of respiratory support for infants and
children with acute respiratory failure.14 Data from studies evaluating the effectiveness of HFNC
oxygen relative to NIV or conventional oxygen are limited to studies of children with pneumonia in
limited-resource settings and to studies of children with bronchiolitis. Two randomized controlled trials
of children with pneumonia were conducted in limited-resource settings. One study demonstrated a
slightly lower relative risk of mortality with the use of HFNC oxygen when compared with conventional
oxygen therapy (aHR 0.79; 95% CI, 0.54–1.16), although the results were not statistically significant.15
The other trial randomized patients to receive bubble CPAP, low-flow oxygen, or HFNC oxygen.16
The children who received bubble CPAP demonstrated a lower risk of mortality than the children who
received low-flow oxygen (relative risk 0.25; 95% CI, 0.07–0.89; P = 0.02). The results also indicated
that for the composite outcome of treatment failure, there was no difference between the use of bubble
CPAP and HFNC oxygen (relative risk 0.50; 99.7% CI, 0.11–2.29).
A randomized, noninferiority trial compared HFNC oxygen (2 L/kg/min) and nasal CPAP among
142 infants aged <6 months with bronchiolitis not caused by COVID-19.17 The primary outcome was
treatment failure within 24 hours, defined as an increase of ≥1 point in the modified Wood’s Clinical
Asthma Score or Échelle Douleur Inconfort Nouveau-Né (EDIN) score (a neonatal pain and discomfort
scale), a respiratory rate >60 breaths/min and an increase of >10 breaths/min from baseline, or >2 severe
apnea episodes per hour. Treatment failure occurred more often in the HFNC oxygen arm than in the
nasal CPAP arm (51% vs. 31%), a result that failed to meet the prespecified noninferiority margin.
Notably, in the HFNC oxygen arm, 72% of the patients who had treatment failure were managed
successfully with nasal CPAP, and there were no differences between the arms for intubation rates or
length of stay in the pediatric intensive care unit (ICU).

A systematic review of the noninferiority trial and 2 smaller trials that compared HFNC oxygen to nasal
CPAP summarized the results of 213 infants and children aged ≤2 years with bronchiolitis.18 Treatment
failure in the 2 smaller trials was rare, and no differences were detected between the HFNC oxygen and
nasal CPAP arms for any of the clinical outcomes.19,20
In a study that assessed whether higher flow rates of HFNC oxygen improved outcomes, 286 infants
aged ≤6 months with severe bronchiolitis were randomized to receive HFNC oxygen 2 L/kg/min or
HFNC oxygen 3 L/kg/min.21 The primary outcome of treatment failure (i.e., an increase of ≥1 point in
the Wood’s Clinical Asthma Score or EDIN score, a respiratory rate >60 breaths/min and an increase of
>10 breaths/min from baseline, or >2 severe apnea episodes per hour) occurred in 38.7% of the infants
in the 2 L/kg/min arm and in 38.9% of the infants in the 3 L/kg/min arm (P = 0.98). Patient discomfort,
as measured by EDIN score, occurred more often in the 3 L/kg/min arm than in the 2 L/kg/min arm
(43% vs. 16%; P = 0.002).
HFNC oxygen is increasingly being used in children. These studies highlight the potential role of an
HFNC oxygen trial in the management of children with acute respiratory failure due to COVID-19,
particularly infants and young children who may have NIV-related challenges, such as poor mask fit,
discomfort, or patient-ventilator asynchrony. For the use of HFNC oxygen in children, consider flow
rates of up to 2 L/kg/min, with a maximum of 60 L/min. If patients do not improve within the first few
hours of receiving HFNC oxygen, their treatment should be escalated to NIV or intubation.
Awake Prone Positioning in Children Not Receiving Mechanical Ventilation

Recommendations
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against a trial of awake
prone positioning in children with persistent hypoxemia who require HFNC oxygen or NIV and do
not require endotracheal intubation.
• For patients with refractory hypoxemia who meet the indications for intubation and mechanical
ventilation, the Panel recommends against the use of awake prone positioning as a rescue therapy
to avoid intubation (AIII).
Rationale
There are no high-quality pediatric data from studies that evaluated the effect of awake prone positioning
on clinical outcomes in children with COVID-19 or in children with illness not related to COVID-19.
Awake prone positioning may be considered for older children and adolescents. See Oxygenation and
Ventilation for Adults for more information on the use of awake prone positioning in adults. In addition,
pediatric clinicians should consider a child’s developmental stage and ability to comply with the
protocols for awake prone positioning.
Intubation for Mechanical Ventilation in Children With Acute COVID-19

Recommendations
• If intubation becomes necessary, the Panel recommends that an experienced practitioner perform
the procedure in a controlled setting due to the enhanced risk of exposing health care practitioners
to SARS-CoV-2 during intubation (AIII).
• The Panel recommends using cuffed endotracheal tubes over uncuffed endotracheal tubes in
children who require endotracheal intubation (AIIb).

Rationale
To optimize the safety of patients and health care workers and maximize first-attempt success,
intubation should be performed in a controlled setting by an experienced practitioner. In addition, cuffed
endotracheal tubes are preferred for children of all ages to minimize leaks around the endotracheal tube,
ensure delivery of ventilator pressure, decrease the risk of aspiration, reduce the need for endotracheal
tube exchange, and reduce aerosolization of respiratory secretions during mechanical ventilation.3,22-24
General Considerations for Children With COVID-19 and PARDS Who Require
Mechanical Ventilation
Recommendations
For children with COVID-19 and PARDS who require mechanical ventilation:
• The Panel recommends using low tidal volume (VT) ventilation (VT 4–8 mL/kg of predicted body
weight) over higher VT ventilation (VT >8 mL/kg) (AIIb).
• The Panel recommends targeting plateau pressures of ≤28 cm H2O in children with normal chest
wall compliance and ≤32 cm H2O in those with impaired chest wall compliance (AIII).
• The Panel recommends using positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) at or above the level
recommended in the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Network’s PEEP/FiO2 table
and titration of PEEP based on observed responses in oxygenation, hemodynamics, and respiratory
system compliance (AIIb).
• The Panel recommends permissive hypercapnia (i.e., 7.2–7.3 pH) to remain within lung-protective
strategies and to minimize ventilator-associated lung injury, provided the patient does not have a
coexisting condition that would be worsened by acidosis (e.g., severe pulmonary hypertension,
ventricular dysfunction, intracranial hypertension) (AIII).
• The Panel recommends limiting driving pressure as part of a lung-protective ventilation strategy
(BIIb).
• The Panel recommends against the routine use of inhaled nitric oxide (AIII).
Rationale
There is no evidence that ventilator management in patients with PARDS due to COVID-19
should differ from ventilator management in patients with PARDS due to other causes. The Panel’s
recommendations are derived from the 2023 PALICC-2 recommendations.1
A large observational study conducted in 71 international pediatric ICUs reported that for patients with
mild to moderate ARDS, less adherence to the recommended VT of 5 to 8 mL/kg (or 3 to 6 mL/kg for
patients with severe ARDS) was associated with higher mortality and with more time on ventilation.25
In general, supraphysiologic VT ventilation (>8 mL/kg) should not be used in patients with PARDS, and
VT should be adjusted within the acceptable range to maintain other lung-protective ventilation targets
(e.g., maintaining ≤28 cm H2O plateau pressure). The use of ultra-low VT ventilation (<4 mL/kg) has
not been systematically studied in children, so it should be used with caution.
The ARDS Network established a ventilation protocol that includes suggested low PEEP/high FiO2
values.26 Two observational studies reported better clinical outcomes associated with use of the
suggested (or higher) PEEP levels when compared with lower PEEP levels.25,27 The multicenter studies,
which included nearly 1,500 pediatric patients with ARDS, demonstrated that PEEP levels lower than
those suggested by the ARDS Network were associated with increased mortality.
Driving pressure (i.e., the difference between plateau pressure and PEEP) is a marker for lung strain.

It represents the ratio of delivered VT to respiratory system compliance. An observational study
demonstrated that adults with ARDS who were mechanically ventilated and had a driving pressure
>15 cm H2O had increased mortality.28 An observational study in children reported that higher driving
pressure was associated with a longer duration of ventilation and fewer ventilator-free days.29 The Panel’s
recommendation aligns with the 2023 PALICC-2 recommendation to limit driving pressure in patients
with PARDS.
Inhaled nitric oxide can be considered as a rescue therapy for children with severe PARDS and
COVID-19. In a small, randomized trial, the use of inhaled nitric oxide resulted in reduced use of
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO).30 However, inhaled nitric oxide has a heterogeneous
treatment effect, and many patients do not show improved gas exchange. Although adverse effects are
rare, use of inhaled nitric oxide can have a substantial effect on health care costs. Therefore, inhaled nitric
oxide should not be considered routine therapy for children with PARDS or COVID-19 who are receiving
mechanical ventilation.
Fluid Management in Children With PARDS

Recommendation
• Following an initial resuscitation in children with PARDS due to COVID-19, clinicians should
monitor and titrate fluid balance to maintain adequate intravascular volume while aiming to prevent
positive fluid balance (BIIb).
Rationale
There is no evidence that fluid management in patients with PARDS due to COVID-19 should differ from
fluid management in patients with PARDS due to other causes. Therefore, the Panel’s recommendation
aligns with the 2023 PALICC-2 recommendations.1 No pediatric randomized trials have directly compared
a liberal fluid strategy to a conservative fluid strategy in patients with PARDS of any etiology. Several
observational studies have demonstrated an association between greater fluid overload and worse clinical
outcomes, including fewer ventilator-free days and increased mortality.31-33
In a multicenter study of 168 children with acute lung injury, daily and cumulative fluid balance
were measured over the first 7 days after participants met the inclusion criteria.31 After adjusting for
demographic characteristics, pediatric risk of mortality III (PRISM III) scores, vasopressor use, and the
ratio of arterial partial pressure of oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO2/FiO2), the study found that
an increasing cumulative fluid balance on Day 3 was associated with fewer ventilator-free days, but no
association with mortality was detected.
A more recent single-center study that included 732 children with acute lung injury demonstrated
an association between higher cumulative fluid balance on Days 5 to 7 and increased mortality (OR
1.34 for 100 mL/kg on Day 5; 95% CI, 1.11–1.61) after adjusting for oxygenation index, the number
of nonpulmonary organ failures, immunocompromised status, and vasopressor scores.33 Also, greater
cumulative fluid balance on Days 4 to 7 was associated with a lower probability of successful extubation
by Day 28.
Collectively, the findings from these pediatric observational studies demonstrate the potential harm of
fluid overload in patients with PARDS, particularly after 3 to 4 days of illness. These results are consistent
with the findings from FACTT, a trial of conservative versus liberal fluid management strategies in
adults.34 In adults, FACTT found no difference between the arms for 60-day mortality, but the conservative
strategy arm demonstrated improved oxygenation and less time on mechanical ventilation and in the ICU
when compared with the liberal strategy arm. However, no analysis of data from prospective pediatric

trials delineates a causal relationship between a specific, protocolized fluid management strategy, or
the timing of such a strategy, and clinical outcomes. Therefore, an individualized fluid management
approach that is titrated to maintain intravascular volume while preventing excessive positive fluid
balance, as suggested by the 2023 PALICC-2 recommendations, is appropriate.1
Neuromuscular Blockade in Mechanically Ventilated Children With Severe PARDS

Recommendation
• For mechanically ventilated children with severe PARDS and COVID-19, the Panel recommends
minimal yet effective use of neuromuscular blocking agents in conjunction with sedation if
sedation alone is inadequate to achieve lung-protective ventilation (BIII).
Rationale
There is no evidence that the use of neuromuscular blockade in children with COVID-19 should differ
from practices used for severe PARDS from other causes. Therefore, the Panel’s recommendation aligns
directly with the 2023 PALICC-2 recommendation.1
Therapies for Mechanically Ventilated Children With Severe PARDS and Refractory
Hypoxemia
Recommendations
For children with severe PARDS and refractory hypoxemia after other oxygenation strategies have been
optimized:
• The Panel recommends the use of inhaled nitric oxide as a rescue therapy; if a patient’s
oxygenation does not improve rapidly, the inhaled nitric oxide should be discontinued (BIIb).
• The Panel recommends prone positioning for 12 to 16 hours per day over no prone positioning
(BIII).
recruitment maneuvers, but if they are used in children, slow incremental and decremental
adjustments in PEEP are preferred over sustained inflation maneuvers.
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of high-
frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) in patients with PARDS.
Rationale
There is no evidence that the use of inhaled nitric oxide, prone positioning, or HFOV in children with
COVID-19 should differ from practices used for severe PARDS from other causes. Therefore, the
Panel’s recommendations are based on the 2023 PALICC-2 recommendations.1
One randomized controlled trial and 2 propensity-matched, observational studies in the past 10 years
evaluated the use of inhaled nitric oxide in patients with PARDS.30,35,36 The randomized controlled trial
included 55 patients and found that the use of inhaled nitric oxide resulted in no statistical difference
between the arms for 28-day mortality (8% mortality in the inhaled nitric oxide arm vs. 28% in the
placebo arm), although the trial was underpowered for this outcome.30 However, the inhaled nitric oxide
arm had approximately 5 more ventilator-free days than the placebo arm, a result that was primarily
mediated by avoiding the use of ECMO.
Results from observational studies have shown that patients who received inhaled nitric oxide did
not improve or have fewer ventilator-free days.35,36 A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

in patients with PARDS reported that treatment with inhaled nitric oxide did not decrease mortality,
ventilator-free days, or duration of ventilation.37 Although the evidence is insufficient to recommend
the use of inhaled nitric oxide for all patients with ARDS, in cases of severe hypoxemia, it can be
considered as a rescue therapy to potentially avoid the use of ECMO.
No recent studies have evaluated the role of prone positioning in patients with PARDS, although a large,
multicenter trial is ongoing. Therefore, the Panel’s recommendation to consider prone positioning in
cases of severe PARDS aligns with the 2023 PALICC-2 recommendation and is supported by data from
studies in adults, primarily from PROSEVA, a trial on prone positioning in patients with ARDS.38
The 2023 PALICC-2 does not recommend for or against recruitment maneuvers.1 However, the Panel
suggests using careful incremental and decremental adjustments in PEEP if these maneuvers are applied
in children with refractory hypoxemia. In children, this approach to recruitment maneuvers is preferred
over sustained inflation maneuvers due to the increased risk of harm from barotrauma and hemodynamic
compromise in patients with sustained inflation. Clinical trials in adults have highlighted the potential
harm of applying these maneuvers to patients who may not have the potential for lung recruitment.39,40
Three small randomized controlled trials examined the use of HFOV for PARDS.41-43 None of these
studies found a significant difference for mortality. Several observational studies that used propensity
matching reported no difference in outcomes between the HFOV and conventional ventilation arms
or reported a potential for higher mortality or longer ventilation time with the use of HFOV when
compared with conventional ventilation.44-48 In some of these analyses, residual confounding has been a
concern. Therefore, the Panel determined that there is insufficient evidence to recommend either for or
against the use of HFOV in patients with PARDS due to COVID-19. Some concerns have been raised
about the use of HFOV and the aerosolization of COVID-19; however, adding a filter to the expiratory
limb of the HFOV circuit may alleviate these concerns.

More than half of the patients with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) require
mechanical ventilation or NIV.49-51 For patients with MIS-C, the indications for mechanical ventilation
vary and include shock or cardiac dysfunction, pulmonary edema, procedural preparation (e.g., to
facilitate sedation for central venous catheter placement), respiratory failure, or neurologic failure. The
management of oxygenation and ventilation in patients with MIS-C should follow the usual principles
of shock management outlined in the Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for children, as well as the
principles for clinical management of heart failure and general critical care, as appropriate.12
References
1. Emeriaud G, López-Férnandez YM, Iyer NP, et al. Executive summary of the second international guidelines
for the diagnosis and management of pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome (PALICC-2). Pediatr Crit
2. Lilien TA, Groeneveld NS, van Etten-Jamaludin F, et al. Association of arterial hyperoxia with outcomes
in critically ill children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(1):e2142105.
3. Fernández A, Modesto V, Rimensberger PC, et al. Invasive ventilatory support in patients with pediatric acute
respiratory distress syndrome: from the Second Pediatric Acute Lung Injury Consensus Conference. Pediatr
Crit Care Med. 2023;24(12 suppl 2):S61-S75. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36661436.
4. Ross PA, Newth CJ, Khemani RG. Accuracy of pulse oximetry in children. Pediatrics. 2014;133(1):22-29.
5. Andrist E, Nuppnau M, Barbaro RP, Valley TS, Sjoding MW. Association of race with pulse oximetry

accuracy in hospitalized children. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(3):e224584. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.
8. Wong AI, Charpignon M, Kim H, et al. Analysis of discrepancies between pulse oximetry and arterial oxygen
saturation measurements by race and ethnicity and association with organ dysfunction and mortality. JAMA
Netw Open. 2021;4(11):e2131674. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34730820.
9. Khemani RG, Smith L, López-Férnandez YM, et al. Paediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome incidence
and epidemiology (PARDIE): an international, observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2019;7(2):115-128.
10. Mahendra M, McQuillen P, Dudley RA, Steurer MA. Variation in arterial and central venous catheter use in
pediatric intensive care units. J Intensive Care Med. 2021;36(11):1250-1257. Available at:
11. Gleich SJ, Wong AV, Handlogten KS, Thum DE, Nemergut ME. Major short-term complications of arterial
cannulation for monitoring in children. Anesthesiology. 2021;134(1):26-34. Available at:
13. Carroll CL, Napolitano N, Pons-Ódena M, et al. Noninvasive respiratory support for pediatric acute
Crit Care Med. 2023;24(12 suppl 2):S135-S147. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36661442.
14. Willer RJ, Johnson MD, Cipriano FA, et al. Implementation of a weight-based high-flow nasal cannula
protocol for children with bronchiolitis. Hosp Pediatr. 2021;11(8):891-895. Available at:
15. Maitland K, Kiguli S, Olupot-Olupot P, et al. Randomised controlled trial of oxygen therapy and high-flow
nasal therapy in African children with pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 2021;47(5):566-576. Available at:
16. Chisti MJ, Salam MA, Smith JH, et al. Bubble continuous positive airway pressure for children with
severe pneumonia and hypoxaemia in Bangladesh: an open, randomised controlled trial. Lancet.
17. Milési C, Essouri S, Pouyau R, et al. High flow nasal cannula (HFNC) versus nasal continuous positive
airway pressure (nCPAP) for the initial respiratory management of acute viral bronchiolitis in young infants:
a multicenter randomized controlled trial (TRAMONTANE study). Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(2):209-216.
18. Moreel L, Proesmans M. High flow nasal cannula as respiratory support in treating infant bronchiolitis: a
systematic review. Eur J Pediatr. 2020;179(5):711-718. Available at:
19. Sarkar M, Sinha R, Roychowdhoury S, et al. Comparative study between noninvasive continuous positive
airway pressure and hot humidified high-flow nasal cannulae as a mode of respiratory support in infants
with acute bronchiolitis in pediatric intensive care unit of a tertiary care hospital. Indian J Crit Care Med.
20. Vahlkvist S, Jürgensen L, la Cour A, et al. High flow nasal cannula and continuous positive airway pressure

therapy in treatment of viral bronchiolitis: a randomized clinical trial. Eur J Pediatr. 2020;179(3):513-518.
21. Milési C, Pierre AF, Deho A, et al. A multicenter randomized controlled trial of a 3-L/kg/min versus 2-L/kg/
min high-flow nasal cannula flow rate in young infants with severe viral bronchiolitis (TRAMONTANE 2).
Intensive Care Med. 2018;44(11):1870-1878. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30343318.
22. Weiss M, Dullenkopf A, Fischer JE, et al. Prospective randomized controlled multi-centre trial of cuffed or
uncuffed endotracheal tubes in small children. Br J Anaesth. 2009;103(6):867-873. Available at:
23. Shi F, Xiao Y, Xiong W, Zhou Q, Huang X. Cuffed versus uncuffed endotracheal tubes in children: a meta-
analysis. J Anesth. 2016;30(1):3-11. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26296534.
24. Matava CT, Kovatsis PG, Lee JK, et al. Pediatric airway management in COVID-19 patients: consensus
guidelines from the Society for Pediatric Anesthesia’s Pediatric Difficult Intubation Collaborative and the
Canadian Pediatric Anesthesia Society. Anesth Analg. 2020;131(1):61-73. Available at:
25. Bhalla AK, Klein MJ, Emeriaud G, et al. Adherence to lung-protective ventilation principles in pediatric acute
respiratory distress syndrome: a pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome incidence and epidemiology
study. Crit Care Med. 2021;49(10):1779-1789. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34259438.
26. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with
traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med.
27. Khemani RG, Parvathaneni K, Yehya N, et al. Positive end-expiratory pressure lower than the ARDS Network
protocol is associated with higher pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome mortality. Am J Respir Crit
28. Amato MB, Meade MO, Slutsky AS, et al. Driving pressure and survival in the acute respiratory distress
syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(8):747-755. Available at:
29. van Schelven P, Koopman AA, Burgerhof JGM, et al. Driving pressure is associated with outcome in pediatric
acute respiratory failure. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2022;23(3):e136-e144. Available at:
30. Bronicki RA, Fortenberry J, Schreiber M, Checchia PA, Anas NG. Multicenter randomized controlled trial
of inhaled nitric oxide for pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Pediatr. 2015;166(2):365-369.
31. Valentine SL, Sapru A, Higgerson RA, et al. Fluid balance in critically ill children with acute lung injury. Crit
32. Lima L, Menon S, Goldstein SL, Basu RK. Timing of fluid overload and association with patient outcome.
Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2021;22(1):114-124. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32947381.
33. Black CG, Thomas NJ, Yehya N. Timing and clinical significance of fluid overload in pediatric acute
respiratory distress syndrome. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2021;22(9):795-805. Available at:
34. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical
Trials Network. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med.
35. Gupta P, Richardson T, Hall M, et al. Effect of inhaled nitric oxide on outcomes in children with acute lung
injury: propensity matched analysis from a linked database. Crit Care Med. 2016;44(10):1901-1909. Available
36. Bhalla AK, Yehya N, Mack WJ, et al. The association between inhaled nitric oxide treatment and ICU
mortality and 28-day ventilator-free days in pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med.

37. Rowan CM, Randolph AG, Iyer NP, et al. Pulmonary specific ancillary treatment for pediatric acute
Crit Care Med. 2023;24(12 suppl 2):S99-S111. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36661439.
38. Guérin C, Reignier J, Richard JC, et al. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N
39. Writing Group for the Alveolar Recruitment for Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Trial (ART)
Investigators. Effect of lung recruitment and titrated positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) vs low
PEEP on mortality in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA.
40. Hodgson CL, Cooper DJ, Arabi Y, et al. Maximal recruitment open lung ventilation in acute respiratory
distress syndrome (PHARLAP): a Phase II, multicenter randomized controlled clinical trial. Am J Respir Crit
41. Samransamruajkit R, Rassameehirun C, Pongsanon K, et al. A comparison of clinical efficacy between high
frequency oscillatory ventilation and conventional ventilation with lung volume recruitment in pediatric acute
respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2016;20(2):72-77.
42. El-Nawawy A, Moustafa A, Heshmat H, Abouahmed A. High frequency oscillatory ventilation versus
conventional mechanical ventilation in pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled
study. Turk J Pediatr. 2017;59(2):130-143. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29276865.
43. Arnold JH, Hanson JH, Toro-Figuero LO, et al. Prospective, randomized comparison of high-frequency
oscillatory ventilation and conventional mechanical ventilation in pediatric respiratory failure. Crit Care Med.
44. Gupta P, Green JW, Tang X, et al. Comparison of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation and conventional
mechanical ventilation in pediatric respiratory failure. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168(3):243-249. Available at:
45. Guo YX, Wang ZN, Li YT, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation is an effective treatment for
severe pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome with refractory hypoxemia. Ther Clin Risk Manag.
46. Bateman ST, Borasino S, Asaro LA, et al. Early high-frequency oscillatory ventilation in pediatric acute
respiratory failure. A propensity score analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;193(5):495-503. Available
47. Rowan CM, Loomis A, McArthur J, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation use and severe pediatric
ARDS in the pediatric hematopoietic cell transplant recipient. Respir Care. 2018;63(4):404-411. Available at:
48. Wong JJ, Liu S, Dang H, et al. The impact of high frequency oscillatory ventilation on mortality in paediatric
acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):31. Available at:
49. Yasuhara J, Watanabe K, Takagi H, Sumitomo N, Kuno T. COVID-19 and multisystem inflammatory
syndrome in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2021;56(5):837-848.

Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for
Children
Recommendation
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel recommends that the use of extracorporeal membrane
oxygenation (ECMO) should be considered for children with acute COVID-19 or multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) who have refractory hypoxemia or shock when
hemodynamic parameters cannot be maintained or lung-protective strategies result in inadequate
gas exchange (CIII). Candidacy for ECMO should be determined on a case-by-case basis by the
multidisciplinary team.
Rationale
ECMO is used as a rescue therapy for children with refractory hypoxemia or shock. Similar to outcomes
for adults, outcomes for children managed with venovenous ECMO are variable and influenced by the
etiology and duration of the respiratory failure and by underlying, comorbid medical conditions.1,2 In
addition, studies have shown that pediatric centers that treat fewer patients with ECMO have worse
outcomes than facilities that treat a high volume of patients with ECMO.3,4 Other than studies of
neonates, no randomized trials have evaluated the efficacy or benefit of ECMO for the treatment of
hypoxemic respiratory failure in children without COVID-19. In an observational study of 122 children
with severe pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome (PARDS), children who received ECMO and
those supported without ECMO had similar 90-day mortality (25% vs. 30%).5
The 2023 Pediatric Acute Lung Injury Consensus Conference suggests that patients with severe PARDS
from potentially reversible causes and children who are candidates for lung transplantation be evaluated
for management with ECMO if lung-protective strategies result in inadequate ventilation (conditional
recommendation, very low quality of evidence).6 The Surviving Sepsis Campaign International
Guidelines for the Management of Septic Shock and Sepsis-Associated Organ Dysfunction in Children
issued a weak recommendation, based on very low-quality evidence, for the use of venovenous ECMO
in children with PARDS and refractory hypoxemia.7
Venoarterial ECMO has been used successfully for the treatment of refractory shock in children,
although no trials have evaluated this approach, and the potential benefits must be weighed against risks
of bleeding and thromboembolic events.8-10 The Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for children
issued a weak recommendation, based on very low-quality evidence, for the use of venoarterial ECMO
in children with refractory shock who have not improved with any other treatments.7 However, a
standardized definition for refractory shock in children is not available.
Studies that have evaluated data on the use of ECMO in children with COVID-19 and MIS-C have
suggested that these patients have outcomes similar to patients who have received ECMO for illnesses
not related to COVID-19.11-15 The Extracorporeal Life Support Organization published guidelines for
the use of ECMO in patients with COVID-19.16 In general, children with COVID-19 or MIS-C who are
candidates for ECMO should be assessed using criteria similar to those used for children with severe
respiratory failure or shock due to other causes. Cannulation approaches and management principles
should follow published international guidelines and local protocols for patients who do not have
COVID-19. Pediatric clinicians should consider entering patients into clinical trials or registries to

inform future recommendations regarding the use of ECMO in children with COVID-19.
References
1. Zabrocki LA, Brogan TV, Statler KD, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for pediatric respiratory
failure: survival and predictors of mortality. Crit Care Med. 2011;39(2):364-370. Available at: https://www.
2. Gow KW, Heiss KF, Wulkan ML, et al. Extracorporeal life support for support of children with malignancy
and respiratory or cardiac failure: the extracorporeal life support experience. Crit Care Med. 2009;37(4):1308-
3. Freeman CL, Bennett TD, Casper TC, et al. Pediatric and neonatal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation:
does center volume impact mortality? Crit Care Med. 2014;42(3):512-519. Available at:
4. Gonzalez DO, Sebastião YV, Cooper JN, Minneci PC, Deans KJ. Pediatric extracorporeal membrane
oxygenation mortality is related to extracorporeal membrane oxygenation volume in US hospitals. J Surg Res.
5. Barbaro RP, Xu Y, Borasino S, et al. Does extracorporeal membrane oxygenation improve survival in pediatric
acute respiratory failure? Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2018;197(9):1177-1186. Available at:
6. Rambaud J, Barbaro RP, Macrae DJ, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in pediatric acute respiratory
distress syndrome: from the Second Pediatric Acute Lung Injury Consensus Conference. Pediatr Crit Care
Med. 2023;24(12 suppl 2):S124-S134. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36661441.
8. Schlapbach LJ, Chiletti R, Straney L, et al. Defining benefit threshold for extracorporeal membrane
oxygenation in children with sepsis—a binational multicenter cohort study. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):429.
9. Ramanathan K, Yeo N, Alexander P, et al. Role of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in children with
sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):684. Available at:
10. Oberender F, Ganeshalingham A, Fortenberry JD, et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation
versus conventional therapy in severe pediatric septic shock. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2018;19(10):965-972.
11. Di Nardo M, Hoskote A, Thiruchelvam T, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in children with
coronavirus disease 2019: preliminary report from the collaborative european chapter of the extracorporeal life
support organization prospective survey. ASAIO J. 2021;67(2):121-124. Available at:
12. Alfoudri H, Shamsah M, Yousuf B, AlQuraini N. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and extracorporeal
cardiopulmonary resuscitation for a COVID-19 pediatric patient: a successful outcome. ASAIO J.
14. Watanabe A, Yasuhara J, Karube T, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in children with COVID-19:
a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2023;24(5):406-416. Available at:
15. Bembea MM, Loftis LL, Thiagarajan RR, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation characteristics and

outcomes in children and adolescents with COVID-19 or multisystem inflammatory syndrome admitted to
U.S. ICUs. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2023;24(5):356-371. Available at:
16. Badulak J, Antonini MV, Stead CM, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for COVID-19: updated
2021 guidelines from the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization. ASAIO J. 2021;67(5):485-495. Available

Antiviral Agents, Including Antibody Products
Remdesivir and ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) are approved by the Food and Drug
Administration for the treatment of COVID-19.
Molnupiravir and high-titer COVID-19 convalescent plasma (CCP) are available only under Food and
Drug Administration Emergency Use Authorizations for the treatment of COVID-19.
Recommendations for Treating Nonhospitalized Adults
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends the following anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies as
preferred treatments for COVID-19. These drugs are listed in order of preference:
• Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) (AIIa)
• Remdesivir (BIIa)
• The Panel recommends molnupiravir as an alternative therapy when neither of the preferred therapies are available,
feasible to use, or clinically appropriate (CIIa).
• For more information on using these agents in nonhospitalized adults, see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized
Recommendations for Treating Nonhospitalized Children
• For recommendations on using antiviral therapy in nonhospitalized children, see Therapeutic Management of
Recommendations for Treating Hospitalized Adults or Children
• See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized
Children With COVID-19 for recommendations on using remdesivir with or without immunomodulators in certain
hospitalized patients.
Antiviral Treatments With Insufficient Evidence
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of high-titer CCP for the
treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized or nonhospitalized patients who are immunocompromised.
• Some people who are immunocompromised have prolonged, symptomatic COVID-19 with evidence of ongoing
SARS-CoV-2 replication. For the Panel’s recommendations for managing these patients, see Special Considerations in
People Who Are Immunocompromised.
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of high-titer CCP for the
treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients who are immunocompetent.
Antiviral Treatments That the Panel Recommends Against
• The Panel recommends against the use of the following drugs for the treatment of COVID-19, except in a clinical trial:
• Interferon alfa or beta in nonhospitalized patients (AIIa)
• Systemic interferon alfa in hospitalized patients (AIIa)
• Nitazoxanide (BIIa)
• The Panel recommends against the use of the following drugs for the treatment of COVID-19:
• Anti-SARS-CoV-2 monoclonal antibodies (AIII)
• Chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine and/or azithromycin in hospitalized patients (AI) and nonhospitalized patients
(AIIa)
• CCP in hospitalized patients who are immunocompetent (BIIa)
• Lopinavir/ritonavir and other HIV protease inhibitors in hospitalized patients (AI) and nonhospitalized patients (AIII)
• Interferon beta in hospitalized patients (AI)


Remdesivir
Remdesivir is a nucleotide prodrug of an adenosine analog. It binds to the viral RNA-dependent RNA
polymerase and inhibits viral replication by terminating RNA transcription prematurely. Remdesivir has
demonstrated in vitro and in vivo activity against SARS-CoV-2.1
Intravenous remdesivir is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment
of COVID-19 in adults and pediatric patients aged ≥28 days and weighing ≥3 kg. In nonhospitalized
patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are at high risk of progressing to severe disease,
remdesivir should be started within 7 days of symptom onset and administered for 3 days. Hospitalized
patients should receive remdesivir for 5 days or until hospital discharge, whichever comes first.2 The
FDA prescribing information for remdesivir indicates that if a patient does not clinically improve within
5 days, clinicians may extend the treatment course for up to 5 additional days (for a total duration of 10
days). See Table 4e for more information on administering remdesivir.
Remdesivir has been studied in several clinical trials for the treatment of COVID-19. The
recommendations from the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) are based on the results
of these studies. See Table 4a for more information.
Recommendations
• For the Panel’s recommendations and information on the clinical efficacy of using remdesivir
to treat high-risk, nonhospitalized patients with mild to moderate COVID-19, see Therapeutic
Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
• For the Panel’s recommendations and information on the clinical efficacy of using remdesivir with
or without immunomodulators to treat certain hospitalized patients, see Therapeutic Management
of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
Monitoring, Adverse Effects, and Drug-Drug Interactions

Remdesivir can cause gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g., nausea), elevated transaminase levels, an increase
in prothrombin time without a change in the international normalized ratio, and hypersensitivity
reactions. Bradycardia has also been reported.3,4
The FDA approved remdesivir for use without dose adjustment in patients with an estimated glomerular
filtration rate (eGFR) of <30 mL/min, including those receiving dialysis.2 Remdesivir is formulated with
sulfobutylether-beta-cyclodextrin (SBECD) sodium. SBECD is a vehicle that is primarily eliminated
through the kidneys. Accumulation of SBECD in patients with renal impairment may result in liver
and renal toxicities. The REDPINE trial evaluated the use of remdesivir for 5 days in patients with
COVID-19 and an eGFR of <30 mL/min, and a Phase 1 trial evaluated the use of a single dose of
remdesivir in individuals with different degrees of renal impairment. Neither trial reported significant
safety concerns.
Before starting patients on remdesivir, the FDA recommends performing liver function and prothrombin
time tests as clinically appropriate and repeating these tests during treatment as clinically indicated.
Remdesivir may need to be discontinued if a patient’s alanine transaminase level increases to >10 times
the upper limit of normal, and it should be discontinued if increases in alanine transaminase levels and
signs or symptoms of liver inflammation are observed.2

Remdesivir should be administered in a setting where severe hypersensitivity reactions, such as
anaphylaxis, can be managed. Patients should be monitored during the infusion and observed for at least
1 hour after the infusion as clinically appropriate.
No clinically significant drug-drug interactions are expected with cytochrome P450 3A4 inducers or
with inhibitors of P-glycoprotein or organic anion transporting polypeptides 1B1 or 1B3.2 See Table 4e
for more information.
Patients Who Are Immunocompromised and Have Prolonged Symptoms and

Evidence of Ongoing Viral Replication
Patients who are severely immunocompromised may have a prolonged duration of SARS-CoV-2
replication, which may lead to rapid viral evolution. There is concern that using a single antiviral agent
in these patients may result in the emergence of resistant virus.5 Additional studies are needed to assess
this risk. The data on using combinations of antiviral therapies for the treatment of COVID-19 are
limited.6 Clinical trials are needed to determine the role of combination therapy in treating patients with
COVID-19.
series have documented treating these patients with additional antiviral treatments, prolonged courses of
antiviral treatments, high-titer COVID-19 convalescent plasma, or combination therapy.7-11
For more information on the use of remdesivir in patients who are moderately to severely
immunocompromised, see Special Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised,
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19, and Therapeutic Management of
Considerations in Pregnant and Lactating People

See Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics for the Panel’s guidance regarding the use of
remdesivir during pregnancy and lactation.
Considerations in Children
See Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19 and Therapeutic
Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19 for the Panel’s guidance regarding the use of
remdesivir in children.
References
1. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel
coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020;30(3):269-271. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/32020029.
3. Devgun JM, Zhang R, Brent J, et al. Identification of bradycardia following remdesivir administration
through the US Food and Drug Administration American College of Medical Toxicology COVID-19 Toxic
Pharmacovigilance Project. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(2):e2255815. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

4. Ishisaka Y, Aikawa T, Malik A, et al. Association of remdesivir use with bradycardia: a systematic
review and meta-analysis. J Med Virol. 2023;95(8):e29018. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/37539782.
5. Gandhi S, Klein J, Robertson AJ, et al. De novo emergence of a remdesivir resistance mutation during
treatment of persistent SARS-CoV-2 infection in an immunocompromised patient: a case report. Nat Commun.
6. Gliga S, Lübke N, Killer A, et al. Rapid selection of sotrovimab escape variants in severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus 2 Omicron-infected immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76(3):408-
8. Brosh-Nissimov T, Ma’aravi N, Leshin-Carmel D, et al. Combination treatment of persistent COVID-19 in
immunocompromised patients with remdesivir, nirmatrelvir/ritonavir and tixagevimab/cilgavimab. J Microbiol
Immunol Infect. 2023;S1684-1182(23):00170-6. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37805361.
10. Graziani L, Gori L, Manciulli T, et al. Successful use of nirmatrelvir/ritonavir in immunocompromised
patients with persistent and/or relapsing COVID-19. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2023;78(2):555-558. Available

Table 4a. Remdesivir: Selected Clinical Trial Data
The clinical trials described in this table do not represent all the trials that the Panel reviewed while developing the recommendations for
RDV. The studies summarized below are those that have had the greatest impact on the Panel’s recommendations.
Methods Results Limitations and Interpretation

ACTT-1: Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Remdesivir in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in 10 Countries1
Key Inclusion Criteria Participant Characteristics Key Limitations
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Mean age 59 years; 64% men; 53% White, 21% Black, 13% • Wide range of disease severity among
• ≥1 of the following: Asian, 24% Hispanic/Latinx patients; study not powered to detect
• Coexisting conditions: 26% with 1; 55% with ≥2 differences within subgroups
• Pulmonary infiltrates
• 13% not on oxygen; 41% on supplemental oxygen; 18% on • Study not powered to detect differences
• SpO2 ≤94% on room air in mortality between arms
HFNC oxygen or NIV; 27% on MV or ECMO
• Need for supplemental oxygen, HFNC oxygen, • No data on longer-term morbidity
NIV, MV, or ECMO • Median of 9 days (IQR 6–12 days) from symptom onset to
randomization Interpretation
Key Exclusion Criteria
• 23% received corticosteroids during study. • In patients with severe COVID-19, RDV
• ALT or AST >5 times ULN reduced the time to clinical recovery.
Primary Outcomes
• eGFR <30 mL/min • The benefit was most apparent
• Time to clinical recovery: 10 days in RDV arm vs. 15 days in
Interventions placebo arm (rate ratio for recovery 1.29; 95% CI, 1.12–1.49; P in hospitalized patients who were
• RDV 200 mg IV on Day 1, then RDV 100 mg IV < 0.001) randomized within 10 days of symptom
once daily for up to 9 days (n = 541) onset and were receiving supplemental
• Benefit of RDV was greatest in patients randomized during oxygen.
• Placebo for up to 10 days (n = 521) first 10 days after symptom onset and in those who required
supplemental oxygen at enrollment. • There was no observed benefit in those
Primary Endpoint on HFNC oxygen, NIV, MV, or ECMO, but
• No difference between arms in time to recovery for patients on the study was not powered to detect
• Time to clinical recovery HFNC oxygen, NIV, MV, or ECMO at enrollment differences within subgroups.
Key Secondary Endpoints Secondary Outcomes
• Clinical status at Day 15, as measured by an OS • Improvement in clinical status at Day 15 was more likely in RDV
• Mortality by Day 29 arm (OR 1.5; 95% CI, 1.2–1.9; P < 0.001).
• Occurrence of SAEs • No difference between arms in mortality by Day 29
• Occurrence of SAEs: 25% in RDV arm vs. 32% in placebo arm

CATCO: Multicenter, Open-Label, Pragmatic RCT of Remdesivir in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Canada2
Key Inclusion Criterion Participant Characteristics Key Limitations
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Median age 66 years; 60% men; 41% White • Open-label study
Key Exclusion Criterion • Median of 8 days from symptom onset to randomization • Information on comorbidities was
• Already receiving RDV • At entry: not available for 26% of patients.
Interventions • 54% on low-flow oxygen Interpretation
• RDV 200 mg IV on Day 0, then RDV 100 mg IV once daily on • 24% on HFNC oxygen • Compared to SOC, RDV did not
Days 1–9 (n = 634) • 9% on MV decrease in-hospital mortality
• Local SOC (n = 647) • Rates of comorbidities were similar between arms. among hospitalized patients with
COVID-19.
Primary Endpoint • 87% in both arms were receiving corticosteroids at
baseline. • Patients who received RDV were
• In-hospital mortality less likely to require MV than
Primary Outcome patients who received SOC.
Key Secondary Endpoints
• In-hospital mortality: 19% in RDV arm vs. 23% in SOC arm
• New need for MV
(relative risk 0.83; 95% CI, 0.67–1.03)
• Hospital LOS
Secondary Outcomes
• Incidence of new hepatic dysfunction, incidence of need for
dialysis, and change in SCr at Day 5 • New need for MV: 8% in RDV arm vs. 15% in SOC arm
(relative risk 0.53; 95% CI, 0.38–0.75)
• No significant difference between arms in hospital LOS
• No difference between arms in incidence of new hepatic
dysfunction, incidence of need for dialysis, or change in
SCr at Day 5

DisCoVeRy: Open-Label, Adaptive RCT of Remdesivir in Hospitalized Patients With Moderate or Severe COVID-19 in Europe3
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Median age 64 years; 70% men; 69% White • Open-label study
• Illness of any duration • 74% with ≥1 coexisting conditions • 440 participants in this study also
• SpO2 ≤94% on room air or use of supplemental oxygen, • 40% received corticosteroids. enrolled in the WHO Solidarity trial.
HFNC oxygen, NIV, or MV • Median of 9 days from symptom onset to randomization in Interpretation
Key Exclusion Criteria both arms • There was no clinical benefit of
• ALT or AST >5 times ULN • 61% with moderate disease; 39% with severe disease RDV in hospitalized patients with
COVID-19 who were symptomatic
• Severe chronic kidney disease Primary Outcome for >7 days and who required
Interventions • No difference between arms in clinical status at Day 15 (OR supplemental oxygen.
0.98; 95% CI, 0.77–1.25; P = 0.85)
• RDV 200 mg IV on Day 1, then RDV 100 mg IV once daily
for up to 9 days (n = 429) • A prespecified subgroup analysis based on duration
of symptoms found no significant difference in clinical
• SOC (n = 428)
status between arms.
Primary Endpoint
Secondary Outcomes
• Clinical status at Day 15, as measured by an OS
• Mortality by Day 29: 8% in RDV arm vs. 9% in SOC arm
Key Secondary Endpoints • Occurrence of SAEs: 33% in RDV arm vs. 31% in SOC arm
• Mortality by Day 29 (P = 0.48)
• Occurrence of SAEs

WHO Solidarity Trial, Final Report: Open-Label, Adaptive RCT in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in 35 Countries4
• Not known to have received any study drug • 46% aged 50–69 years; 22% aged ≥70 years; 63% men • Open-label study
Interventions • Rates of comorbidities were similar between arms. • No data on time from symptom
onset to enrollment
• RDV 200 mg IV on Day 0, then RDV 100 mg IV once daily on • At entry:
Days 1–9 (n = 4,146) • 71% on supplemental oxygen • Data analysis did not separate
receipt of low-flow and high-flow
• Local SOC (n = 4,129) • 9% on MV oxygen.
Primary Endpoint • 68% received corticosteroids during study; 4.6% received
IL-6 inhibitors. Interpretation
• In-hospital mortality
• There was no benefit of RDV in
Key Secondary Endpoint Primary Outcome hospitalized patients with COVID-19
• Initiation of MV • In-hospital mortality: 14.5% in RDV arm vs. 15.6% in SOC who were on MV at baseline.
arm (rate ratio 0.91; 95% CI, 0.82–1.02; P = 0.12) • Compared to SOC, RDV had a
• On MV: 42.1% vs. 38.6% (rate ratio 1.13; 95% CI, modest but statistically significant
0.89–1.42; P = 0.32) effect on reducing the risk of death
• Not on MV but receiving oxygen: 14.6% vs. 16.3% (rate or progression to MV in hospitalized
ratio 0.87; 95% CI, 0.76–0.99; P = 0.03) patients who required oxygen.
• Not on oxygen initially: 2.9% vs. 3.8% (rate ratio 0.76;
95% CI, 0.46–1.28; P = 0.30)
Secondary Outcome
• Initiation of MV: 14.1% in RDV arm vs. 15.7% in SOC arm
(rate ratio 0.88; 95% CI, 0.77–1.00; P = 0.04)

GS-US-540-5774 Study: Open-Label RCT of 10 Days or 5 Days of Remdesivir in Hospitalized Patients With Moderate COVID-19 in Asia, Europe, and the
United States5
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Demographic and baseline disease characteristics were • Open-label design may have
• Pulmonary infiltrates similar across arms. affected decisions about
• Median age 57 years; 61% men; 58% White concomitant medications (e.g.,
• SpO2 >94% on room air more patients in SOC arm received
• 84% required no supplemental oxygen; 15% required low- AZM, HCQ or CQ, and LPV/RTV) and
flow oxygen; 1% required HFNC oxygen or NIV. time of hospital discharge.
• ALT or AST >5 times ULN
• Concomitant medication use in the 10-day RDV, 5-day RDV, • No data on time to return to activity
• CrCl <50 mL/min and SOC arms: for discharged patients
Interventions • Steroids: 15% vs. 17% vs. 19%
Interpretation
• RDV 200 mg IV on Day 1, then RDV 100 mg IV once daily • Tocilizumab: 1% vs. 1% vs. 5%
for 9 days (n = 193) • Hospitalized patients with moderate
• HCQ or CQ: 11% vs. 8% vs. 45% COVID-19 who received 5 days of
• RDV 200 mg IV on Day 1, then RDV 100 mg IV once daily • LPV/RTV: 6% vs. 5% vs. 22% RDV had better clinical status at Day
for 4 days (n = 191) 11 than those who received SOC.
• AZM: 21% vs. 18% vs. 31%
• Local SOC (n = 200)
• Median duration of therapy: 6 days in 10-day RDV arm vs. • There was no difference in clinical
Primary Endpoint 5 days in 5-day RDV arm status at Day 11 between patients
who received 10 days of RDV and
• Clinical status at Day 11, as measured by an OS Primary Outcome those who received SOC.
• Clinical status at Day 11:
• Significantly better in 5-day RDV arm than in SOC arm
(OR 1.65; 95% CI, 1.09–2.48; P = 0.02)
• No difference between 10-day RDV arm and SOC arm (P
= 0.18)

GS-US-540-5773 Study: Open-Label RCT of 10 Days or 5 Days of Remdesivir in Hospitalized Patients With Severe COVID-19 in Asia, Europe, and the United
States6
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Median age: 61 years in 5-day RDV arm vs. 62 years in • Open-label study
• Aged ≥12 years 10-day RDV arm • Lack of placebo arm
• Pulmonary infiltrates and SpO2 ≤94% on room air or receipt • 60% men in 5-day RDV arm vs. 68% men in 10-day RDV • Baseline imbalances in clinical
of supplemental oxygen arm status of patients in 5-day RDV and
• Oxygen requirements at baseline for 5-day RDV arm vs. 10-day RDV arms
10-day RDV arm:
• Need for MV or ECMO Interpretation
• None: 17% vs. 11%
• Multiorgan failure • In hospitalized patients with severe
• Low-flow oxygen: 56% vs. 54% COVID-19 who were not receiving
• ALT or AST >5 times ULN MV or ECMO, using RDV for 5 or 10
• HFNC oxygen or NIV: 24% vs. 30%
• Estimated CrCl <50 mL/min days had similar clinical benefits.
• MV or ECMO: 2% vs. 5%
Interventions • Baseline clinical status was worse in 10-day RDV arm than
• RDV 200 mg IV on Day 1, then RDV 100 mg IV once daily in 5-day RDV arm (P = 0.02).
for 4 days (n = 200)
Primary Outcome
• After adjusting for baseline clinical status:
for 9 days (n = 197)
• Proportion with improved clinical status at Day 14: 65%
Primary Endpoint in 5-day RDV arm vs. 54% in 10-day RDV arm (P = 0.14)
• Clinical status at Day 14, as measured by an OS

PINETREE: Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Remdesivir for 3 Days in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 Who Were at High Risk of Disease
Progression in Denmark, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States7
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection ≤4 days from • Mean age 50 years; 30% aged ≥60 years; 52% men; 80% • Study halted early due to
screening White, 8% Black administrative issues.
• Aged ≥12 years • 62% with DM; 55% with obesity; 48% with HTN • Vaccinated individuals were
• ≥1 risk factor for disease progression or aged ≥60 years • Median of 5 days (IQR 3–6 days) of symptoms before first excluded.
• Symptom onset ≤7 days from randomization infusion Interpretation
• ≥1 ongoing COVID-19 symptom • Median of 2 days (IQR 1–4 days) from RT-PCR confirmation • Among nonhospitalized patients
to screening for study participation. with COVID-19, 3 consecutive
Key Exclusion Criteria days of RDV resulted in an 87%
Primary Outcomes
• COVID-19 vaccination relative reduction in the risk of
• COVID-19–related hospitalization or death from any cause hospitalization or death when
• Receipt of supplemental oxygen by Day 28: 2 (0.7%) in RDV arm vs. 15 (5.3%) in placebo compared to placebo.
• Previous hospitalization or treatment for COVID-19 arm (HR 0.13; 95% CI, 0.03–0.59; P = 0.008)
Interventions • Occurrence of AEs: 42% in RDV arm vs. 46% in placebo
• RDV 200 mg IV on Day 1, then RDV 100 mg IV once daily on arm
Days 2 and 3 (n = 279) Secondary Outcome
• Placebo (n = 283) • COVID-19–related, medically attended visit or death from
Primary Endpoints any cause by Day 28: 4 (1.6%) in RDV arm vs. 21 (8.3%) in
placebo arm (HR 0.19; 95% CI, 0.07–0.56)
• COVID-19–related hospitalization or death from any cause
by Day 28
• Occurrence of AEs
Key Secondary Endpoint
• COVID-19–related, medically attended visit or death from
any cause by Day 28
Key: AE = adverse event; ALT = alanine transaminase; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; AZM = azithromycin; CQ = chloroquine; CrCl = creatinine clearance; DM =
diabetes mellitus; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; HCQ = hydroxychloroquine; HFNC = high-flow nasal
cannula; HTN = hypertension; IV = intravenous; IL = interleukin; LOS = length of stay; LPV/RTV = lopinavir/ritonavir; MV = mechanical ventilation; NIV = noninvasive
ventilation; OS = ordinal scale; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; RCT = randomized controlled trial; RDV = remdesivir; RT-PCR = reverse
transcription polymerase chain reaction; SAE = serious adverse event; SCr = serum creatinine; SOC = standard of care; SpO2 = oxygen saturation; ULN = upper limit of
normal; WHO = World Health Organization

References
1. Beigel JH, Tomashek KM, Dodd LE, et al. Remdesivir for the treatment of COVID-19—final report. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(19):1813-1826.
2. Ali K, Azher T, Baqi M, et al. Remdesivir for the treatment of patients in hospital with COVID-19 in Canada: a randomized controlled trial. CMAJ.
2022;194(7):E242-E251. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35045989.
3. Ader F, Bouscambert-Duchamp M, Hites M, et al. Remdesivir plus standard of care versus standard of care alone for the treatment of patients admitted
to hospital with COVID-19 (DisCoVeRy): a Phase 3, randomised, controlled, open-label trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(2):209-221. Available at:
4. WHO Solidarity Trial Consortium. Remdesivir and three other drugs for hospitalised patients with COVID-19: final results of the WHO Solidarity
randomised trial and updated meta-analyses. Lancet. 2022;399(10339):1941-1953. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35512728.
5. Spinner CD, Gottlieb RL, Criner GJ, et al. Effect of remdesivir vs standard care on clinical status at 11 days in patients with moderate COVID-19: a
randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020;324(11):1048-1057. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32821939.
6. Goldman JD, Lye DCB, Hui DS, et al. Remdesivir for 5 or 10 days in patients with severe COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(19):1827-1837.
7. Gottlieb RL, Vaca CE, Paredes R, et al. Early remdesivir to prevent progression to severe COVID-19 in outpatients. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(4):305-

Nirmatrelvir is an oral protease inhibitor that is active against MPRO, a viral protease that plays an
essential role in viral replication by cleaving the 2 viral polyproteins.1 It has demonstrated antiviral
activity against all coronaviruses that are known to infect humans.2 Nirmatrelvir is packaged with
ritonavir (as Paxlovid), a strong cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4 inhibitor and pharmacokinetic boosting
agent that has been used to boost HIV protease inhibitors. Coadministration of ritonavir is required to
increase nirmatrelvir concentrations to the target therapeutic range.
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the
treatment of mild to moderate COVID-19 in adults who are at high risk of progressing to severe
COVID-19.3 The Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir will continue
to authorize the use of the EUA-labeled product for the treatment of nonhospitalized adolescents aged 12
to 17 years and weighing ≥40 kg who are at high risk of progressing to severe COVID-19.
Recommendations
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends using nirmatrelvir 300 mg
with ritonavir 100 mg (Paxlovid) orally (PO) twice daily for 5 days in nonhospitalized adults
with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are at high risk of disease progression (AIIa). Treatment
should be initiated as soon as possible and within 5 days of symptom onset. For information
on medical conditions that confer high risk, see the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
webpage Underlying Medical Conditions Associated With Higher Risk for Severe COVID-19.
• Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is available through an FDA EUA for the treatment of mild to
moderate COVID-19 in nonhospitalized adolescents aged 12 to 17 years and weighing ≥40 kg.4
For recommendations on using ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in nonhospitalized children with
COVID-19, see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19.
• See the section titled Considerations in Patients With Severe Renal Insufficiency below for
information on managing patients with COVID-19 and severe renal insufficiency.
• For a discussion of the treatment of prolonged, symptomatic COVID-19 in patients with evidence
of ongoing SARS-CoV-2 replication, see the section titled Patients Who Are Immunocompromised
and Have Prolonged COVID-19 Symptoms and Evidence of Ongoing Viral Replication below.
Rationale
The EPIC-HR trial enrolled nonhospitalized adults with mild to moderate COVID-19 who were not
vaccinated and who were at high risk of progressing to severe disease.5 The trial demonstrated that
starting ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir within 5 days of symptom onset in these patients reduced the risk
of hospitalization or death through Day 28 by 89% compared to placebo. This efficacy is comparable
to remdesivir (87% relative reduction)6 and greater than the efficacy reported for molnupiravir (31%
relative reduction).7 However, these agents have not been directly compared in clinical trials.
Although ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir demonstrated a clinical benefit during the EPIC-HR trial, the
benefits in unvaccinated people who are at low risk of progression to severe disease or in vaccinated
people who are at high risk of progression to severe disease are unclear. The EPIC-SR trial, which
included both of these populations, found that ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir did not reduce the duration
of symptoms and did not have a statistically significant effect on the risk of hospitalization or death

compared to placebo, although the event rates were low in this trial.8 Some observational studies have
shown a benefit of using ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in vaccinated individuals who were at high
risk of progressing to severe COVID-19.9-12 However, observational studies have inherent limitations.
In particular, the results of these studies may be affected by residual confounding. For information on
treatment considerations for vaccinated individuals, see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized
There are no data from randomized clinical trials that support the use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in
hospitalized patients with COVID-19.
For more information on the use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in patients with COVID-19, see Table
4e. Because of the potential for significant drug-drug interactions with concomitant medications, this
regimen may not be the optimal choice for all patients. See Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-
Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Concomitant Medications for details.
The FDA prescribing information for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir includes a boxed warning about
significant drug-drug interactions between ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and other medications. These
interactions are primarily caused by the ritonavir component of the combination. Ritonavir, a strong
CYP3A4 inhibitor and a P-glycoprotein inhibitor, may increase the blood concentration of certain
concomitant medications and increase the potential for serious drug toxicities. Before prescribing
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, clinicians should carefully review the patient’s concomitant medications,
including over-the-counter medications, herbal supplements, and recreational drugs, to evaluate
potential drug-drug interactions. Clinicians should consider both the potential benefits of treatment with
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and the potential risks related to drug-drug interactions. Many drug-drug
interactions between ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and concomitant medications (e.g., certain statins,
calcium channel blockers, or direct oral anticoagulants) can be safely managed. For the Panel’s
recommendations on preferred and alternative antiviral therapies for outpatients with COVID-19, see
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19. Clinicians should be aware that
the drug-drug interaction potential of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir may change if it is used for extended
durations (i.e., ≥10 days).
The following resources provide information on identifying and managing drug-drug interactions.
• Quick reference lists:
• Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Concomitant
Medications. Box 1 lists select outpatient medications that are not expected to have clinically
relevant interactions with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir. Box 2 lists select outpatient
medications that have clinically relevant drug-drug interactions with ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir.
• Web-based drug-drug interaction checker:
• Tables with guidance on managing specific drug-drug interactions:
nirmatrelvir

Patients Who Are Immunocompromised and Have Prolonged COVID-19 Symptoms
and Evidence of Ongoing Viral Replication
series have described the treatment of these patients with additional antiviral treatments, prolonged
courses of antiviral treatments, high-titer COVID-19 convalescent plasma, or combination therapy.13-
19
For information on potential treatment options, see Special Considerations in People Who Are
Immunocompromised and Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
Viral Rebound and Symptom Recurrence

with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir or molnupiravir.3,20-23 However, viral rebound can also occur in
rebound and symptom recurrence than those who did not receive treatment.25,26 The re-emergence of
culturable SARS-CoV-2 has been reported in some individuals with viral rebound.
therapies have not been associated with progression to severe COVID-19.27,28 Therefore, concerns about
viral rebound or the recurrence of symptoms should not be a reason to avoid using antiviral therapies
when their use is indicated.23,29-31 There are insufficient data on whether a longer course of ritonavir-
boosted nirmatrelvir will prevent viral rebound or symptom recurrence. There are also insufficient data
on the efficacy of administering a second course of antiviral therapy to treat viral rebound or symptom
recurrence. However, a clinical trial that is evaluating the use of a second course of ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir to treat patients with viral rebound and symptom recurrence is underway (ClinicalTrials.gov
Identifier NCT05567952).
SARS-CoV-2 Resistance
Viral mutations that lead to substantial resistance to nirmatrelvir have been selected for in in vitro
studies; the fitness of these mutations is unclear. Surveillance for the emergence of significant resistance
to nirmatrelvir is critical, particularly in patients who are severely immunocompromised and who
experience prolonged replication of SARS-CoV-2.
• Nirmatrelvir must be administered with ritonavir to achieve sufficient therapeutic plasma
concentrations.
• In patients with moderate renal impairment (i.e., those with an estimated glomerular filtration rate
[eGFR] of ≥30 to <60 mL/min), the dose should be reduced to nirmatrelvir 150 mg with ritonavir
100 mg PO twice daily.
• Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is not recommended for patients with known or suspected severe
hepatic impairment (i.e., Child-Pugh Class C), and it should be used with caution in patients with
pre-existing liver diseases, liver enzyme abnormalities, or hepatitis. No pharmacokinetic or safety
data are available for this patient population.
• Patients should complete the 5-day treatment course of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir because

there are concerns that a shorter treatment course may be less effective or may lead to the
emergence of drug resistance.
• If a patient requires hospitalization after starting treatment, the full 5-day treatment course of
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir should be completed unless there are drug-drug interactions that
preclude its use.
• There are very limited data on combining ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir with other antiviral
therapies to treat nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19. Clinical trials are needed to determine
whether combination therapy has a role in the treatment of COVID-19.
• The FDA prescribing information for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir advises against crushing
nirmatrelvir and ritonavir tablets. However, some data indicate that the tablets can be split or
crushed if necessary.32
Monitoring and Adverse Effects

The most common adverse effects of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir are dysgeusia, diarrhea,
hypertension, and myalgia. Anaphylaxis, serious skin reactions, and other hypersensitivity reactions
have also been reported.
There is no need to check a patient’s renal function prior to prescribing ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir
unless the patient is suspected to have moderate to severe renal impairment (i.e., those with an eGFR of
<60 mL/min). For these patients, clinicians may consider checking the patient’s renal function to inform
the dosing of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.
Considerations in Patients With Severe Renal Insufficiency

The FDA prescribing information states that ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is not recommended for
patients with an eGFR of <30 mL/min until more data are available to establish appropriate dosing.3
Additional information is available in the initial FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research review
for the EUA of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.33 There is limited clinical experience with the use of
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in patients with an eGFR of <30 mL/min and in those who require
hemodialysis.34,35 Based on limited data, some groups have proposed dosing adjustments for ritonavir-
boosted nirmatrelvir in these patients.36-38

See Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics for the Panel’s guidance on the use of ritonavir-
boosted nirmatrelvir during pregnancy and lactation.
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is available through an FDA EUA for the treatment of mild to
moderate COVID-19 in nonhospitalized adolescents aged 12 to 17 years and weighing ≥40 kg. For
recommendations on using ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in nonhospitalized children with COVID-19,
see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19.
Clinical Data
The EPIC-HR study was a multinational randomized trial that compared the use of ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir PO twice daily for 5 days to placebo in nonhospitalized patients aged ≥18 years with mild to
moderate COVID-19 who were at high risk of clinical progression.5 Eligible patients were randomized
within 5 days of symptom onset, were not vaccinated against COVID-19, and had at least 1 risk factor
for progression to severe disease. Patients were excluded if they used medications that were either

highly dependent upon CYP3A4 for clearance or strong inducers of CYP3A4.
A total of 2,246 patients enrolled in the trial. The mean age was 46 years, 51% of the patients were men,
and 72% were White. Forty-seven percent of the patients tested negative for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies,
and 66% started study treatment within 3 days of symptom onset.
Patients who were randomized within 3 days of symptom onset (n = 1,379) were included in the
modified intention-to-treat (mITT) analysis. COVID-19–related hospitalizations or all-cause deaths
occurred by Day 28 in 5 of 697 patients (0.72%) in the ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir arm and in 44 of
682 patients (6.5%) in the placebo arm. Among the 2,085 patients who were randomized within 5 days
of symptom onset (mITT1 analysis), COVID-19–related hospitalizations and all-cause deaths occurred
in 8 of 1,039 patients (0.77%) in the ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir arm and in 66 of 1,046 patients
(6.3%) in the placebo arm (89% relative risk reduction; 5.6% estimated absolute reduction; 95% CI,
7.2% to 4.0%; P < 0.001). There were no deaths in the ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir arm, and 13 deaths
occurred in the placebo arm.
A total of 2,224 patients who received at least 1 dose of either ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir or placebo
were included in the EPIC-HR safety analysis set. Among these patients, dysgeusia and diarrhea
occurred more frequently in ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir recipients than in placebo recipients (6% vs.
0.3% and 3% vs. 2%, respectively). Fewer ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir recipients discontinued the
study drug due to an adverse event than placebo recipients (2% vs. 4%).
References
1. Pillaiyar T, Manickam M, Namasivayam V, Hayashi Y, Jung SH. An overview of severe acute respiratory
syndrome-coronavirus (SARS-CoV) 3CL protease inhibitors: peptidomimetics and small molecule
chemotherapy. J Med Chem. 2016;59(14):6595-6628. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/26878082.
2. Owen DR, Allerton CMN, Anderson AS, et al. An oral SARS-CoV-2 MPRO inhibitor clinical candidate for
the treatment of COVID-19. Science. 2021;374(6575):1586-1593. Available at:
Paxlovid. 2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/155050/download.
8. Pfizer. Pfizer reports additional data on PAXLOVID supporting upcoming new drug application submission to
U.S. FDA. 2022. Available at: https://www.pfizer.com/news/press-release/press-release-detail/pfizer-reports-
additional-data-paxlovidtm-supporting. Accessed January 26, 2024.
9. Dryden-Peterson S, Kim A, Kim AY, et al. Nirmatrelvir plus ritonavir for early COVID-19 in a large U.S.
health system: a population-based cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2023;176(1):77-84. Available at: https://

10. Arbel R, Wolff Sagy Y, Hoshen M, et al. Nirmatrelvir use and severe COVID-19 outcomes during
the Omicron surge. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(9):790-798. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/36001529.
11. Ganatra S, Dani SS, Ahmad J, et al. Oral nirmatrelvir and ritonavir in nonhospitalized vaccinated patients with
coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76(4):563-572. Available at:
12. Shah MM, Joyce B, Plumb ID, et al. Paxlovid associated with decreased hospitalization rate among adults
with COVID-19—United States, April–September 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71(48):1531-
Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2024;57(1):189-194. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37805361.
18. Focosi D, Maggi F, D’Abramo A, Nicastri E, Sullivan DJ. Antiviral combination therapies for persistent
an observational study. Ann Intern Med. 2023;176(12):1577-1585. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/37956428.

Clin Infect Dis. 2023;Published online ahead of print. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/37963102.
2021-2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023;72(51):1365-1370. Available at:
32. BC COVID Therapeutics Committee COVID Therapy Review and Advisory Working Group. Therapeutic
brief: crushing nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (Paxlovid). 2022. Available at: http://www.bccdc.ca/Health-
Professionals-Site/Documents/COVID-treatment/Crushing_Paxlovid.pdf.
33. Food and Drug Administration. Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) for Paxlovid (nirmatrelvir tablets
co-packaged with ritonavir tablets): Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) review. 2021. Available
at: https://www.fda.gov/media/155194/download.
34. Hiremath S, Blake PG, Yeung A, et al. Early experience with modified dose nirmatrelvir/ritonavir in dialysis
patients with coronavirus disease 2019. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2023;18(4):485-490. Available at:
35. Chan GCK, Lui GCY, Wong CNS, et al. Safety profile and clinical and virological outcomes of nirmatrelvir-
ritonavir treatment in patients with advanced chronic kidney disease and coronavirus disease 2019
(COVID-19). Clin Infect Dis. 2023;77(10):1406-1412. Available at:
36. University of Liverpool. Prescribing resources. 2022. Available at: https://covid19-druginteractions.org/
prescribing_resources. Accessed January 31, 2024.
37. Ontario Health. COVID-19 supplemental clinical guidance #4: nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (Paxlovid) use in patients
with advanced chronic kidney disease and patients on dialysis with COVID-19. 2022. Available at: https://
www.ontariohealth.ca/sites/ontariohealth/files/2022-04/PaxlovidClinicalGuide.pdf.
38. Hiremath S, McGuinty M, Argyropoulos C, et al. Prescribing nirmatrelvir/ritonavir for COVID-19 in
advanced CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2022;17(8):1247-1250. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/35680135.

Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-
Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and
Concomitant Medications
Ritonavir, a strong cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4 inhibitor and a P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitor, is
coadministered with nirmatrelvir to increase the blood concentration of nirmatrelvir, thereby making it
effective against SARS-CoV-2. Ritonavir may also increase blood concentrations of certain concomitant
medications. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) prescribing information includes a boxed warning
about significant drug-drug interactions between ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and other
medications.
Before prescribing ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir to treat patients with mild to moderate COVID-19,
carefully review the patient’s concomitant medications, including over-the-counter medicines, herbal
supplements, and recreational drugs. Clinicians should consider the potential benefits of treatment with
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, the potential risks of drug-drug interactions, and whether any risks related
to drug-drug interactions can be safely managed. Clinicians should be aware that many commonly used
medications can be safely coadministered with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir despite its drug-drug
interaction potential. Box 1 includes commonly prescribed medications that are not expected to have
clinically relevant interactions with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.
Because ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is the only highly effective oral antiviral for the treatment of
COVID-19, drug interactions that can be safely managed should not preclude the use of this medication.
Box 1. Select Outpatient Medications Not Expected to Have Clinically Relevant Interactions With
This list is primarily based on the most common medication searches by U.S. users on the Liverpool
COVID-19 Drug Interactions website.
Medications Without Clinically Relevant Interactions
These medications do not require dose adjustments when coadministered with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, and the patients
do not require additional monitoring. This list does not include all the noninteracting medications within each drug category.
Acid Reducers Cardiovascular Immunosuppressants Neuropsychiatric, Respiratory
• Famotidine • Aspirin • Abrocitinib cont'd • Corticosteroids
• Omeprazole • Atenolol • Baricitinib • Citalopram (inhaled/nasal)
• Pantoprazole • Carvedilol • Methotrexate • Duloxetine • Formoterol
• Furosemide • Mycophenolate • Escitalopram • Montelukast
Allergy
• Hydrochlorothiazide • Prednisone • Fluoxetine
• Cetirizine Miscellaneous
• Irbesartan • Gabapentin
• Diphenhydramine Lipid-Modifiers • Allopurinol
• Isosorbide dinitrate • Lorazepam
• Fexofenadine • Ezetimibe • Contraceptives (PO)a
• Lisinopril • Nortriptyline
• Loratadine • Pitavastatin • Cyclobenzaprine
• Losartan • Olanzapine
• Pravastatin • Donepezil
Anti-Infectives • Metoprolol • Paroxetine
• Enoxaparin
• Azithromycin • Prasugrel Migraine • Sertraline
• Finasteride
• Cidofovir • Frovatriptan • Venlafaxine
Diabetes • Levothyroxine
• Hydroxychloroquine • Naratriptan
• Empagliflozin Pain • Most mAb productsb
• Tecovirimat • Rizatriptan
• Insulin • Acetaminophen • Ondansetron
• Valacyclovir • Sumatriptan
• Metformin • Aspirin
• Zavegepant
• Pioglitazone • Codeine
Neuropsychiatric • Ibuprofen
• Amitriptyline • Meloxicam
• Bupropion • Naproxen

Medications Without Clinically Relevant Interactions, continued
a
Coadministering contraceptive products that contain ethinyl estradiol with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir may result
in lower ethinyl estradiol concentrations. The FDA prescribing information for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir suggests
that individuals who use these types of contraceptive products should consider using an additional, nonhormonal
contraceptive method. However, the lower ethinyl estradiol concentrations are not expected to be clinically significant
during the 5 days of therapy. The progestin concentration of a combined hormonal contraceptive is expected to remain
similar or increase with coadministration, which would maintain the effectiveness of the PO contraceptive.
b
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir interacts with certain conjugated mAbs, such as ado-trastuzumab emtansine,
mirvetuximab soravtansine, brentuximab vedotin, enfortumab vedotin, polatuzumab vedotin, and tisotumab vedotin.
Before coadministering ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and any of these conjugated mAbs, refer to the drug’s FDA
prescribing information and consult the patient’s specialist providers as needed.
Key: FDA = Food and Drug Administration; mAb = monoclonal antibody; PO = oral
Medications That Have Clinically Relevant Drug-Drug Interactions With Ritonavir-

Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid)
Clinicians should be aware that, in some cases, drug-drug interactions with ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir may lead to serious or life-threatening drug toxicities. The recommended treatment course
of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir for COVID-19 is 5 days. CYP3A4 inhibition occurs rapidly, with
maximum inhibition occurring within 48 hours of ritonavir initiation.1 After treatment is completed and
ritonavir is discontinued, 70% to 90% of CYP3A4 inhibition resolves within 2 to 3 days.2 The time to
resolution of inhibition varies based on factors such as the patient’s age; therefore, resolution may take
longer in some individuals, such as in adults of advanced age.
Ritonavir is also an inhibitor of CYP2D6, P-gp, and organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP)
1B1. When used for longer durations or chronically, ritonavir may induce CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C8,
CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and uridine diphosphate-glucuronyltransferase (UGT).
Nirmatrelvir and ritonavir are CYP3A4 substrates. Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir should not be given
within 2 weeks of administering a strong CYP3A4 inducer (e.g., St. John’s wort, rifampin). Ritonavir-
boosted nirmatrelvir is contraindicated in this setting because the delayed offset of enzyme induction
may reduce the concentrations of nirmatrelvir and ritonavir, rendering the treatment ineffective against
SARS-CoV-2. An alternative treatment for COVID-19 should be prescribed.
Identifying Drug-Drug Interactions

Consult the following resources for information on identifying and managing drug-drug interactions.
• Quick reference lists:
• Box 1 above lists select outpatient medications that are not expected to have clinically relevant
interactions with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.
• Box 2 below lists select outpatient medications that have clinically relevant drug-drug
interactions with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.
• Web-based drug-drug interaction checker:
• Tables with guidance on managing specific drug-drug interactions:
nirmatrelvir

Management Strategies for Drug-Drug Interactions
Consider the magnitude and significance of the potential drug-drug interaction when choosing management
strategies for patients who will be receiving ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir. Potential strategies include:
• Increasing monitoring for potential adverse effects to the concomitant medication.
• Adjusting the dose of the concomitant medication.
• Temporarily withholding the concomitant medication.
• Using an alternative to the concomitant medication.
• Using alternative COVID-19 therapies (see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults
With COVID-19).
Use the chosen strategy for the 5-day treatment course of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and for at least 2
to 3 days after treatment completion. The strategy may need to continue for a longer duration if ritonavir-
boosted nirmatrelvir is initiated in an adult of advanced age or if the interacting medication has a long
half-life.
Consider consulting with an expert (e.g., a pharmacist or the patient’s specialist providers) when
treating patients who are receiving highly specialized therapies or drugs that are prone to concentration-
dependent toxicities, such as certain anticonvulsant, anticoagulant, immunosuppressant, antiarrhythmic,
chemotherapeutic, and neuropsychiatric drugs.
The decision to prescribe ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir to patients who are receiving calcineurin and
mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors should always be made in consultation with the patient’s
specialist providers. Among reports submitted to the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System, the most
commonly reported concomitant medications that resulted in serious adverse reactions, including fatal
events, were calcineurin inhibitors (e.g., tacrolimus).3 Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir may be prescribed to
certain patients who are receiving these medications if an expert in managing the interaction is available and
close therapeutic drug monitoring is logistically feasible. Otherwise, an alternative therapy for COVID-19
should be considered. See the American Society of Transplantation statement for more information.
Interactions between ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and chemotherapeutic agents should also be managed
in consultation with the patient’s specialist providers. For guidance on managing these interactions, refer
to the FDA prescribing information for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and the prescribing information for
the chemotherapeutic agent. The University Health Network/Kingston Health Sciences Centre provides
an additional resource for evaluating drug-drug interactions between ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and
chemotherapeutic agents.
Patients should be counseled about ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir’s drug-drug interaction potential and
the signs and symptoms of potential adverse effects. If ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is prescribed to
patients who take certain recreational drugs, those patients will require counseling and careful monitoring
for adverse effects.
Box 2. Select Outpatient Medications That Have Clinically Relevant Drug-Drug Interactions With
The guidance in Box 2 is based on the drug-drug interaction potential of the FDA-approved, 5-day course
of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.
Not all medications that may interact with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir are included in Box 2. Deviation
from the recommended strategies may be appropriate in certain clinical scenarios.

Prescribe Alternative COVID-19 Therapy
For these medications, management strategies are not possible or feasible, or the risks outweigh the potential benefits.
Anticonvulsants Cardiovascular Neuropsychiatric Miscellaneous
• Carbamazepine • Amiodarone • Clozapine • Bosentan
• Phenobarbital • Clopidogrela,b • Lurasidone • Certain chemotherapeutic agentsd
• Phenytoin • Disopyramide • Midazolam (PO) • Ergot derivatives
• Primidone • Dofetilide • Pimozide • Lumacaftor/ivacaftor
Anti-Infectives • Dronedarone Pulmonary Hypertension c • St. John’s wort
• Glecaprevir/pibrentasvir • Eplerenone • Sildenafil • Tolvaptan
• Rifampin • Flecainide • Tadalafil
• Rifapentine • Ivabradine • Vardenafil
• Propafenone
Immunosuppressants • Quinidine
• Voclosporin
Temporarily Withhold Concomitant Medication, if Clinically Appropriate
Withhold these medications during ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) treatment and for at least 2–3 days after
treatment completion. They may need to be withheld for longer if the patient is an adult of advanced age or if the interacting
medication has a long half-life. If withholding is not clinically appropriate, use an alternative concomitant medication or
COVID-19 therapy.
Anticoagulants Immunosuppressantsf Migraine Respiratory
• Rivaroxaban e
• Everolimus • Eletriptan • Salmeterol
Anti-Infectives • Sirolimus • Rimegepant Miscellaneous
• Erythromycin • Tacrolimus • Ubrogepant • Certain chemotherapeutic agentsd
BPH Lipid-modifiers Neuropsychiatric • Colchicinei
• Alfuzosin • Atorvastatin g
• Daridorexant • Finerenone
• Silodosin • Lomitapide • Lemborexant • Flibanserin
• Lovastating • Suvorexant • Naloxegol
Cardiovascular • Rosuvastating • Triazolamh
• Aliskiren • Simvastating
• Ranolazine Erectile Dysfunction
• Ticagrelorb • Avanafil
• Vorapaxar
Adjust Concomitant Medication Dose and Monitor for Adverse Effects

Reduce the dose and/or extend the dosing interval of the concomitant medication. Consult the Liverpool COVID-19
Drug Interactions website or the University of Waterloo/University of Toronto drug interaction guide for specific dosing
recommendations.j If the dose of the concomitant medication cannot be adjusted, withhold the medication (if clinically
appropriate) or use an alternative concomitant medication or COVID-19 therapy.
Anticoagulants Cardiovascular Immunosuppressants Neuropsychiatric, cont'd
• Apixaban • Amlodipine • Cyclosporinef • Buspirone
• Dabigatran • Cilostazol • Dexamethasonek • Cariprazine
• Edoxaban • Digoxin • Fedratinib • Chlordiazepoxideh
Anti-Infectives • Diltiazem • Ruxolitinib • Clobazamh
• Clarithromycin • Felodipine • Tofacitinib • Clonazepamh
• Itraconazole • Nifedipine • Upadacitinib • Clorazepateh
• Ketoconazole • Verapamil Migraine • Diazepamh
• Maraviroc Diabetes • Almotriptani • Estazolamh
• Rifabutin • Saxagliptin • Flurazepamh
Neuropsychiatric • Iloperidone
BPH Erectile Dysfunctionc • Alprazolamh • Lumateperone
• Tamsulosin • Sildenafil • Aripiprazole • Pimavanserin
• Tadalafil • Brexpiprazole • Quetiapine
• Vardenafil • Trazodone

Adjust Concomitant Medication Dose and Monitor for Adverse Effects, continued
Pain Miscellaneous Miscellaneous, cont'd Miscellaneous, cont'd
• Fentanyl • Certain chemotherapeutic • Elexacaftor/ • Solifenacin
• Hydrocodone agentsd tezacaftor/ivacaftor • Tezacaftor/ivacaftor
• Oxycodone • Darifenacin • Eluxadoline
• Ivacaftor
Pulmonary Hypertension
• Riociguat
Continue Concomitant Medication and Monitor for Adverse Effects
There is no need to pre-emptively adjust the doses of these drugs, but dose adjustments may be considered in patients
with a high risk of AEs. Educate patients about potential AEs. Consult the Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website
or the University of Waterloo/University of Toronto drug interaction guide for monitoring guidance and dose adjustment
information.j
Anticoagulants BPH Migraine Pain
• Warfarin • Doxazosin • Zolmitriptan • Buprenorphine
• Terazosin • Hydromorphone
Anti-Infectives Neuropsychiatric
• Brincidofovir l
Diabetes • Haloperidol • Methadone
• Cobicistat- or ritonavir- • Glyburide • Hydroxyzine • Morphine
boosted ARV drugs • Mirtazapine • Tramadol
Cardiovascular
• Isavuconazole • Risperidone Miscellaneous
• Mexiletine
• Posaconazole • Ziprasidone • Certain chemotherapeutic agentsd
• Sacubitril
• Voriconazole • Zolpidem • Certain conjugated mAbsm
• Valsartan
• Oxybutynin
a
Reduced effectiveness of clopidogrel is likely. It may be acceptable to continue using clopidogrel if the benefits of using
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir outweigh the risk of reduced clopidogrel effectiveness.
b
For patients with a very high risk of thrombosis (e.g., those who received a coronary stent within the past 6 weeks),
consider prescribing an alternative antiplatelet (e.g., prasugrel, if clinically appropriate) or an alternative COVID-19
therapy.
c
Some PDE5 inhibitors are used to treat both PAH and erectile dysfunction; however, the doses used to treat PAH are
higher than those used for erectile dysfunction. Because of this, and because PDE5 inhibitors are used chronically in
patients with PAH, coadministration with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is contraindicated in these patients. PDE5
inhibitors can be coadministered with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in patients with erectile dysfunction, though the dose
of the PDE5 inhibitor should be adjusted.
d
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir may increase concentrations of some chemotherapeutic agents, leading to an increased
potential for drug toxicities. Some chemotherapeutic agents may decrease the effectiveness of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.
Please refer to the FDA prescribing information for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and the prescribing information for the
chemotherapeutic agent and consult the patient’s specialist provider. The University Health Network/Kingston Health
Sciences Centre is an additional resource for evaluating drug-drug interactions for chemotherapeutic agents.
e
For patients with a high risk of arterial or venous thrombosis (e.g., those who had a stroke within the past 3 months
with a CHA2DS2-VASc score of 7–9 or a pulmonary embolism within the past month), consult the patient’s primary or
specialty provider and consider using an alternative anticoagulant (e.g., LMWH) or an alternative COVID-19 therapy. For
patients with a lower risk of arterial or venous thrombosis, clinicians may consider administering low-dose aspirin while
rivaroxaban is being withheld.
f
The use of another COVID-19 therapy may need to be considered. These immunosuppressants have significant
drug-drug interaction potential with ritonavir, and they should not be used if close monitoring, including therapeutic
drug monitoring (i.e., measuring drug concentrations), is not feasible. Consult the patient’s specialist providers
before coadministering these immunosuppressants with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir. See the American Society of
Transplantation statement for more information.
g
Withhold lovastatin and simvastatin for at least 12 hours before initiating ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, during treatment,
and for 5 days after treatment completion. Withhold atorvastatin and rosuvastatin at the beginning of treatment with
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and resume after completing the 5-day course. If withholding a statin is not clinically
appropriate (e.g., because the patient recently had a myocardial infarction), clinicians can reduce the doses of

Continue Concomitant Medication and Monitor for Adverse Effects, continued
atorvastatin and rosuvastatin and continue treatment. However, lovastatin and simvastatin should be switched to an
alternative statin.
h
The guidance on managing drug-drug interactions between certain benzodiazepines and ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir
can vary significantly between product information resources. Note that abrupt discontinuation or rapid dose reduction
of benzodiazepines may precipitate an acute withdrawal reaction.4 The risk is greatest for patients who have been using
high doses of benzodiazepines over an extended period.
i
Do not coadminister this medication with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in patients with hepatic or renal impairment.
j
For medications that are not included on the Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website or in the University of
Waterloo/University of Toronto drug interaction guide, refer to the FDA labels for information on coadministering these
medications with ritonavir or other strong CYP3A4 and/or P-gp inhibitors (e.g., ketoconazole).
k
Dexamethasone exposure is expected to increase 2.60-fold when dexamethasone is coadministered with ritonavir-
boosted nirmatrelvir.5 Clinicians should weigh the risks and benefits of continuing the patient’s normal dose of
dexamethasone (while monitoring for AEs) against the risks and benefits of decreasing the dose. Patients who are
receiving higher doses of dexamethasone will be at a greater risk of AEs.
l
Patients should take ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir at least 3 hours after taking brincidofovir.
m
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir interacts with certain conjugated mAbs, such as ado-trastuzumab emtansine,
mirvetuximab soravtansine, brentuximab vedotin, enfortumab vedotin, polatuzumab vedotin, and tisotumab vedotin.
Before coadministering ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and any of these conjugated mAbs, refer to the drug’s FDA
prescribing information and consult the patient’s specialist providers as needed.
Key: AE = adverse effect; ARV = antiretroviral; BPH = benign prostatic hyperplasia; CHA2DS2-VASc = congestive
heart failure, hypertension, age, diabetes, stroke, vascular disease; CYP = cytochrome P450; FDA = Food and Drug
Administration; LMWH = low-molecular-weight heparin; mAb = monoclonal antibody; PAH = pulmonary arterial
hypertension; PDE5 = phosphodiesterase 5; P-gp = P-glycoprotein; PO = oral
Drug-Drug Interaction Considerations When Using Extended Courses of Ritonavir-

Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid)
The guidance in this document is based on the drug-drug interaction potential of the FDA-approved,
5-day course of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir. Longer treatment courses may be utilized in certain cases
(see Special Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised). Clinicians should be aware
that the drug-drug interaction potential of ritonavir may change based on the duration of treatment.
Clinicians should also be aware that:
• Induction properties6 may become clinically relevant when ritonavir is used for longer durations
(i.e., ≥10 days) or chronically (e.g., in people who take HIV protease inhibitors).7 For example,
induction of CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 may decrease warfarin and voriconazole concentrations, and
induction of glucuronidation may decrease lamotrigine or valproic acid concentrations.
• The management strategies listed in Box 2 are based on the drug-drug interaction potential of a
5-day treatment course of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir. These strategies may need to be modified
when using extended courses. For example, a clinician may need to withhold or reduce the dose
of a corticosteroid instead of continuing it as suggested in Box 2. Clinicians may need to adjust
monitoring plans for adverse effects or therapeutic drug monitoring in certain patients (e.g., in
those receiving tacrolimus). In other cases, the potential risks of withholding certain agents (e.g.,
chemotherapeutic agents or statins in high-risk individuals) for extended periods to allow for safe
coadministration of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir may outweigh the potential benefits of treatment.
• After longer courses of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir are discontinued, drug-drug interactions
caused by CYP3A4 inhibition are expected to resolve within 2 to 3 days.2 Drug-drug interactions
caused by induction (e.g., CYP2C9, CYP2C19, UGT) resolve gradually and variably.8,9

Clinicians should consult with experts (e.g., pharmacists and physicians with HIV expertise) when using
extended courses of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir. The Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website
also provides guidance for managing drug-drug interactions during extended courses (i.e., ≥10 days) of
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.
References
1. Katzenmaier S, Markert C, Riedel KD, et al. Determining the time course of CYP3A inhibition by potent
reversible and irreversible CYP3A inhibitors using a limited sampling strategy. Clin Pharmacol Ther.
2. Stader F, Khoo S, Stoeckle M, et al. Stopping lopinavir/ritonavir in COVID-19 patients: duration of the drug
interacting effect. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2020;75(10):3084-3086. Available at:
3. Food and Drug Administration Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Antimicrobial drugs advisory
committee meeting. 2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/168508/download.
4. Food and Drug Administration. FDA requiring Boxed Warning updated to improve safe use of benzodiazepine
drug class. 2020. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/142368/download.
5. Li M, Zhu L, Chen L, Li N, Qi F. Assessment of drug-drug interactions between voriconazole and
glucocorticoids. J Chemother. 2018;30(5):296-303. Available at:
6. Foisy MM, Yakiwchuk EM, Hughes CA. Induction effects on ritonavir: implications for drug interactions. Ann
Pharmacother. 2008;42(7):1048-1059. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18577765.
7. University of Liverpool. Evaluating the interaction risk of COVID-19 therapies. 2022. Available at:
https://covid19-druginteractions.org/prescribing_resources. Accessed February 22, 2024.
8. Ramsden D, Fung C, Hariparsad N, et al. Perspectives from the innovation and quality consortium induction
working group on factors impacting clinical drug-drug interactions resulting from induction: focus on
cytochrome 3A substrates. Drug Metab Dispos. 2019;47(10):1206-1221. Available at:
9. Marzolini C, Kuritzkes DR, Marra F, et al. Recommendations for the management of drug-drug interactions
between the COVID-19 antiviral nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (Paxlovid) and comedications. Clin Pharmacol Ther.

Molnupiravir
Molnupiravir is the oral prodrug of beta-D-N4-hydroxycytidine (NHC), a ribonucleoside that has

shown antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro and in some clinical trials.1,2 NHC uptake by viral
RNA-dependent RNA-polymerases results in viral mutations and lethal mutagenesis.3,4 On December
23, 2021, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA)
for molnupiravir for the treatment of adults with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are within 5 days of
symptom onset, who are at high risk of progressing to severe disease, and for whom alternative antiviral
therapies are not accessible or clinically appropriate.5,6 Molnupiravir is expected to be active against the
Omicron variant and its subvariants.6
There is a theoretical risk that the molnupiravir metabolite NHC could be incorporated into the host
DNA, leading to mutations. The available genotoxicity data and the 5-day duration of treatment led the
FDA to conclude that molnupiravir has a low risk for genotoxicity.
Recommendations
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends using molnupiravir 800
mg orally (PO) twice daily for 5 days as an alternative therapy in nonhospitalized patients aged
≥18 years with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are at high risk of disease progression when
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and remdesivir are not available, feasible to use, or
clinically appropriate; treatment should be initiated as soon as possible and within 5 days of
symptom onset (CIIa).
• The Panel recommends against the use of molnupiravir for the treatment of COVID-19 in
pregnant patients unless there are no other options and therapy is clearly indicated (AIII). For
more details, see Considerations in Pregnant and Lactating People below.
• People who engage in sexual activity that may result in conception should use effective
contraception during and following treatment with molnupiravir. For more details, see
Considerations in Sexually Active Individuals below.
Molnupiravir may be used in patients who are hospitalized for a diagnosis other than COVID-19,
provided they have mild to moderate COVID-19 and are at high risk of progressing to severe disease.
For the Panel’s recommendations on preferred and alternative antiviral therapies for outpatients with
COVID-19, see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
Rationale
The MOVe-OUT trial enrolled high-risk, unvaccinated, nonhospitalized adults and reported that
molnupiravir reduced the rate of hospitalization or death among these patients by 31% compared to
placebo.7 A secondary analysis of patients who required hospitalization during the trial found a reduced
need for respiratory interventions among those who received molnupiravir compared to those who
received placebo.8 MOVe-OUT was conducted before the emergence of the Omicron subvariants.
The PANORAMIC trial enrolled nonhospitalized adults with COVID-19 who were at high risk of severe
disease during a period when the Omicron variant was circulating.9 Ninety-four percent of the patients
had received at least 3 doses of a COVID-19 vaccine. The study found that the use of molnupiravir plus
usual care did not reduce the occurrence of the primary composite outcome of hospitalization or death

compared to usual care alone. The proportion of patients who met this composite outcome was 1% in
both arms. Molnupiravir plus usual care was superior to usual care alone for several secondary clinical
endpoints. For example, the time to self-reported recovery was substantially shorter in people who
received molnupiravir plus usual care than in people who received usual care alone (median of 9 days
vs. 15 days). Because the PANORAMIC trial was an open-label study with self-reported symptoms, the
For more information on the MOVe-Out and PANORAMIC trials, see the Clinical Data section below.
Although the different COVID-19 treatment options have not been directly compared in clinical trials,
the Panel recommends using molnupiravir only when ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir and remdesivir
are not available, feasible to use, or clinically appropriate (CIIa). Molnupiravir appears to have lower
clinical efficacy than these other treatment options.
Some observational studies have evaluated the use of molnupiravir in nonhospitalized or hospitalized
adults who are at high risk of progressing to severe disease, including some patients who received
COVID-19 vaccines, but these studies have limitations.10-12 For treatment considerations for vaccinated
individuals, see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
• Patients should complete the 5-day treatment course of molnupiravir. It is unknown whether
a shorter course is less effective or associated with the emergence of molnupiravir-resistant
mutations.
• If a patient requires hospitalization after starting treatment, the full treatment course of
molnupiravir can be completed at the health care provider’s discretion.
• The FDA EUA for molnupiravir provides instructions for preparing and administering capsule
contents through orogastric or nasogastric tubes.6
• There are no data on using combinations of antiviral therapies to treat nonhospitalized patients
with COVID-19. Clinical trials are needed to determine whether combination therapy has a role in
the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
• Patients who are severely immunocompromised can experience prolonged periods of
SARS-CoV-2 replication, which may lead to rapid viral evolution. There are theoretical concerns
that using a single antiviral agent in these patients may produce antiviral-resistant viruses.
Additional studies are needed to assess this risk. The role of combination antiviral therapy
in treating patients who are severely immunocompromised is not yet known. See Special
Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised for more information.
• There are limited data on the frequency of SARS-CoV-2 rebound in patients who have completed
treatment with molnupiravir.13 During the MOVe-OUT trial, rates of symptomatic SARS-CoV-2
rebound were low (approximately 1%) in both those who received molnupiravir and those who
received placebo.6
• SARS-CoV-2 sequences with molnupiravir-induced mutations have been detected in many
countries, but the clinical implications of these mutations remain unclear.14

The most common adverse effects of molnupiravir are diarrhea, nausea, and dizziness. Based on in vitro
studies, neither molnupiravir nor its active metabolite NHC are inhibitors or inducers of major drug-
metabolizing enzymes or inhibitors of major drug transporters.

According to the FDA EUA, no drug-drug interactions have been identified for molnupiravir.
Considerations in Sexually Active Individuals

For individuals of childbearing potential, clinicians should assess the patient’s pregnancy status before
initiating molnupiravir.
Patients of childbearing potential should be counseled about abstaining from sex or using reliable
contraception for the duration of therapy and for up to 4 days after taking molnupiravir. Reproductive
toxicity has been reported in animal studies of molnupiravir, and molnupiravir may be mutagenic during
pregnancy.
The FDA EUA states that men of reproductive potential who are sexually active with individuals of
childbearing potential should be counseled to abstain from sex or use a reliable method of contraception
for the duration of treatment and for at least 3 months after the last dose of molnupiravir.

patients unless there are no other options and therapy is clearly indicated (AIII). Because the risk of
adverse effects in infants is currently unknown, the FDA EUA fact sheet does not recommend feeding
an infant breast milk from a patient who is taking molnupiravir for the duration of the treatment course
and until 4 days after the final dose. See Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics for more
information.
The MOVe-OUT and PANORAMIC trials excluded participants aged <18 years. There are no data
available on the use of molnupiravir in children aged <18 years. Molnupiravir is not authorized for use
in those aged <18 years due to potential effects on bone and cartilage growth.
Clinical Data
MOVe-OUT
MOVe-OUT was a Phase 3 trial that evaluated the use of molnupiravir in unvaccinated, nonhospitalized
adults with mild to moderate COVID-19 who were at high risk of progressing to severe COVID-19 and
who were enrolled within 5 days of symptom onset.7 Patients were randomized to receive molnupiravir
800 mg PO every 12 hours for 5 days or placebo. The primary composite endpoint was a hospital stay
>24 hours or death by Day 29.
Results
• The final analysis included 1,433 patients.
• The median age was 43 years (with 17% aged >60 years); 49% of patients were men, 57%
were White, 50% were Hispanic/Latinx, and 5% were Black or African American.
• 4% had a body mass index ≥30, and 16% had diabetes.
• The time from the onset of COVID-19 symptoms to randomization was ≤3 days in 48% of
patients.
• By Day 29, 48 of 709 patients (6.8%) in the molnupiravir arm and 68 of 699 (9.7%) in the placebo
arm experienced hospitalization or death (adjusted difference -3.0%; 95% CI, -5.9% to -0.1%).
• One death occurred in the molnupiravir arm, and 9 deaths occurred in the placebo arm.

• There were no significant differences between the arms in the proportions of patients who
experienced adverse events.
• A secondary analysis of data from the patients who were hospitalized during the trial revealed that
the use of molnupiravir reduced the risk of requiring respiratory interventions (conventional or
high-flow oxygen delivery, noninvasive ventilation, or mechanical ventilation) by 21%.8
Limitations
• This study was conducted before the emergence of the Omicron variant and its subvariants.
PANORAMIC
PANORAMIC was a multicenter, open-label, adaptive platform trial conducted in the United Kingdom
that evaluated the use of molnupiravir in nonhospitalized adults who were at high risk of progressing to
severe COVID-19.9 The participants were aged ≥50 years or ≥18 years with comorbid conditions and
were enrolled within 5 days of symptom onset. Patients were randomized to receive molnupiravir 800
mg PO twice daily for 5 days plus usual care or usual care alone. The primary endpoint was a composite
of all-cause hospitalization (defined as ≥1 overnight hospital stay, ≥1 night at home with care and
monitoring by hospital clinicians, or an overnight stay in an emergency room) or death within 28 days.
The trial was conducted when the Omicron variant was the dominant variant.
Results
• The final analysis included 25,708 patients.
• The mean age was 56.6 years (26.5% aged ≥65 years); 94% were White; 59% were women.
• 94% received ≥3 doses of a COVID-19 vaccine.
• 69% of patients had comorbidities: 25% with lung disease; 15% with obesity; 12% with
diabetes; 8% with heart disease; 8.5% were immunocompromised.
• 24% were taking inhaled corticosteroids.
• The mean time from symptom onset to starting molnupiravir was 3 days (range 3–5 days). Among
the patients who provided information, 95% reported completing the 5-day treatment course.
• The study reported 103 hospitalizations and 3 deaths in the molnupiravir arm and 96
hospitalizations and 5 deaths in the usual care alone arm (aOR 1.06; 95% CrI, 0.81–1.41;
probability of superiority 0.33).
• The time to self-reported first recovery among those who received molnupiravir (median of 9
days) was shorter than among those who received usual care alone (median of 15 days).
• No serious adverse events were related to molnupiravir; 145 patients (1.1%) withdrew because of
adverse events attributed to molnupiravir.
Limitations
• Because the PANORAMIC trial was an open-label study and the patients knew whether they were
receiving molnupiravir or not, this may have affected their reported symptoms. As a result, these
References
1. Fischer WA II, Eron JJ Jr, Holman W, et al. A Phase 2a clinical trial of molnupiravir in patients with
COVID-19 shows accelerated SARS-CoV-2 RNA clearance and elimination of infectious virus. Sci Transl
Med. 2022;14(628):eabl7430. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34941423.
2. Zou R, Peng L, Shu D, et al. Antiviral efficacy and safety of molnupiravir against Omicron variant infection:

a randomized controlled clinical trial. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:939573. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.
3. Zhou S, Hill CS, Sarkar S, et al. Beta-d-N4-hydroxycytidine inhibits SARS-CoV-2 through lethal mutagenesis
but is also mutagenic to mammalian cells. J Infect Dis. 2021;224(3):415-419. Available at:
4. Kabinger F, Stiller C, Schmitzová J, et al. Mechanism of molnupiravir-induced SARS-CoV-2 mutagenesis.
Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2021;28(9):740-746. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34381216.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. People with certain medical conditions. 2023. Available at:
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-with-medical-conditions.html.
Accessed November 20, 2023.
8. Johnson MG, Puenpatom A, Moncada PA, et al. Effect of molnupiravir on biomarkers, respiratory
interventions, and medical services in COVID-19: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med.
10. Flisiak R, Zarębska-Michaluk D, Rogalska M, et al. Real-world experience with molnupiravir during the
period of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant dominance. Pharmacol Rep. 2022;74(6):1279-1285. Available at:
11. Yip TCF, Lui GCY, Lai MS, et al. Impact of the use of oral antiviral agents on the risk of hospitalization in
community coronavirus disease 2019 patients (COVID-19). Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76(3):e26-e33. Available at:
12. Wong CKH, Au ICH, Lau KTK, et al. Real-world effectiveness of early molnupiravir or nirmatrelvir-ritonavir
in hospitalised patients with COVID-19 without supplemental oxygen requirement on admission during
Hong Kong's Omicron BA.2 wave: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22(12):1681-1693.
13. Wong GL, Yip TC, Lai MS, et al. Incidence of viral rebound after treatment with nirmatrelvir-ritonavir and
molnupiravir. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(12):e2245086. Available at:
14. Sanderson T, Hisner R, Donovan-Banfield I, et al. A molnupiravir-associated mutational signature in global
SARS-CoV-2 genomes. Nature. 2023;623(7987):594-600. Available at:

Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Monoclonal Antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that target the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein have been shown to have
clinical benefits in treating SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, laboratory studies have found that the
activity of anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs against specific variants and subvariants can vary dramatically. The
anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAb products that have received Emergency Use Authorizations (EUAs) from the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are not expected to be effective against the currently circulating
SARS-CoV-2 variants and subvariants. As a result, these products are not currently recommended by the
COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) for the treatment or prevention of COVID-19.
See Table 4b for information on the clinical trials that have evaluated the safety and efficacy of using
anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs in patients with COVID-19.
Recommendation
• The Panel recommends against the use of anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs for the treatment or
prevention of COVID-19 (AIII).
Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Monoclonal Antibodies That Have Received Emergency Use

Authorizations
Several anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAb products (bamlanivimab plus etesevimab, casirivimab plus imdevimab,
sotrovimab, and bebtelovimab) have received EUAs from the FDA for the treatment of outpatients
with mild to moderate COVID-19.1-4 However, these products are not currently authorized for use in
the United States because the dominant Omicron subvariants are not expected to be susceptible to
these products. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention COVID Data Tracker provides regular
updates on the regional proportions of SARS-CoV-2 variants in the United States.
Tixagevimab plus cilgavimab (Evusheld) received an EUA from the FDA for pre-exposure prophylaxis
(PrEP) of COVID-19,5 and bamlanivimab plus etesevimab and casirivimab plus imdevimab received
EUAs for SARS-CoV-2 post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP).1,2 However, because many Omicron
subvariants, including the dominant Omicron subvariants in the United States, are not expected to be
susceptible to these anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAb products, these products are not currently authorized for
use as PrEP of COVID-19 or SARS-CoV-2 PEP. See Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 Infection for more
information.
References
1. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for health care providers: Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) of
bamlanivimab and etesevimab. 2022. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/145802/download.
REGEN-COV (casirivimab and imdevimab). 2021. Available at:
3. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) of
sotrovimab. 2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/149534/download.
bebtelovimab. 2022. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/156152/download.

Evusheld (tixagevimab co-packaged with cilgavimab). 2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/154701/
download.

Table 4b. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Monoclonal Antibodies: Selected
Clinical Trial Data
This table describes the clinical trials that have evaluated anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs for the treatment of COVID-19.

BLAZE-1: Double-Blind RCT of Bamlanivimab Plus Etesevimab in Nonhospitalized Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-19 in the United States and Puerto
Rico1
Key Inclusion Criteria Participant Characteristics Key Limitation
• Aged ≥12 years • Median age 56 years; 30% aged ≥65 years; 53% women • Conducted before widespread
• At high risk of severe COVID-19 or hospitalization • 87% White, 27% Hispanic/Latinx, 8% Black/African American circulation of the Omicron variant
Interventions • Mean of 4 days of symptoms Interpretation
• Within 3 days of a positive SARS-CoV-2 test result, single • 76% with mild COVID-19, 24% with moderate COVID-19 • Compared to placebo, BAM plus ETE
IV infusion of: significantly reduced the number of
Primary Outcomes COVID-19–related hospitalizations
• BAM 700 mg plus ETE 1,400 mg (n = 511) • Composite of COVID-19–related hospitalization or death from and deaths from any cause in high-
• Placebo (n = 258) any cause by Day 29: 4 (0.8%) in BAM plus ETE arm vs. 15 risk patients.
(5.8%) in placebo arm (change of -5.0%; 95% CI, -8.0% to
Primary Endpoint
-2.1%; P < 0.001)
• Composite of COVID-19–related hospitalization (defined
as ≥24 hours of acute care) or death from any cause by • Death from any cause by Day 29: 0 in BAM plus ETE arm vs. 4
Day 29 (1.6%) in placebo arm
BLAZE-4, Treatment Arms 9–11: Double-Blind RCT of Bamlanivimab Plus Etesevimab Plus Bebtelovimab Versus Bebtelovimab Alone Versus Placebo in
Low-Risk, Nonhospitalized Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-192
• Aged 18–64 years • Median age 35 years; 56% women • Only low-risk patients were
• No risk factors for progression to severe COVID-19 • 36% Hispanic/Latinx, 19% Black/African American included.
• Mean of 3.6 days of symptoms prior to enrollment • Not powered to assess
hospitalizations and deaths
• ≥1 of the following: Primary Outcomes
• Conducted before widespread
• SpO2 ≤93% on room air • Proportion with PHVL: circulation of the Omicron variant
• Respiratory rate ≥30 breaths/min • 13% in BAM plus ETE plus BEB arm vs. 21% in placebo arm
Interpretations
• Heart rate ≥125 bpm (P = 0.098), with a relative reduction of 38% (95% CI, -9%
to 65%) • There were no differences in the
proportion of patients with PHVL
across the arms.

BLAZE-4, Treatment Arms 9–11: Double-Blind RCT of Bamlanivimab Plus Etesevimab Plus Bebtelovimab Versus Bebtelovimab Alone Versus Placebo in
Low-Risk, Nonhospitalized Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-192, continued
Interventions • 14% in BEB arm vs. 21% in placebo arm (P = 0.147), • Few COVID-19–related hospitalizations or
• Within 3 days of a positive SARS-CoV-2 test result, with a relative reduction of 34% (95% CI, -15% to 62%) deaths from any cause occurred by Day
single IV infusion of: 29 across the arms, as is expected for a
Secondary Outcomes
population of individuals who were at low
• BAM 700 mg plus ETE 1,400 mg plus BEB 175 • Mean decline in VL was greater in mAb arms than in risk of severe COVID-19.
mg (n = 127) placebo arm at Day 5 but not at Days 3, 7, or 11.
• The median time to sustained symptom
• BEB 175 mg (n = 125) • Composite of COVID-19–related hospitalization or death resolution was shorter in the BEB arm than
• Placebo (n = 128) from any cause by Day 29: in the placebo arm.
Primary Endpoint • 3 (2.4%) in BAM plus ETE plus BEB arm, including 1
death
• Proportion of patients with PHVL (defined as SARS-
CoV-2 VL >5.82 log10 by Day 7) • 2 (1.6%) in BEB arm
Key Secondary Endpoints • 2 (1.6%) in placebo arm
• Mean change in VL from baseline to Days 3, 5, 7, • Median time to sustained symptom resolution:
and 11 • 7 days in BAM plus ETE plus BEB arm vs. 8 days in
• Composite of COVID-19–related hospitalization or placebo arm (P = 0.289)
death from any cause by Day 29 • 6 days in BEB arm vs. 8 days in placebo arm (P = 0.003)
• Time to sustained symptom resolution
BLAZE-4, Treatment Arms 12 and 13: Open-Label RCT of Bamlanivimab Plus Etesevimab Plus Bebtelovimab Versus Bebtelovimab Alone in High-Risk,
Nonhospitalized Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-192
• Aged ≥12 years • Median age 50 years; 52% women • Open-label study
• Weight ≥40 kg • 18% Hispanic/Latinx, 18% Black/African American • No placebo arm
• ≥1 risk factors for progression to severe COVID-19 • Mean of 4.7 days of symptoms prior to enrollment • Not powered to assess hospitalizations and
• 21% received ≥1 doses of a COVID-19 vaccine. deaths
• ≥1 of the following: • Conducted before widespread circulation of
Efficacy Outcomes
the Omicron variant
• SpO2 ≤93% on room air • Composite of COVID-19–related hospitalization or death
from any cause by Day 29: 2 (4%) in BAM plus ETE plus Interpretation
• Respiratory rate ≥30 breaths/min
BEB arm vs. 3 (3%) in BEB arm • There was no difference between the arms
• Heart rate ≥125 bpm in the proportion of patients who were
• Mean decline in VL was greater in BAM plus ETE plus BEB
Interventions arm than in BEB arm at Day 5 but not at Days 3, 7, or 11. hospitalized or who died.
• Within 3 days of a positive SARS-CoV-2 test result,
single IV infusion of:

BLAZE-4, Treatment Arms 12 and 13: Open-Label RCT of Bamlanivimab Plus Etesevimab Plus Bebtelovimab Versus Bebtelovimab Alone in High-Risk,
Nonhospitalized Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-192, continued
• BAM 700 mg plus ETE 1,400 mg plus BEB 175
mg (n = 50)
• BEB 175 mg (n = 100)
Efficacy Endpoints
• Composite of COVID-19–related hospitalization or
death from any cause by Day 29
• Mean change in VL from baseline to Days 3, 5, 7,
and 11
Double-Blind RCT of Casirivimab Plus Imdevimab in Nonhospitalized Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-193
• Aged ≥18 years • Median age 50 years • Conducted before widespread circulation of
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • 35% Hispanic/Latinx, 5% Black/African American the Omicron variant
• Symptom onset within 7 days of randomization • Median of 3 days of symptoms prior to enrollment Interpretation
• For patients included in the modified full analysis Primary Outcomes • Compared to placebo, CAS 600 mg plus IMD
only: 600 mg and CAS 1,200 mg plus IMD 1,200
• COVID-19–related hospitalizations or deaths from any mg reduced the risk of COVID-19–related
• ≥1 risk factors for severe COVID-19 cause by Day 29: hospitalization or death from any cause in
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result at baseline • 7 (1.0%) in CAS 600 mg plus IMD 600 mg arm vs. 24 patients with mild to moderate COVID-19.
Interventions (3.2%) in placebo arm (P = 0.002)
• Single IV infusion of: • 18 (1.3%) in CAS 1,200 mg plus IMD 1,200 mg arm vs.
62 (4.6%) in placebo arm (P < 0.001)
• CAS 600 mg plus IMD 600 mg (n = 736) or
placebo (n = 748) • Deaths from any cause by Day 29:
• CAS 1,200 mg plus IMD 1,200 mg (n = 1,355) or • 1 (0.1%) in CAS 600 mg plus IMD 600 mg arm vs. 1
placebo (n = 1,341) (0.1%) in placebo arm
• 1 (<0.1%) in CAS 1,200 mg plus IMD 1,200 mg arm vs.
Primary Endpoint
3 (0.2%) in placebo arm
• Composite of COVID-19–related hospitalization or
death from any cause by Day 29

COMET-ICE: Double-Blind RCT of Sotrovimab in Nonhospitalized Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-19 in Brazil, Canada, Peru, Spain, and the United
States4
• Aged ≥18 years • Median age 53 years; 20% aged ≥65 years; 54% women • Conducted before widespread circulation of
• ≥1 comorbidities or aged ≥55 years • 65% Hispanic/Latinx, 8% Black/African American the Omicron variant
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR or antigen test result • 63% with obesity; 22% with DM; 17% with moderate to Interpretation
• Symptom onset ≤5 days before enrollment severe asthma • Compared to placebo, SOT reduced the
Primary Outcome incidence of hospitalization and death from
Key Exclusion Criteria any cause among patients with mild to
• Hospitalized or required supplemental oxygen • Composite of hospitalization or death from any cause by moderate COVID-19.
Day 29: 6 (1%) in SOT arm vs. 30 (6%) in placebo arm,
• Severely immunocompromised including 2 deaths (adjusted relative risk 0.21; 95% CI,
Interventions 0.09–0.50; absolute difference -4.53%; 95% CI, -6.70% to
• SOT 500 mg IV (n = 528) -2.37%; P < 0.001)
• Placebo (n = 529)
Primary Endpoint
• Composite of hospitalization or death from any
cause by Day 29
Key: BAM = bamlanivimab; bpm = beats per minute; BEB = bebtelovimab; CAS = casirivimab; DM = diabetes mellitus; ETE = etesevimab; IMD = imdevimab; IV =
intravenous; mAb = monoclonal antibody; PHVL = persistently high viral load; RCT = randomized controlled trial; RT-PCR = reverse transcription polymerase chain
reaction; SOT = sotrovimab; SpO2 = oxygen saturation; VL = viral load
References
1. Dougan M, Azizad M, Mocherla B, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial of bamlanivimab and etesevimab together in high-risk
ambulatory patients with COVID-19 and validation of the prognostic value of persistently high viral load. Clin Infect Dis. 2022;75(1):e440-e449.
2. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for bebtelovimab. 2022. Available at:
3. Weinreich DM, Sivapalasingam S, Norton T, et al. REGEN-COV antibody combination and outcomes in outpatients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med.
4. Gupta A, Gonzalez-Rojas Y, Juarez E, et al. Effect of sotrovimab on hospitalization or death among high-risk patients with mild to moderate
COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2022;327(13):1236-1246. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35285853.

COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma
Plasma from donors who have recovered from COVID-19 (regardless of vaccination status) may contain
antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 that could help suppress viral replication.1 In August 2020, the Food and
Drug Administration issued an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) for COVID-19 convalescent
plasma (CCP) for the treatment of hospitalized patients with COVID-19. The EUA was subsequently
revised. The current EUA limits the authorization to the use of CCP products that contain high levels of
anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (i.e., high-titer products) for the treatment of COVID-19 in outpatients or
inpatients who have immunosuppressive disease or who are receiving immunosuppressive treatment.
The testing criteria used to identify high-titer CCP products was also revised.2
The use of CCP should be limited to high-titer products. Products that are not labeled “high titer” should
not be used.
Recommendations
• There is insufficient evidence for the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) to
recommend either for or against the use of high-titer CCP for the treatment of COVID-19 in
hospitalized or nonhospitalized patients who are immunocompromised.
• Some people who are immunocompromised have prolonged, symptomatic COVID-19 with
evidence of ongoing SARS-CoV-2 replication. The data for these approaches are not definitive,
but some Panel members would use 1 or more of the following treatment options:
• Longer and/or additional courses of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid)
• High-titer CCP from a vaccinated donor who recently recovered from COVID-19 likely caused
by a SARS-CoV-2 variant similar to the variant causing the patient’s illness
Patients Who Are Immunocompetent

• The Panel recommends against the use of CCP for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized
patients who are immunocompetent (BIIa).
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of high-titer
CCP for the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients who are immunocompetent.
Rationale
This section pertains to people who are moderately or severely immunocompromised. For examples of
moderately or severely immunocompromising conditions and for a broader discussion on the therapeutic
management of COVID-19 in people who are immunocompromised, see Special Considerations in
People Who Are Immunocompromised.
Patients who are immunocompromised are at risk of having reduced antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2
infection and COVID-19 vaccination, having suboptimal control of viral replication, and progressing to

severe disease.3,4 Despite the lack of definitive evidence, there is a physiologic rationale for the use of
SARS-CoV-2 antibody–based therapies in these patients.
Under the revised EUA issued on December 27, 2021, CCP is authorized for the treatment of COVID-19
in nonhospitalized or hospitalized patients who have immunosuppressive disease or are receiving
immunosuppressive treatment.2
Evidence to support the use of CCP for the treatment of COVID-19 in patients who are
immunocompromised is limited. No randomized, adequately powered trials that evaluated the use of CCP
for the treatment of COVID-19 in these patients have been published. Some subgroup analyses generated
from clinical trials that enrolled patients who were immunocompromised suggested a potential benefit of
using CCP in this population.5-7 However, subgroup analyses need to be interpreted with caution. In the
overall trial populations, there was no evidence of a benefit of CCP. Other clinical data from case series,
retrospective case-control studies, and meta-analyses have been cited as support for the potential benefit
of CCP in patients who are immunocompromised. However, the patient populations differed across
studies, and the studies had design limitations, making the findings difficult to interpret.8-16
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants further complicates the assessment of the benefits of using
CCP. Although results from some in vitro studies suggest that CCP collected from vaccinated individuals
who recovered from COVID-19 caused by the Omicron variant exhibits neutralizing activity against
certain Omicron subvariants,17-23 extrapolation of these results to the clinical setting is challenging for
the following reasons:24
• COVID-19 immune responses across donor populations are heterogeneous; thus, CCP products
are variable.
• The tests used to qualify high-titer CCP measure anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody titers. They do not
directly measure neutralizing activity or account for currently circulating subvariants.
• Published in vitro studies that evaluated the virologic activity of CCP against the currently
circulating variants used a variety of assays that are difficult to compare and interpret.20-23,25-27
• The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of individual CCP products are not clearly
understood; therefore, determining the clinical relevance of a degree of in vitro neutralization
activity is difficult.
In this context, the Panel has concluded that there is insufficient evidence to definitively recommend
the use of CCP for the treatment of COVID-19 in people who are immunocompromised. For patients
who are immunocompromised and have prolonged COVID-19 symptoms and evidence of ongoing
viral replication (e.g., those with a low cycle threshold value, as measured by a reverse transcription
polymerase chain reaction result or with a positive rapid antigen test result) despite receiving a course
of antiviral therapy, the optimal management is unknown. Case reports and case series have described
the treatment of these patients with additional antiviral treatments, prolonged courses of antiviral
treatments, high-titer CCP, or combination therapy.28-34 The data for these approaches are not definitive,
but some Panel members would use longer and/or additional courses of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir or
remdesivir, high-titer CCP, or combinations of these. If CCP is used, clinicians should attempt to obtain
high-titer CCP from a vaccinated donor who recently recovered from COVID-19 likely caused by a
SARS-CoV-2 variant similar to the variant causing the patient’s illness.
Adequately powered, well-designed, and well-conducted randomized clinical trials are needed to
provide more specific, evidence-based guidance on the role of CCP in the treatment of COVID-19 in
patients who are immunocompromised.

Hospitalized Patients Who Are Immunocompetent
Under the revised EUA, the use of CCP is not authorized for hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who
do not have immunosuppressive disease or who are not receiving immunosuppressive treatments.
Clinical data on the use of CCP for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized patients who are
immunocompetent, including data from several randomized trials and the U.S. Expanded Access
Program for CCP, are summarized in Table 4c.
Three large randomized controlled trials that evaluated the use of CCP in hospitalized patients—
RECOVERY,35 CONCOR-1,36 and REMAP-CAP6—reported no benefit of using high-titer CCP in
hospitalized patients with COVID-19. All 3 were open-label trials that were stopped early due to
futility. However, an open-label randomized trial that enrolled patients with COVID-19–induced acute
respiratory distress syndrome who required mechanical ventilation showed a lower mortality among
patients who received high-titer CCP than among those who received standard care.37 The benefit
was primarily seen among patients who received CCP within 48 hours of mechanical ventilation.
Almost all of the patients (98%) received corticosteroids during the trial, but only a few received a
second immunomodulator or were previously vaccinated against COVID-19. Concomitant antiviral
therapy use was low during the trial (<6% of patients received remdesivir) despite evidence of ongoing
viral replication among the participants (i.e., low median cycle threshold values on nasopharyngeal
SARS-CoV-2 polymerase chain reaction tests).
The Panel recommends against the use of CCP for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized patients
who are immunocompetent (BIIa). The rationale for this recommendation is based on the evidence
from the 4 large randomized controlled trials, the widespread, pre-existing immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in
the population, the continuously evolving SARS-CoV-2 variants, and the availability of other antiviral
agents (e.g., remdesivir).
Nonhospitalized Patients Who Are Immunocompetent

CCP is not authorized for the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients who do not have
immunosuppressive disease or who are not receiving immunosuppressive treatments.
Data from well-designed clinical trials that evaluated the use of CCP for the treatment of nonhospitalized
patients with COVID-19 prior to the emergence of the Omicron variants are conflicting. These data are
summarized in Table 4c. Differences in patient populations, the placebo used (e.g., some studies used
saline; some used non–SARS-CoV-2 plasma), and CCP manufacturing and testing methods may have
contributed to the disparate outcomes and the difficulty in reconciling results across these clinical trials.
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants further complicates the assessment of the benefits of using CCP.
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of high-titer CCP
for the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients who are immunocompetent.

The available data suggest that serious adverse reactions following the administration of CCP are
infrequent and consistent with the risks associated with plasma infusions for other indications. These
risks include transfusion-transmitted infections (e.g., HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C), allergic reactions,
anaphylactic reactions, febrile nonhemolytic reactions, transfusion-related acute lung injury, transfusion-
associated circulatory overload, and hemolytic reactions. Hypothermia, metabolic complications, and
post-transfusion purpura have also been described.2,35,38
Additional risks of CCP transfusion include a theoretical risk of antibody-dependent enhancement

of SARS-CoV-2 infection. In the CONCOR-1 trial, higher levels of full transmembrane spike
immunoglobulin G (IgG) were associated with worse outcomes, suggesting that the use of CCP with
nonfunctional anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies may be harmful.36 A subgroup analysis in the REMAP-CAP
trial showed evidence of potential harm in patients who received CCP transfusions more than 7 days
after being hospitalized.6
When considering the use of CCP in patients with a history of severe allergic or anaphylactic transfusion
reactions, consultation with a transfusion medicine specialist is advised.

The safety and efficacy of using CCP during pregnancy have not been evaluated in clinical trials, and
published data on its use in pregnant individuals with COVID-19 are limited to case reports.39 Pathogen-
specific immunoglobulins are used during pregnancy to prevent infection from varicella zoster virus and
rabies virus and have been used in clinical trials of congenital cytomegalovirus infection.40,41 Pregnancy
is not a reason to withhold CCP from a patient if it is otherwise indicated. The expected physiologic
immunomodulation during pregnancy should not affect the decision to use CCP.
The safety and efficacy of CCP have not been systematically evaluated in pediatric patients. The
published literature on its use in children is limited to case reports and case series. A few clinical trials
evaluating the use of CCP in children are ongoing. The use of high-titer CCP may be considered on a
case-by-case basis for hospitalized children who are immunocompromised and meet the EUA criteria
for its use. CCP is not authorized by the Food and Drug Administration for use in patients who are
immunocompetent.
Several other antiviral therapies are available for the treatment of children with COVID-19 who are at
high risk of progressing to severe disease. See Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children
With COVID-19 and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19 for more
information.
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Table 4c. COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma: Selected Clinical Trial Data
The studies described in this table are those that had the greatest impact on the Panel’s recommendations. The Panel reviewed other clinical
studies of CCP for the treatment of COVID-19.1-5 However, those studies have limitations that make them less definitive and informative than
the studies summarized in the table.

REMAP-CAP: Multinational, Open-Label RCT of High-Titer CCP in Hospitalized Patients With Critical COVID-19 in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and
the United States6
• Admitted to ICU while receiving respiratory support • Mean age 61 years; 68% men • Open-label study
(HFNC oxygen, NIV, MV, ECMO) and/or vasopressor or • 32% on MV • Not all patients in CCP arm received
inotrope support CCP (86% received CCP as per
• 29% were SARS-CoV-2 antibody negative at baseline.
Key Exclusion Criteria protocol and 95% received some CCP).
• 94% received corticosteroids; 45% received RDV; 39%
• CCP contraindicated received IL-6 inhibitors. Interpretation
• Death imminent Primary Outcome • There was no benefit of CCP in
hospitalized patients with critical
Interventions • Median number of organ support-free days by Day 21: 0 days COVID-19.
• High-titer CCP (550 mL +/- 150 mL) within 48 hours in CCP arm vs. 3 days in usual care arm (OR 0.97; 95% CrI,
of randomization (n = 1,084) 0.82–1.14)
• Usual care (n = 916) Secondary Outcomes
Primary Endpoint • No difference between arms in:
• Number of organ support-free days by Day 21 • In-hospital mortality: 37% in CCP arm vs. 38% in usual care
arm
• Mortality by Day 28 or Day 90
• Median number of respiratory support-free days: 0 days in
• Mortality by Day 28 and Day 90 CCP arm vs. 2 days in usual care arm
• Number of respiratory support-free days • Median ICU LOS: 21 days in CCP arm vs. 17 days in usual
• ICU LOS care arm

CONCOR-1: Multinational, Open-Label RCT of CCP for Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Canada, the United States, and Brazil7
• Receipt of supplemental oxygen • Mean age 68 years; 59% men • Open-label study
• Availability of ABO–compatible CCP • 84% were receiving systemic corticosteroids at • Trial stopped at 78% of planned
enrollment. enrollment after meeting prespecified
futility criteria for early termination.
• Imminent or current intubation Primary Outcome
• Composite of intubation or death by Day 30: 32% in CCP Interpretation
• >12 days from respiratory symptom onset
arm vs. 28% in SOC arm (relative risk 1.16; 95% CI, • There was no benefit of CCP in oxygen-
Interventions 0.94–1.43; P = 0.18) dependent, hospitalized patients with
• 1–2 units of CCP (approximately 500 mL) from 1–2 COVID-19 who were within 12 days of
Secondary Outcomes
donors (n = 625) symptom onset.
• By Day 30, no difference between arms in:
• SOC (n = 313)
• Time to intubation or death
Primary Endpoint
• Mortality: 23% in CCP arm vs. 21% in SOC arm
• Composite of intubation or death by Day 30
• Mean ICU LOS: 4.3 days in CCP arm vs. 3.7 days in SOC
Key Secondary Endpoints arm
• Time to intubation or death by Day 30 • Need for renal dialysis: 1.6% in CCP arm vs. 2.0% in
• Mortality by Day 30 SOC arm
• ICU LOS by Day 30 • Frequency of SAEs by Day 30: 33% in CCP arm vs. 26% in
SOC arm
• Need for renal dialysis by Day 30
• Frequency of SAEs by Day 30
RECOVERY: Open-Label RCT of High-Titer CCP in Hospitalized Patients in the United Kingdom8
Key Inclusion Criterion Participant Characteristics Key Limitation
• Clinically suspected or laboratory-confirmed SARS- • Mean age 64 years; 64% men • Open-label study
CoV-2 infection • 5% on MV Interpretation
Key Exclusion Criterion • 92% received corticosteroids. • There was no benefit of CCP in
• CCP contraindicated Primary Outcomes hospitalized patients with COVID-19.
Interventions • No difference between arms in:
• 2 units of high-titer CCP (approximately 275 mL/unit) • All-cause mortality by Day 28: 24% in each arm
with IgG against SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and sample • Mortality in patients without detectable SARS-CoV-2
to cutoff ratio ≥6.0. First unit administered ASAP after antibodies: 32% in CCP arm vs. 34% in usual care arm
randomization; second unit administered ≥12 hours
later (n = 5,795).

RECOVERY: Open-Label RCT of High-Titer CCP in Hospitalized Patients in the United Kingdom8, continued
• Usual care (n = 5,763) Secondary Outcomes
Primary Endpoint • No difference between arms in:
• All-cause mortality by Day 28 • Proportion discharged by Day 28: 66% in both arms
Key Secondary Endpoints • Proportion who progressed to MV or death by Day 28:
29% in CCP arm vs. 29% in usual care arm
• Time to hospital discharge by Day 28
• Among patients not on MV, progression to MV or death
by Day 28
RECOVER: Open-Label RCT of High-Titer CCP in Hospitalized Patients With Severe COVID-19 in 4 Risk Groups in Germany9
• PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • 136 participants were enrolled between September 2020 • Open-label study
• Hospitalized with SpO2 ≤94% on room air or PaO2/FiO2 and January 2022. • The live-virus neutralization assay used
<300 mm Hg • Mean age 69 years; 68% men; 97% White to select plasma for this trial may not
• ≥1 of the following criteria: • Participants were enrolled from 4 mutually exclusive produce the same results as the assays
patient groups: used to qualify high-titer CCP in the
• Hematologic cancer and/or receipt of active cancer current FDA EUA.
therapy in past 24 months for any cancer • Patients with cancer (n = 56)
• Small sample size
• Chronic immunosuppression due to medications and/ • Patients with immunosuppression who did not have
or underlying disease cancer (n = 16, including 12 solid organ transplant • Trial was terminated early because the
recipients) neutralizing activity of stored plasma
• Aged >50 to ≤75 years with ALC <0.8 x 109 cells/L against the Omicron variant was not
and/or D-dimer >1 μg/mL • Patients aged >50 to ≤75 years with lymphopenia and/ known.
• Aged >75 years without other listed criteria or elevated D-dimer levels (n = 36)
• Low proportion of vaccinated
• Patients aged >75 years without other criteria (n = 26) participants and limited use of current
Key Exclusion Criterion
• 11% were fully vaccinated. SOC therapies, such as antiviral or
• Required MV or NIV
• 8% received small-molecule antiviral drugs (12% in plasma immunomodulatory agents
Interventions arm vs. 5% in SOC arm); 37% received anti-inflammatory • Subgroup analyses were not adjusted for
• 2 units (238–337 mL) of high-titer CCP (≥1:80) or drugs (40% in plasma arm vs. 33% in SOC arm). multiple comparisons.
vaccinated donor plasma from 2 donors on Days 1 and • 60% received supplemental oxygen via nasal cannula;
2 (n = 68) Interpretation
21% on HFNC oxygen or NIV
• SOC (n = 66) • The trial did not demonstrate a benefit
• Median 7 days between symptom onset and randomization of high-titer CCP or vaccinated donor
Primary Endpoint Primary Outcome plasma in the overall study population.
• Time to 2-point improvement on a 7-point OS or hospital • Median time to 2-point improvement on OS or hospital
discharge discharge: 13 days in plasma arm vs. 18 days in SOC arm

RECOVER: Open-Label RCT of High-Titer CCP in Hospitalized Patients With Severe COVID-19 in 4 Risk Groups in Germany4, continued
Key Secondary Endpoints (HR 1.29; 95% CI, 0.86–1.93; P = 0.205) • Results from the predefined subgroup
• 28-day, 56-day, and 84-day overall survival rate • Median time to improvement or hospital discharge analysis of patients with cancer suggest
among patients with cancer: 13 days in plasma arm a potential benefit of CCP or vaccinated
vs. 31 days in SOC arm (HR 2.50; 95% CI, 1.34–4.79; donor plasma. However, this analysis
P = 0.003) was conducted largely before the
emergence of Omicron subvariants, so
Key Secondary Outcomes the results should be interpreted with
• No difference between arms in overall survival; 27 caution.
patients (19.9%) died (HR for survival 0.72; 95% CI, 0.33–
1.55; P = 0.403).
• Fewer patients with cancer died in plasma arm than in
SOC arm (HR 0.28; 95% CI, 0.06–0.96; P = 0.042).
CONFIDENT: Open-Label RCT of High-Titer CCP in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19–associated ARDS in Belgium10
• PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Median age 64 years; 68% male • Open-label study
• Admitted to ICU with COVID-19–associated ARDS and • 10% were vaccinated. • Trial was stopped after recruiting 95%
WHO COVID-19 OS score of 7, 8, or 9 • 10% with mild ARDS, 58% with moderate ARDS, 32% of the target enrollment due to a low ICU
• On MV for ≤5 days with severe ARDS admission rate.
• Clinical Frailty Scale score of <6 • Baseline evidence of ongoing SARS-CoV-2 replication (Ct • Approximately 18% of patients who
value of 22 in CCP arm vs. 20 in SOC arm) were assigned to receive CCP received a
Key Exclusion Criteria lower neutralizing titer of 1:160.
• 98% received corticosteroids; 6% received RDV; 4%
• Previous transfusion-related side effects • The live-virus neutralization assay used
received IL-6 inhibitors.
• Medical decision to limit therapy to select plasma for this trial may not
Primary Outcome produce the same results as the assays
Interventions used to qualify high-titer CCP in the
• Mortality by Day 28: 35% in CCP arm vs. 45% in SOC arm
• 2 units (400–500 mL total) of high-titer CCP (≥1:320) (P = 0.03) current FDA EUA.
from donors who fully recovered from COVID-19
• In patients on MV ≤48 hours: 33% in CCP arm vs. 47% • Low proportion of vaccinated patients
between 28 days and 10 months before study. CCP was and limited use of current SOC
in SOC arm
administered within 24 hours of study randomization (n therapies, such as antiviral agents or a
= 237). • In patients on MV >48 hours: 42% in CCP arm vs. 40%
in SOC arm second immunomodulatory agent
• SOC (n = 238) • There were differences in treatment
• Similar outcomes were seen regardless of whether the
Primary Endpoint original SARS-CoV-2 strain (Wuhan-Hu-1) or the Alpha, effects across sites.
• Mortality by Day 28 Delta, or Omicron variants were in circulation. Interpretation
• CCP reduced mortality by Day 28 in
patients with COVID-19 and ARDS, and

CONFIDENT: Open-Label RCT of High-Titer CCP in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19–associated ARDS in Belgium10, continued
the effect was most notable in patients
who were randomized ≤48 hours after
initiating MV.
CSSC-004: RCT of Early Treatment With High-Titer CCP in Outpatients With COVID-19 in the United States 11

• COVID-19 symptoms for <8 days • Median age 44 years; 7% aged ≥65 years; 57% women; • Patients were at relatively low risk for
79% White disease progression.
• 8% with type 2 DM; 2% with CVD; 38% with BMI ≥30 Interpretation
• Prior or planned COVID-19–related hospitalization
• 82% were unvaccinated. • This trial demonstrated a benefit of CCP
• Receipt of anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs
• Median of 6 days between symptom onset and in unvaccinated outpatients with <8
Interventions transfusion days of COVID-19 symptoms.
• Approximately 250 mL of CCP with SARS-CoV-2 spike
Primary Outcomes
protein IgG (titer ≥1:320) (n = 592)
• COVID-19–related hospitalization within 28 days: 2.9% in
• Non-SARS-CoV-2 plasma (n = 589)
CCP arm vs. 6.3% in control arm (absolute risk reduction
Primary Endpoint 3.4 percentage points; 95% CI, 1.0–5.8; P = 0.005)
• Composite of COVID-19–related hospitalization or all- • 53 of 54 hospitalizations occurred in unvaccinated
cause death within 28 days individuals. None occurred in fully vaccinated individuals.
• All-cause deaths within 28 days: 0 in CCP arm vs. 3 in
control arm
CONV-ERT: RCT of High-Titer, Methylene Blue-Treated CCP as an Early Treatment for Outpatients With COVID-19 in Spain12
• Aged ≥50 years • Mean age 56 years; 54% men • Trial was underpowered because it
• Mild or moderate COVID-19 symptoms for ≤7 days • 75% with ≥1 risk factors for COVID-19 progression was terminated early due to rising
vaccination rates among the eligible
Key Exclusion Criteria • 97% with mild COVID-19 patient population.
• Severe COVID-19 symptoms or need for hospitalization • Median of 4.4 days of symptoms prior to enrollment • Methylene blue, which was used for
for any reason • Among 369 patients with available baseline serologic pathogen inactivation in donor plasma,
• Previous SARS-CoV-2 infection testing, 88% were negative for both IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 could have potentially impaired Fc-
spike and IgM anti-SARS-CoV-2 S1-RBD. region functionality of Ig and negatively
• Receipt of ≥1 doses of a COVID-19 vaccine
Primary Outcomes impacted product efficacy and blinding.
Interventions
• Hospitalization within 28 days: 12% in CCP arm vs. 11% Interpretation
• 250–300 mL of high-titer, methylene blue-treated CCP
in placebo arm (relative risk 1.05; 95% CrI, 0.78–1.41) • This trial did not demonstrate a benefit
(n = 188)
of CCP in unvaccinated outpatients with

CONV-ERT: RCT of High-Titer, Methylene Blue-Treated CCP as an Early Treatment for Outpatients With COVID-19 in Spain12, continued
• 0.9% saline (n = 188) • Mean change in SARS-CoV-2 VL: -2.41 log10 copies/mL in ≤7 days of COVID-19 symptoms.
CCP arm vs. -2.32 log10 copies/mL in placebo arm
Primary Endpoints
• Hospitalization within 28 days Key Secondary Outcomes
• Mean change in SARS-CoV-2 VL from baseline to Day 7 • Death by Day 60: 0 in CCP arm vs. 2 in placebo arm
(relative risk 0.20; 95% CI 0.01–4.14)
• No difference between arms in median time to symptom
• Death by Day 60 resolution: 12.0 days for both arms (HR 1.05; 95% CI,
• Time to complete symptom resolution 0.85–1.30)
Double-Blind RCT of Early High-Titer CCP Therapy to Prevent Severe COVID-19 in Nonhospitalized Older Adults in Argentina13
• Aged ≥75 years or aged 65–74 years with ≥1 coexisting • Mean age 77 years; 38% men • Small sample size
conditions • Most with comorbidities • Trial was terminated early because the
• Mild COVID-19 symptoms for <72 hours number of COVID-19 cases decreased
Primary Outcome
Key Exclusion Criterion • Severe respiratory disease by Day 15: 16% in CCP arm Interpretation
• Severe respiratory disease vs. 31% in placebo arm (relative risk 0.52; 95% CI, • This trial demonstrated a benefit of CCP
0.29–0.94; P = 0.03) in older adult outpatients with <72 hours
Interventions
of mild COVID-19 symptoms.
• 250 mL of CCP with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein IgG (titer
>1:1,000) (n = 80)
• Saline (n = 80)
Primary Endpoint
• Severe respiratory disease, defined as respiratory rate
≥30 breaths/min and/or SpO2 <93% on room air, by Day
15

SIREN-C3PO: Multicenter, Single-Blind RCT of High-Titer CCP in Adults With COVID-19 in the United States14
• ED patient with ≤7 days of symptoms • Median age 54 years; 46% men • In the primary analysis, the number
• PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • More patients with immunosuppression in CCP arm than in of patients who required hospital
placebo arm (13% vs. 7%) admission during the index visit
• Aged ≥50 years or aged ≥18 years with ≥1 risk factors for was not balanced across arms.
disease progression • More patients with ≥3 risk factors in CCP arm than in
placebo arm (55% vs. 48%) • The CCP arm included more
Key Exclusion Criterion patients with multiple risk factors,
• Need for supplemental oxygen Primary Outcomes including immunosuppression.
• No difference between arms in proportion with disease Interpretation
Interventions
progression: 30% in CCP arm vs. 32% in placebo arm (risk
• 250 mL of high-titer CCP (median titer 1:641) (n = 257) difference 1.9%; 95% CrI, -6.0% to 9.8%) • The use of high-titer CCP within
• Saline (n = 254) 1 week of symptom onset did not
• 25 patients (19 in CCP arm vs. 6 in placebo arm) required prevent disease progression in
Primary Endpoint hospitalization during index visit. In a post hoc analysis outpatients with COVID-19 who
that excluded these patients, disease progression occurred were at high risk of severe disease.
• Disease progression, defined as hospital admission, death, in 24% in CCP arm vs. 30% in placebo arm (risk difference
or seeking emergency or urgent care, within 15 days of 5.8%; 95% CrI, -1.9% to 13.6%).
randomization
Secondary Outcomes
• All-cause mortality by Day 30: 5 (1.9%) in CCP arm vs. 1
• Severity of illness by Day 30, as measured by an OS (0.4%) in placebo arm
• All-cause mortality by Day 30 • No difference between arms in illness severity or mean
• Number of hospital-free days by Day 30 number of hospital-free days by Day 30
CoV-Early: Double-Blind RCT of CCP in Nonhospitalized, High-Risk Adults With COVID-19 in the Netherlands15
• Aged ≥70 years, aged ≥50 years with a comorbidity, or aged • Median age 60 years; 22% women • Study was discontinued after 421
≥18 years and severely immunocompromised • Median of 5 days of symptoms of 690 planned participants were
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR or antigen test result enrolled, resulting in decreased
• Median of 1 comorbidity power.
• COVID-19 symptoms for ≤7 days • Median SpO2 of 97% at baseline • The CCP used was selected based
Key Exclusion Criteria • 7.9% were SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody negative at baseline. on a PRNT50 assay and may not
• Life expectancy <28 days • 2.9% were fully vaccinated; 5.0% received 1 dose of a qualify as high-titer CCP per the
• History of TRALI COVID-19 vaccine. current FDA EUA.
• IgA deficiency

CoV-Early: Double-Blind RCT of CCP in Nonhospitalized, High-Risk Adults With COVID-19 in the Netherlands15, continued
Interventions Primary Outcome Interpretation
• 300 mL of CCP with minimum PRNT50 titer of 1:160 (n = • Odds of receiving highest score on 5-point OS by Day 28: • This trial did not demonstrate a
207) OR 0.86; 95% CrI, 0.59–1.22 in CCP arm benefit of CCP in nonhospitalized,
• Non-SARS-CoV-2 plasma collected prior to pandemic (n = high-risk patients with COVID-19.
Secondary Outcomes
209)
• Percentage of hospital admissions: 4.8% in CCP arm vs.
Primary Endpoint 8.6% in non-SARS-CoV-2 plasma arm (aHR 0.61; 95% CI,
• Improvement based on 5-point OS by Day 28 0.28–1.34)
• Number of days of symptoms: 13 in CCP arm vs. 12 in
Secondary Endpoints
non-SARS-CoV-2 plasma arm (P = 0.99)
• Percentage of hospital admissions
• Number of days of symptoms
Retrospective Evaluation of CCP Antibody Levels and the Risk of Death From COVID-19 in the United States16
• Severe or life-threatening COVID-19 • 31% aged ≥70 years; 61% men; 48% White, 37% • Lack of untreated control arm
• Patients for whom samples of transfused CCP were available Hispanic/Latinx
Interpretation
for retrospective analysis of antibody titer • 61% in ICU; 33% on MV
• The study data are not sufficient to
Interventions • 51% received corticosteroids; 31% received RDV. establish the efficacy or safety of
• High-titer CCP (n = 515), medium-titer CCP (n = 2,006), or Primary Outcomes CCP.
low-titer CCP (n = 561), characterized retrospectively • Mortality by Day 30 after transfusion: 22% in high-titer
Primary Endpoint CCP arm vs. 27% in medium-titer CCP arm vs. 30% in
low-titer CCP arm
• Mortality by Day 30 after CCP transfusion
• Lower risk of death in high-titer CCP arm than low-titer
CCP arm (relative risk 0.75; 95% CI, 0.61–0.93)
• Lower mortality among patients not receiving MV before
CCP transfusion (relative risk 0.66; 95% CI, 0.48–0.91)
• No difference in mortality between high-titer and low-
titer arms among patients on MV before CCP transfusion
(relative risk 1.02; 95% CI, 0.78–1.32)

Key: Key: ALC = absolute lymphocyte count; ARDS = acute respiratory distress syndrome; ASAP = as soon as possible; BMI = body mass index; CCP = COVID-19
convalescent plasma; Ct = cycle threshold; CVD = cardiovascular disease; DM = diabetes mellitus; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; ED = emergency
department; EUA = Emergency Use Authorization; Fc = fragment crystallizable; FDA = Food and Drug Administration; HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula; ICU = intensive
care unit; Ig = immunoglobulin; IL = interleukin; LOS = length of stay; mAb = monoclonal antibody; MV = mechanical ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; OS
= ordinal scale; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PaO2/FiO2 = ratio of arterial partial pressure of oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen; PCR =
polymerase chain reaction; PRNT50 = 50% plaque reduction neutralization test; RBD = receptor-binding domain; RCT = randomized controlled trial; RDV = remdesivir;
RT-PCR = reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; SAE = serious adverse event; SOC = standard of care; SpO2 = oxygen saturation; TRALI = transfusion-
related acute lung injury; VL = viral load; WHO = World Health Organization
References
1. Agarwal A, Mukherjee A, Kumar G, et al. Convalescent plasma in the management of moderate COVID-19 in adults in India: open label Phase II
multicentre randomised controlled trial (PLACID Trial). BMJ. 2020;371:m3939. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33093056.
2. Simonovich VA, Burgos Pratx LD, Scibona P, et al. A randomized trial of convalescent plasma in COVID-19 severe pneumonia. N Engl J Med.
3. O'Donnell MR, Grinsztejn B, Cummings MJ, et al. A randomized double-blind controlled trial of convalescent plasma in adults with severe
COVID-19. J Clin Invest. 2021;131(13):e150646. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33974559.
4. Li L, Zhang W, Hu Y, et al. Effect of convalescent plasma therapy on time to clinical improvement in patients with severe and life-threatening
5. Diago-Sempere E, Bueno JL, Sancho-López A, et al. Evaluation of convalescent plasma versus standard of care for the treatment of COVID-19 in
hospitalized patients: study protocol for a phase 2 randomized, open-label, controlled, multicenter trial. Trials. 2021;22(1):70. Available at:
6. Writing Committee for the REMAP-CAP Investigators. Effect of convalescent plasma on organ support-free days in critically ill patients with
7. Bégin P, Callum J, Jamula E, et al. Convalescent plasma for hospitalized patients with COVID-19: an open-label, randomized controlled trial. Nat Med.
8. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Convalescent plasma in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): a randomised controlled,
open-label, platform trial. Lancet. 2021;397(10289):2049-2059. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34000257.
9. Denkinger CM, Janssen M, Schäkel U, et al. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody-containing plasma improves outcome in patients with hematologic or solid
cancer and severe COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. Nat Cancer. 2023;4(1):96-107. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36581734.
10. Misset B, Piagnerelli M, Hoste E, et al. Convalescent plasma for COVID-19-induced ARDS in mechanically ventilated patients. N Engl J Med.
11. Sullivan DJ, Gebo KA, Shoham S, et al. Early outpatient treatment for COVID-19 with convalescent plasma. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(18):1700-1711.
12. Alemany A, Millat-Martinez P, Corbacho-Monné M, et al. High-titre methylene blue-treated convalescent plasma as an early treatment for outpatients

with COVID-19: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2022;10(3):278-288. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/35150610.
13. Libster R, Pérez Marc G, Wappner D, et al. Early high-titer plasma therapy to prevent severe COVID-19 in older adults. N Engl J Med.
14. Korley FK, Durkalski-Mauldin V, Yeatts SD, et al. Early convalescent plasma for high-risk outpatients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med.
15. Gharbharan A, Jordans C, Zwaginga L, et al. Outpatient convalescent plasma therapy for high-risk patients with early COVID-19: a randomized
placebo-controlled trial. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2023;29(2):208-214. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36007870.
16. Joyner MJ, Carter RE, Senefeld JW, et al. Convalescent plasma antibody levels and the risk of death from COVID-19. N Engl J Med.

Interferons
Interferons are a family of cytokines with in vitro and in vivo antiviral properties. Interferon beta-1a
has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat relapsing forms of multiple
sclerosis, and pegylated formulations of interferon alfa-2a and interferon alfa-2b have been approved
by the FDA to treat hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus infections. Several interferons, including interferon
alfa, beta, and lambda, have been evaluated for the treatment of COVID-19. Interferon lambda is not
currently approved or authorized by the FDA for any use.
Recommendations
• For nonhospitalized patients with mild to moderate COVID-19, the COVID-19 Treatment
Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends against the use of interferon alfa or beta, except in a
clinical trial (AIIa).
• For hospitalized patients with COVID-19, the Panel recommends against the use of systemic
interferon alfa, except in a clinical trial (AIIa).
• For hospitalized patients with COVID-19, the Panel recommends against the use of systemic
interferon beta (AI).
• The Panel is unable to recommend either for or against the use of interferon lambda because this
product is not currently available for clinical use.
Rationale
Interferon Alfa and Beta
Many of the studies that evaluated the use of systemic interferons for the treatment of hospitalized
adults with COVID-19 were conducted in early 2020, before the widespread use of remdesivir or
corticosteroids and other immunomodulators. In addition, these studies administered interferons with
other drugs that have since been shown to have no clinical benefit in people with COVID-19, such as
lopinavir/ritonavir and hydroxychloroquine.1-3
More recent studies have shown no benefit of using interferon beta-1a to treat patients with COVID-19,
and some of the trials have suggested that interferon beta-1a can cause harm in patients with severe
disease, such as those who require high-flow oxygen, noninvasive ventilation, or mechanical
ventilation.4,5 In a large randomized controlled trial of hospitalized patients with COVID-19, the
combination of interferon beta-1a plus remdesivir showed no clinical benefit when compared to
remdesivir alone.4 Similarly, the World Health Organization Solidarity trial did not show a benefit
of administering interferon beta-1a to hospitalized patients, approximately 50% of whom were on
corticosteroids.5
Systemic interferon alfa and inhaled interferons have also been evaluated in patients with COVID-19.
The trials that have evaluated the use of interferon alfa have generally been small or moderate in size
and have not been adequately powered to assess whether this agent provides a clinical benefit for
patients with COVID-19.6-8
Interferon Lambda
Pegylated interferon lambda was studied in a randomized, double-blind, adaptive clinical trial that

enrolled nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Brazil and Canada.9 A total of 1,941 patients with
risk factors for severe COVID-19 were randomized to receive either a single subcutaneous injection
of pegylated interferon lambda 180 µg or placebo. Eighty-three percent of these patients had received
at least 1 dose of a COVID-19 vaccine. The primary outcome was a composite of observation in an
emergency department for >6 hours or hospitalization, and 1 of the secondary outcomes was a composite
of hospitalization or death. By Day 28 after randomization, the use of interferon lambda was associated
with a 51% decrease in the occurrence of the primary outcome and a 39% decrease in the occurrence of
this secondary outcome. Patients with a high baseline SARS-CoV-2 viral load who received interferon
lambda were more likely to have cleared the virus by Day 7 than those who received placebo.
The drug was generally well tolerated. However, since pegylated interferon lambda is an investigational
agent that is not currently available for clinical use, the Panel cannot make a recommendation for its use
at this time.
Summaries of the studies that informed the Panel’s recommendations can be found in Table 4d.

According to analyses of data from several large pregnancy registries, exposure to interferon beta-1b
prior to conception or during pregnancy does not lead to an increased risk of adverse birth outcomes
(e.g., spontaneous abortion, congenital anomaly).10,11 In a study that used data from pregnancy registries
in Sweden and Finland, women who were exposed to interferon beta during pregnancy did not report
significant changes in the birth weight, height, or head circumference of their infants.12
There are insufficient data on the use of interferons to treat respiratory viral infections in children to
make any recommendations for treating children with COVID-19.
References
1. Alavi Darazam I, Hatami F, Mahdi Rabiei M, et al. An investigation into the beneficial effects of high-dose
interferon beta 1-a, compared to low-dose interferon beta 1-a in severe COVID-19: The COVIFERON II
randomized controlled trial. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;99:107916. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
2. Hung IF, Lung KC, Tso EY, et al. Triple combination of interferon beta-1b, lopinavir-ritonavir, and ribavirin
in the treatment of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19: an open-label, randomised, Phase 2 trial.
Lancet. 2020;395(10238):1695-1704. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32401715.
3. Rahmani H, Davoudi-Monfared E, Nourian A, et al. Interferon beta-1b in treatment of severe COVID-19: a
randomized clinical trial. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020;88:106903. Available at:
4. Kalil AC, Mehta AK, Patterson TF, et al. Efficacy of interferon beta-1a plus remdesivir compared with
remdesivir alone in hospitalised adults with COVID-19: a double-bind, randomised, placebo-controlled, Phase
3 trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(12):1365-1376. Available at:
5. WHO Solidarity Trial Consortium. Repurposed antiviral drugs for COVID-19—interim WHO Solidarity trial
results. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(6):497-511. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33264556.
6. Yu J, Lu X, Tong L, et al. Interferon-alpha-2b aerosol inhalation is associated with improved clinical outcomes
in patients with coronavirus disease–2019. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2021;87(12):4737-4746. Available at: https://
pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33982806.
7. Wang B, Li D, Liu T, Wang H, Luo F, Liu Y. Subcutaneous injection of IFN alpha-2b for COVID-19:

an observational study. BMC Infect Dis. 2020;20(1):723. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/33008327.
8. Pandit A, Bhalani N, Shashi Bhushan BL, et al. Efficacy and safety of pegylated interferon alpha-2b in
moderate COVID-19: a phase II, randomized, controlled, open-label study. Int J Infect Dis. 2021;105:516-521.
9. Reis G, Moreira Silva EAS, Medeiros Silva DC, et al. Early treatment with pegylated interferon lambda for
COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(6):518-528. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36780676.
10. Sandberg-Wollheim M, Alteri E, Moraga MS, Kornmann G. Pregnancy outcomes in multiple sclerosis
following subcutaneous interferon beta-1a therapy. Mult Scler. 2011;17(4):423-430. Available at:
11. Hellwig K, Duarte Caron F, Wicklein EM, Bhatti A, Adamo A. Pregnancy outcomes from the
global pharmacovigilance database on interferon beta-1b exposure. Ther Adv Neurol Disord.
12. Burkill S, Vattulainen P, Geissbuehler Y, et al. The association between exposure to interferon-beta
during pregnancy and birth measurements in offspring of women with multiple sclerosis. PLoS One.

Table 4d. Interferons: Selected Clinical Trial Data
The clinical trials described in this table do not represent all the trials that the Panel reviewed while developing the recommendations
for interferons. The studies summarized below are the randomized controlled trials that have had the greatest impact on the Panel’s
recommendations.
ACTT-3: Multinational, Double-Blind RCT of Interferon Beta-1a and Remdesivir in Hospitalized Adults With COVID-191
• Evidence of pneumonia (radiographic infiltrates, SpO2 • Mean age 59 years; 38% were aged ≥65 years • After 270 patients were enrolled, OS6
≤94% on room air, or supplemental oxygen) • 58% men; 32% Latinx, 60% White, 17% Black patients were excluded because of an
• No MV required increased frequency of AEs in this group.
• Mean of 8.6 days of symptoms before enrollment
Key Exclusion Criteria • 90% had ≥1 comorbidity; 58% with HTN; 58% with Interpretation
• AST or ALT >5 times ULN obesity; 37% with DM • There was no clinical benefit of adding
IFN beta-1a to RDV in hospitalized
• Impaired renal function Primary Outcome patients with COVID-19.
• Hospital discharge or transfer anticipated within 72 • Median time to recovery: 5 days in both arms (rate ratio • The use of IFN beta-1a was associated
hours 0.99; 95% CI, 0.87–1.13; P = 0.88) with worse outcomes among patients
Interventions • In patients on high-flow oxygen or NIV (OS6) at who were OS6 at baseline.
baseline, median time to recovery: >28 days in IFN
beta-1a arm vs. 9 days in placebo arm (rate ratio 0.40;
for 9 days plus IFN beta-1a 44 µg SUBQ every other day
95% CI, 0.22–0.75; P = 0.0031)
for up to 4 doses (n = 487)
• RDV 200 mg IV on Day 1, then RDV 100 mg IV once daily Secondary Outcomes
for 9 days plus placebo (n = 482) • No difference between arms in clinical status at Day 14
(OR 1.01; 95% CI, 0.79–1.28)
Primary Endpoint
• No difference between IFN beta-1a arm and placebo arm
• Time to recovery by Day 28
in mortality by Day 28 in:
Key Secondary Endpoints • All patients: 5% vs. 3% (HR 1.33; 95% CI, 0.69–2.55)
• Clinical status at Day 14, as measured by an OS • Patients who were OS6 at baseline: 21% vs. 12% (HR
• Mortality by Day 28 1.74; 95% CI, 0.51–5.93)

WHO Solidarity Trial: Multinational, Open-Label, Adaptive RCT of IV or SUBQ Interferon Beta-1a or Other Repurposed Drugs in Hospitalized Adults With
COVID-192
• Diagnosis of COVID-19 • 35% aged <50 years; 19% aged ≥70 years; 63% men • Open-label study
• Not expected to be transferred elsewhere within 72 • 70% on supplemental oxygen; 7% on ventilation • IFN beta-1a given as IV or SUBQ
hours • Approximately 50% received corticosteroids during the formulations at different doses.
Interventions study. Interpretation
• IFN beta-1a 44 µg SUBQ on day of randomization, Day 3, Primary Outcome • IFN beta-1a did not reduce in-hospital
and Day 6 (n = 1,656) • In-hospital mortality: 11.9% in combined IFN beta-1a mortality in hospitalized patients with
• IFN beta-1a 10 µg IV daily for 6 days for patients on arms vs. 10.5% in SOC arm (rate ratio 1.16; 95% CI, COVID-19.
high-flow oxygen, ventilation, or ECMO (n = 394) 0.96–1.39)
• IFN beta-1a (either SUBQ or IV) and LPV/RTV 400 mg/50 • For IFN beta-1a only (without LPV/RTV) recipients vs.
mg twice daily for 14 days (n = 651) SOC recipients, rate ratio was 1.12 (95% CI, 0.83–
• Local SOC (n = 2,050) 1.51).
• Among those on ventilation at baseline, age-stratified
Primary Endpoint
rate ratio for in-hospital mortality was 1.40 (95% CI,
• In-hospital mortality 0.93–2.11).
Key Secondary Endpoint Secondary Outcome
• Initiation of ventilation • 10% initiated ventilation in the combined IFN beta-1a
arms and SOC arm.

DisCoVeRy Solidarity Trial Add-On: Open-Label, Adaptive RCT of Interferon Beta-1a Plus Lopinavir/Ritonavir, Lopinavir/Ritonavir, or Hydroxychloroquine in
Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in France3
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 PCR result • Median age 63 years; 72% men • Open-label study
• Patients had pulmonary rales or crackles with SpO2 • 29% with obesity; 26% with chronic cardiac disease; • Most patients had moderate disease.
≤94% on room air or required supplemental oxygen 22% with DM • No IFN beta-1a arm without LPV/RTV
Interventions • 36% had severe disease • Study stopped early for futility.
• IFN beta-1a 44 µg SUBQ on Days 1, 3, and 6 plus LPV/ • Median of 9 days of symptoms before randomization
Interpretation
RTV 400 mg/100 mg PO twice daily for 14 days plus SOC • 30% received steroids during the study.
(n = 145) • Compared to SOC alone, the use of IFN-
Primary Outcome beta-1a plus LPV/RTV did not improve
• LPV/RTV 400 mg/100 mg PO twice daily for 14 days plus clinical status, rate of viral clearance, or
SOC (n = 145) • No difference in clinical status at Day 15 for any
intervention compared to SOC: time to viral clearance in hospitalized
• HCQ 400 mg twice on Day 1, then HCQ 400 mg daily for patients with COVID-19.
9 days plus SOC (n = 145) • IFN beta-1a plus LPV/RTV: aOR 0.69 (95% CI, 0.45–
1.04; P = 0.08)
• SOC alone, which included corticosteroids,
anticoagulants, or immunomodulatory agents but not • LPV/RTV: aOR 0.83 (95% CI, 0.55–1.26; P = 0.39)
antivirals (n = 148) • HCQ: aOR 0.93 (95% CI, 0.62–1.41; P = 0.75)
Primary Endpoint Secondary Outcomes
• Clinical status at Day 15, as measured by an OS • No difference between arms in clinical status at Day 29
Key Secondary Endpoints • No difference between arms in rate or time to SARS-
CoV-2 viral clearance
• Clinical status at Day 29
• Time to improvement of 2 OS categories and hospital
• Rate of SARS-CoV-2 viral clearance discharge by Day 29 was longer in LPV/RTV plus IFN
• Time to SARS-CoV-2 viral clearance by Day 29 beta-1a and LPV/RTV arms than in SOC arm.
• Time to improvement of 2 OS categories by Day 29
• Time to hospital discharge by Day 29

TOGETHER: Double-Blind, Adaptive RCT of Pegylated Interferon Lambda in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Brazil and Canada4
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 antigen test result • Median age 43 years; 57.1% women; 95.1% self- • Health care facility capacity may have
• Within 7 days of symptom onset identified as mixed race influenced the number and duration of
• 1,919 (98.5%) from Brazil, 30 (1.5%) from Canada ED observations.
• ≥1 high-risk factor for disease progression (e.g., age ≥50
years, comorbidities, immunosuppression) • 50% with obesity • As this was an adaptive platform trial
where multiple investigational treatments
• Up to 25% of patients could have no high-risk factors. • 59.4% were randomized within 3 days of symptom or placebos were being evaluated
onset. simultaneously, not all patients in the
• 83% received ≥1 COVID-19 vaccine dose. placebo arm received a placebo that was
• Need for hospitalization
Primary Outcome matched to PEG-IFN lambda.
• SpO2 ≤93% on room air
• Composite of ED observation >6 hours or hospitalization Interpretation
Interventions
for COVID-19 by Day 28 (ITT): 25 (2.7%) in PEG-IFN • In outpatients with COVID-19 who were
• Single dose of PEG-IFN lambda 180 μg SUBQ (n = 931) lambda arm vs. 57 (5.6%) in placebo arm (relative risk within 7 days of symptom onset, PEG-
• Placebo (n = 1,018; 825 received single SUBQ injection, 0.49; 95% Bayesian CrI, 0.30–0.76) IFN lambda reduced the need for ED
193 received PO placebo) • 61 events (74%) were hospitalizations (ITT). observations >6 hours or hospitalization
when compared with placebo.
• Composite of ED observation >6 hours or hospitalization • Composite of COVID-19–related hospitalization or
for COVID-19 by Day 28 death by Day 28: 22 (2.4%) in PEG-IFN lambda arm vs.
Key Secondary Endpoints 40 (3.9%) in placebo arm (relative risk 0.61; 95% CrI,
0.36–0.99)
• Composite of COVID-19–related hospitalization or death
by Day 28 • SARS-CoV-2 viral clearance at Day 7 among the 15%
of patients with VL >192 million copies/mL at baseline:
• SARS-CoV-2 viral clearance at Day 7 50.5% in PEG-IFN lambda arm vs. 32.9% in placebo arm
• Occurrence of AEs (OR 2.13; 95% CrI, 1.14–4.00)
• Occurrence of AEs: 141 (15.1%) in PEG-IFN lambda arm
vs. 172 (16.9%) in placebo arm (relative risk 0.90; 95%
CrI, 0.73–1.10)

Single-Blind RCT of Pegylated Interferon Lambda-1a for Treatment of Outpatients With Uncomplicated COVID-19 in the United States5
• Aged 18–65 years • Median age 36 years; 42% women; 63% Latinx, 28% • Small sample size
• Asymptomatic or symptomatic White
Interpretation
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result within 72 hours of • 7% were asymptomatic.
• PEG-IFN lambda-1a provided no virologic
enrollment • Median of 5 days of symptoms before randomization or clinical benefit compared to placebo
Key Exclusion Criteria Primary Outcome among outpatients with uncomplicated
COVID-19.
• Current or imminent hospitalization • Median time to cessation of viral shedding: 7 days in
• Respiratory rate >20 breaths/min both arms (aHR 0.81; 95% CI, 0.56–1.19; P = 0.29)
• SpO2 <94% on room air Secondary Outcomes
• Decompensated liver disease • No difference between PEG-IFN lambda-1a and placebo
arms in:
Interventions
• Proportion of patients hospitalized by Day 28: 3.3% for
• Single dose of PEG-IFN lambda-1a 180 µg SUBQ (n = 60) each arm
• Placebo (n = 60) • Time to resolution of symptoms: 8 days vs. 9 days (HR
Primary Endpoint 0.94; 95% CI, 0.64–1.39)
• Time to first negative SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result Other Outcome
Key Secondary Endpoints • Patients who received PEG-IFN lambda-1a were more
• Hospitalization by Day 28 likely to have elevations of transaminase concentrations
than patients who received placebo (25% vs. 8%; P =
• Time to complete symptom resolution 0.027).

Double-Blind RCT of Pegylated Interferon Lambda in Outpatients With Laboratory-Confirmed COVID-19 in Canada6
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 PCR result • Median age 46 years; 58% women; 52% White • Small sample size
• Patients were within 7 days of symptom onset, or, if • 19% were asymptomatic. Interpretation
asymptomatic, were within 7 days of first positive SARS- • Mean of 4.5 days of symptoms before randomization • PEG-IFN lambda may accelerate VL
CoV-2 test result.
Primary Outcome decline and clearance in outpatients
Key Exclusion Criterion with COVID-19; however, the clinical
• 80% in PEG-IFN lambda arm vs. 63% in placebo arm significance of this finding is unclear.
• Immunosuppression or condition that could be worsened were negative for SARS-CoV-2 RNA at Day 7 (P = 0.15).
by PEG-IFN lambda
Secondary Outcomes
Interventions
• VL decline by Day 7 was greater in PEG-IFN lambda arm
• Single dose of PEG-IFN lambda 180 µg SUBQ (n = 30) than in placebo arm (P = 0.0041).
• Placebo (n = 30) • 1 participant in each arm hospitalized by Day 14
Primary Endpoint Other Outcome
• Proportion of patients with negative SARS-CoV-2 test • 3 participants in each arm had mild elevations of
result on nasal mid-turbinate swab at Day 7 aminotransferase concentrations. Increase was greater
Key Secondary Endpoints in PEG-IFN lambda arm.
• Quantitative change in SARS-CoV-2 RNA over time
• Hospitalization by Day 14
Key: AE = adverse event; ALT = alanine transaminase; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; DM = diabetes mellitus; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; ED
= emergency department; HCQ = hydroxychloroquine; HTN = hypertension; IFN = interferon; ITT = intention-to-treat; IV = intravenous; LPV/RTV = lopinavir/ritonavir;
MV = mechanical ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; OS = ordinal scale; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PCR = polymerase chain
reaction; PEG-IFN = pegylated interferon; PO = oral; RCT = randomized controlled trial; RDV = remdesivir; RT-PCR = reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction;
SOC = standard of care; SpO2 = oxygen saturation; SUBQ = subcutaneous; ULN = upper limit of normal; VL = viral load; WHO = World Health Organization
References
1. Kalil AC, Mehta AK, Patterson TF, et al. Efficacy of interferon beta-1a plus remdesivir compared with remdesivir alone in hospitalised adults with
COVID-19: a double-bind, randomised, placebo-controlled, Phase 3 trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(12):1365-1376. Available at: https://www.ncbi.
2. WHO Solidarity Trial Consortium. Repurposed antiviral drugs for COVID-19—interim WHO Solidarity trial results. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(6):497-
3. Ader F, Peiffer-Smadja N, Poissy J, et al. An open-label randomized controlled trial of the effect of lopinavir/ritonavir, lopinavir/ritonavir plus

IFN-beta-1a and hydroxychloroquine in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2021;27(12):1826-1837. Available at: https://
4. Reis G, Moreira Silva EAS, Medeiros Silva DC, et al. Early treatment with pegylated interferon lambda for COVID-19. N Engl J Med.
5. Jagannathan P, Andrews JR, Bonilla H, et al. Peginterferon lambda-1a for treatment of outpatients with uncomplicated COVID-19: a randomized
placebo-controlled trial. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):1967. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33785743.
6. Feld JJ, Kandel C, Biondi MJ, et al. Peginterferon lambda for the treatment of outpatients with COVID-19: a Phase 2, placebo-controlled randomised
trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(5):498-510. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33556319.

Table 4e. Characteristics of Antiviral Agents, Including Antibody Products
• This table contains drugs and products that have shown antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2, including small-molecule antiviral
drugs, CCP, and IFNs.
• RDV and RTV-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) are approved by the FDA for the treatment of COVID-19.
• MOV and CCP have received EUAs from the FDA for the treatment of COVID-19.
• For drug-drug interaction information, please refer to product labels, EUA fact sheets, and Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-
Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Concomitant Medications.
• For the Panel’s recommendations on using the drugs listed in this table, refer to to Antiviral Agents, Including Antibody Products;
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19; Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19;
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19; Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With
COVID-19; and Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics.
Adverse Drug-Drug Interaction
Drug Name Dosing Regimens Monitoring Parameters Comments
Events Potential
Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antiviral Drugs (Small-Molecule Antivirals)
Ritonavir- FDA Prescribing Information/EUA • Dysgeusia • Boxed warning: Monitor • RTV-boosted nirmatrelvir • The FDA prescribing
Boosted Dose for COVID-191,2 • Diarrhea for potential AEs due to has significant drug- information and the EUA
Nirmatrelvir eGFR ≥60 mL/min drug-drug interactions drug interactions. Before do not recommend using
(Paxlovid) • Anaphylaxis, with concomitant prescribing RTV-boosted RTV-boosted nirmatrelvir in
• Nirmatrelvir 300 mg (two 150-mg serious skin
Approved by tablets) with RTV 100 mg (one medications. Weigh nirmatrelvir, carefully patients with eGFR <30 mL/
reactions, potential benefits of review concomitant min. See Ritonavir-Boosted
the FDA for use 100-mg tablet) twice daily for 5 and other treatment against medications, including Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) for
in adults and days HSRs potential risks of drug- OTC medicines, herbal more information.
authorized under
an FDA EUA for eGFR ≥30 to <60 mL/min drug interactions. supplements, and • Both nirmatrelvir and RTV
use in adolescents • Nirmatrelvir 150 mg (one 150-mg • Use with caution recreational drugs. tablets can be taken with or
(aged ≥12 years tablet) with RTV 100 mg (one 100- in patients with • See Drug-Drug Interactions without food.
and weighing mg tablet) twice daily for 5 days pre-existing liver Between Ritonavir-Boosted • The FDA prescribing
≥40 kg) for the eGFR <30 mL/min diseases, liver enzyme Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and information and the EUA
treatment of • Not recommended (see abnormalities, or Concomitant Medications advise against crushing
mild to moderate comments) hepatitis. for additional guidance nirmatrelvir and RTV tablets.
COVID-19 in high- and resources to assist
Severe Hepatic Impairment (Child- • Monitor for HSRs. However, some data indicate
risk individuals. with identifying drug-drug
Pugh Class C) that the tablets can be split
interactions. or crushed if necessary.3
• Not recommended

Monitoring Drug-Drug Interaction
Drug Name Dosing Regimens Adverse Events Comments
Parameters Potential
Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antiviral Drugs (Small-Molecule Antivirals), continued
Remdesivir Dose for Adults and Children • Nausea • Monitor patients • No clinically significant • Administer each
Approved by Weighing ≥40 kg • ALT and AST elevations for infusion-related drug-drug interactions infusion over
the FDA for the • RDV 200 mg IV on Day 1, then RDV reactions during are expected with 30–120 minutes.
• HSRs the infusion and CYP3A4 inducers or
treatment of 100 mg IV once daily from Day 2 • RDV may be
COVID-19 in • Increases in prothrombin observe them for inhibitors of OATP1B1, used without
individuals aged Dose for Children Aged ≥28 Days time ≥1 hour after the OATP1B3, or P-gp. dose adjustment
≥28 days and and Weighing 3 kg to <40 kg • Bradycardia infusion as clinically in patients with
weighing ≥3 kg. • RDV 5 mg/kg IV on Day 1, then RDV appropriate. renal impairment,
2.5 mg/kg IV once daily from Day 2 • Monitor renal including those
Total Treatment Duration function, hepatic receiving dialysis.4
function, and
Nonhospitalized Patients or Patients prothrombin time as
Hospitalized for Reasons Other than clinically indicated.
COVID-19
• 3 days • Monitor heart rate.
Hospitalized Patients
• 5 days or until hospital discharge
• If a patient does not clinically
improve, clinicians may extend the
treatment course for ≤5 additional
days, for a total duration of 10 days.

Monitoring Drug-Drug
Parameters Interaction Potential
Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antiviral Drugs (Small-Molecule Antivirals), continued
Molnupiravir Dose Recommended in FDA • Diarrhea • Before initiating • Clinical drug-drug • People of reproductive
Authorized under EUA • Nausea MOV, assess interaction studies of potential who are sexually
an FDA EUA for • MOV 800 mg (four 200-mg the patient’s MOV have not been active should use effective
• Dizziness pregnancy status conducted. contraception during and after
the treatment of capsules) PO every 12 hours
mild to moderate for 5 days • Per the EUA, the 5-day as clinically • Drug-drug treatment with MOV.
COVID-19 in high- course of MOV has a low indicated. interactions • Pregnant patients should also
• MOV is not authorized for use risk for genotoxicity.5 See • Monitor for
risk individuals related to hepatic be offered the opportunity to
in people aged <18 years due Molnupiravir for details.
aged ≥18 years. potential AEs. metabolism are not participate in the COVID-19
to potential effects on bone
and cartilage growth. expected. International Drug Pregnancy
Registry.
• Breastfeeding is not
recommended while a patient
is taking MOV and for 4 days
after the last dose.
• MOV can be taken with or
without food.
• The EUA provides
instructions for preparing and
administering MOV capsule
contents through OG or NG
tubes.5

High-Titer COVID-19 Dose Recommended in FDA • TRALI • Before administering • Drug products should • In patients with
Convalescent EUA • TACO CCP to patients not be added to the impaired cardiac
Plasma • Administer 1 high-titer with a history of IV infusion line for the function and heart
• Allergic reactions severe allergic blood product. failure, it may be
Authorized under CCP unit (about 200 mL)
an FDA EUA for the IV. Administer an additional • Anaphylactic reactions or anaphylactic necessary to reduce
treatment of COVID-19 CCP unit IV based on the • Febrile nonhemolytic reactions transfusion reactions, the CCP volume
in patients who are prescribing provider’s consult a transfusion or decrease the
• Hemolytic reactions
immunocompromised judgment and the patient’s medicine specialist transfusion rate.
or who are receiving • Hypothermia who is associated
clinical response.
immunosuppressive • Metabolic complications with the hospital’s
treatment. • Transfusion-transmitted blood bank.
infections6 • Monitor for
• Thrombotic events transfusion-related
reactions.
• Theoretical risk of antibody-
mediated enhancement of • Monitor vital signs at
infection and suppressed, baseline and during
long-term immunity and after transfusion.
Interferons
IFN Beta • Various doses and • Flu-like symptoms (e.g., fever, • Monitor CBC with • Low potential for drug- • Inhaled IFN beta-1a
Not approved by durations for IFN beta-1a fatigue, myalgia) differential and liver drug interactions is not approved by
the FDA and not and IFN beta-1b are being • Leukopenia, neutropenia, enzymes. • Use with caution the FDA for use in
recommended studied in clinical trials. thrombocytopenia, • Monitor for worsening with other hepatotoxic the United States.
by the Panel for lymphopenia CHF. agents.
the treatment of
• Liver function abnormalities • Monitor for signs • Reduce dose if ALT is
COVID-19.
(ALT > AST) of depression and >5 times ULN.
• Injection site reactions suicidal ideation.
• Headache
• Hypertonia
• Pain
• Rash
• Worsening depression
• Induction of autoimmunity

Interferons, continued
PEG-IFN Lambda Dose for COVID-19 in • Liver function abnormalities • CBC with differential • Low potential for drug- • PEG-IFN lambda is
Not approved by Clinical Trials (ALT > AST) • Liver enzymes drug interactions not approved by the
the FDA and not • Single dose of PEG-IFN • Injection site reactions • Use with caution FDA for use in the
• Monitor for potential United States.
recommended lambda 180 µg SUBQ with other hepatotoxic
AEs.
by the Panel for agents.
the treatment of
COVID-19.
Key: AE = adverse event; ALT = alanine transaminase; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; CBC = complete blood count; CCP = COVID-19 convalescent plasma;
CHF = congestive heart failure; CYP = cytochrome P450; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; EUA = Emergency Use Authorization; FDA = Food and Drug
Administration; HSR = hypersensitivity reaction; IFN = interferon; IV = intravenous; MOV = molnupiravir; NG = nasogastric; OATP = organic anion transporting
polypeptide; OG = orogastric; OTC = over-the-counter; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PEG-IFN = pegylated interferon; P-gp = P-glycoprotein;
PO = oral; RDV = remdesivir; RTV = ritonavir; SUBQ = subcutaneous; TACO = transfusion-associated circulatory overload; TRALI = transfusion-related acute lung injury;
ULN = upper limit of normal
References
1. Ritonavir-boosed nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2023. Available at: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/
drugsatfda_docs/label/2023/217188s000lbl.pdf.
2. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Paxlovid. 2023. Available at:
3. BC COVID Therapeutics Committee COVID Therapy Review and Advisory Working Group. Therapeutic brief: crushing nirmatrelvir/ritonavir
(Paxlovid). 2022. Available at: http://www.bccdc.ca/Health-Professionals-Site/Documents/COVID-treatment/Crushing_Paxlovid.pdf.
5. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Lagevrio (molnupiravir) capsules. 2023.
Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/155054/download.
6. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for health care providers: Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) of COVID-19 convalescent plasma for
treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). 2021. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/141478/download.

Immunomodulators
• The hyperactive inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 infection plays a central role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19.
See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized
Children With COVID-19 for the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations on the use of
the following immunomodulators in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 according to their disease severity (listed in
alphabetical order):
• Abatacept
• Baricitinib (or tofacitinib)
• Dexamethasone
• Infliximab
• Tocilizumab (or sarilumab)
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of the following
immunomodulators for the treatment of COVID-19:
• Anakinra
• Inhaled corticosteroids
• Vilobelimab
• The Panel recommends against the use of canakinumab for the treatment of COVID-19, except in a clinical trial
(BIIa).

Systemic Corticosteroids
The results of several randomized trials indicate that systemic corticosteroid therapy improves clinical
outcomes and reduces mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who require supplemental
oxygen,1,2 presumably by mitigating the COVID-19–induced systemic inflammatory response that
can lead to lung injury and multisystem organ dysfunction. In contrast, in hospitalized patients with
COVID-19 who do not require supplemental oxygen, the use of systemic corticosteroids provided
no benefit and increased mortality.3,4 The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel)
recommendations for the use of systemic corticosteroids in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 are
based on results from these clinical trials (see Table 5a). There are no data to support the use of systemic
corticosteroids in nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19.
Recommendations
• The Panel recommends against the use of dexamethasone or other systemic corticosteroids
to treat outpatients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who do not require hospitalization or
supplemental oxygen (AIIb).
• See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for the Panel’s
recommendations on the use of dexamethasone or other systemic corticosteroids in certain
hospitalized patients with COVID-19.
• Patients with COVID-19 who are receiving dexamethasone or another corticosteroid for an
underlying condition should continue this therapy as directed by their health care provider (AIII).
Rationale
Nonhospitalized Adults
There are no data to support the use of systemic corticosteroids in nonhospitalized patients with
COVID-19. Therefore, the safety and efficacy of using systemic corticosteroids in this population have
not been established. Generally, the use of systemic corticosteroids is associated with adverse events
(e.g., hyperglycemia, neuropsychiatric symptoms, secondary infections), which may be difficult to
detect and monitor in an outpatient setting. For more information, see Therapeutic Management of
Hospitalized Adults
The RECOVERY trial was a multicenter, open-label trial in the United Kingdom that randomly
assigned 6,425 hospitalized patients to receive up to 10 days of dexamethasone 6 mg once daily plus
standard care or standard care alone.3 Mortality at 28 days was lower among the patients who received
dexamethasone than among those who received standard care alone. This benefit of dexamethasone
was observed in patients who were mechanically ventilated or who required supplemental oxygen at
enrollment. In contrast, no benefit was seen in patients who did not require supplemental oxygen at
enrollment.
Several clinical trials have evaluated the use of systemic corticosteroids in critically ill patients with
COVID-19 who were on supplemental oxygen with or without mechanical ventilation. These trials
reported that all-cause mortality at 28 days was lower in those who received systemic corticosteroids

than in those who received standard of care or placebo; however, some of these trials were terminated
early.1
In addition to the randomized controlled trials, a large observational study evaluated the use of
systemic corticosteroids in 15,404 hospitalized patients with positive SARS-CoV-2 polymerase chain
reaction or antigen test results from a Department of Veterans Affairs database.4 Corticosteroids were
administered to 60% of the patients within 48 hours of admission, and 95% of the patients who received
corticosteroids received dexamethasone. A total of 9,450 patients did not receive supplemental oxygen
during the study. Of these patients, 3,514 (37%) received dexamethasone for a median duration of 5 days
(IQR 3–8 days). Using average treatment effect estimates, patients who received dexamethasone without
supplemental oxygen had an increased risk of death within 90 days (HR 1.76; 95% CI, 1.47–2.12).
Patients who received dexamethasone either without supplemental oxygen or with low-flow nasal
cannula oxygen had a 60% higher risk of death. Although this study was observational, the investigators
employed several statistical techniques to minimize potential bias, including propensity scoring and
weighted analyses. Additionally, several subgroup and sensitivity analyses in this study confirmed the
overall results.
Dexamethasone Dose
The RECOVERY platform trial studied the use of dexamethasone 6 mg once daily for up to 10
days,3 which is currently the recommended dose for hospitalized adults with COVID-19 who require
supplemental oxygen. Several other randomized controlled trials evaluated the role of higher doses
of dexamethasone or other corticosteroids in hospitalized patients with different levels of respiratory
support. The results of some key studies are summarized below.
Patients Who Received Conventional Oxygen or No Supplemental Oxygen

The RECOVERY platform trial included an additional study in which patients with COVID-19 and
evidence of hypoxemia (i.e., they were receiving conventional supplemental oxygen or had an oxygen
saturation <92% on room air) were randomized to receive usual care plus high-dose dexamethasone
(20 mg once daily for 5 days, then 10 mg once daily for 5 days or until hospital discharge, whichever
came first) or usual care alone, which included low-dose dexamethasone (usually 6 mg once daily for 10
days).5 On May 11, 2022, the trial’s independent data monitoring committee stopped enrolling patients
receiving conventional oxygen therapy and those not receiving any supplemental oxygen. Among the
1,272 patients enrolled, 28-day mortality was higher in the high-dose dexamethasone arm than in the
usual care arm (19% vs. 12%; rate ratio 1.59; 95% CI, 1.20–2.10; P = 0.0012).
Patients Who Received Noninvasive or Mechanical Ventilation

The COVID STEROID 2 trial investigated the use of different doses of corticosteroids in patients
with COVID-19 and severe hypoxemia.6 In this multicenter trial, hospitalized patients who required
at least 10 L/min of oxygen or mechanical ventilation were randomized to receive up to 10 days
of dexamethasone 6 mg once daily (n = 485) or dexamethasone 12 mg once daily (n = 497). The
median number of days alive without life support at 28 days after randomization was 20.5 days in the
dexamethasone 6 mg arm and 22.0 days in the dexamethasone 12 mg arm, yielding an adjusted mean
difference of 1.3 days (95% CI, 0–2.6; P = 0.07). No differences between the arms were found for 28-
or 90-day mortality. Although these conventional analyses did not quite reach statistical significance, a
preplanned Bayesian analysis found that dexamethasone 12 mg had a higher probability of benefit and a
lower probability of harm than dexamethasone 6 mg.7
In the COVIDICUS trial, patients with COVID-19 and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure were
randomized to receive dexamethasone 6 mg once daily for 10 days (n = 276, of which 37 received

placebo prior to release of results from the RECOVERY trial)3 or high-dose dexamethasone (i.e., 20
mg once daily for 5 days, then 10 mg once daily for 5 days; n = 270).8 At baseline, 98 patients were
receiving mechanical ventilation, 114 were receiving continuous positive airway pressure, 10 were
receiving noninvasive ventilation (NIV), 199 were receiving high-flow nasal cannula oxygen, and 125
were receiving standard oxygen therapy through a nonrebreather mask. There was no difference in
60-day mortality between the arms (HR 0.96; 95% CI, 0.69–1.33; P = 0.79).
The mixed results from these studies have led the Panel to continue to recommend 6 mg once daily as
the preferred dose of dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who require supplemental
oxygen, including patients receiving NIV or mechanical ventilation. However, the Panel notes that
both the conventional and Bayesian analyses conducted during the COVID STEROID 2 trial suggest
that a dose of 12 mg might confer a benefit in patients who require NIV or mechanical ventilation.6,7
Most patients in the COVID STEROID 2 trial did not receive additional immunomodulators beyond
corticosteroids.6 Currently, there are no data from clinical trials that evaluated the safety and efficacy
of using doses of dexamethasone that were larger or smaller than 6 mg once daily in combination with
other immunomodulators to treat hospitalized adults with COVID-19.
Combination Immunomodulator Therapy

Using systemic corticosteroids in combination with other agents, including tocilizumab (see
Interleukin-6 Inhibitors),9,10 baricitinib (see Janus Kinase Inhibitors),11 abatacept, or infliximab,12 has
been shown to have a clinical benefit in subsets of hospitalized patients with COVID-19, especially
those who are in the early stages of critical illness and those with signs of systemic inflammation. For
the Panel’s recommendations on when to use dexamethasone with another immunomodulator, see
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
See Table 5a for a summary of the data from clinical trials that have evaluated the use of systemic
corticosteroids in patients with COVID-19.
Systemic Corticosteroids Other Than Dexamethasone

Systemic corticosteroids other than dexamethasone, including hydrocortisone13,14 and
methylprednisolone,15,16 have been studied for the treatment of COVID-19 in several randomized trials.
Some of these trials were stopped early due to low enrollment following the release of the RECOVERY
trial results. Consequently, the sample size of these trials was insufficient to assess efficacy (i.e.,
there were too few events to definitively confirm or exclude an effect, although many point estimates
suggested a beneficial effect). Therefore, the evidence supporting the use of hydrocortisone or
methylprednisolone for the treatment of COVID-19 is not as strong as the evidence supporting the use of
dexamethasone. Based on the available evidence, the Panel has concluded the following:
• If dexamethasone is not available, alternative corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone,
methylprednisolone, hydrocortisone) can be used (BIII).
• For these drugs, the total daily dose equivalencies to dexamethasone 6 mg (orally or
intravenously)17 are:
• Prednisone 40 mg
• Methylprednisolone 32 mg
• Hydrocortisone 160 mg
• Half-life, duration of action, and frequency of administration vary among corticosteroids.
• Long-acting corticosteroid: Dexamethasone; half-life 36 to 72 hours; administer once daily.

• Intermediate-acting corticosteroids: Prednisone and methylprednisolone; half-lives 12 to 36
hours; administer once daily or in 2 divided doses daily.
• Short-acting corticosteroid: Hydrocortisone; half-life 8 to 12 hours; administer in 2 to 4
divided doses daily.
• Hydrocortisone is commonly used to manage septic shock in patients with COVID-19; see
Hemodynamics for Adults for more information. Unlike other corticosteroids that have
previously been studied in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome, dexamethasone lacks
mineralocorticoid activity and, thus, its effects on sodium balance and fluid volume are minimal.18

Clinicians should closely monitor patients with COVID-19 who are receiving dexamethasone for certain
adverse effects (e.g., hyperglycemia, secondary infections, psychiatric effects, avascular necrosis).
The use of systemic corticosteroids may increase the risk of opportunistic fungal infections (e.g.,
aspergillosis, mucormycosis) and reactivation of latent infections (e.g., hepatitis B virus infection,
herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus infections, strongyloidiasis, tuberculosis).19-26 Cases
of severe and disseminated strongyloidiasis have been reported in patients with COVID-19 during
treatment with tocilizumab and corticosteroids.24,27 Many clinicians would initiate empiric treatment
for strongyloidiasis (e.g., with the antiparasitic drug ivermectin), with or without serologic testing, in
patients who currently reside or who have previously resided in areas where Strongyloides is endemic
(i.e., tropical, subtropical, or warm temperate areas).28
Using systemic corticosteroids with other immunosuppressants, such as tocilizumab or baricitinib,
could theoretically increase the risk of secondary infections. However, clinical trials have reported
no difference in the rates of secondary infections between patients who received corticosteroids
in combination with another immunomodulatory agent and those who received corticosteroids
alone. Dexamethasone is a moderate cytochrome P450 3A4 inducer. Therefore, it could reduce the
concentration and potential efficacy of concomitant medications that are cytochrome P450 3A4
substrates. Clinicians should carefully review a patient’s concomitant medications to assess the potential
for drug-drug interactions.

dexamethasone during pregnancy and lactation.
Dexamethasone is recommended for hospitalized children with COVID-19 who require supplemental
oxygen. See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19 for the Panel’s
recommendations. Methylprednisolone or another corticosteroid is recommended for the treatment of
multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C). See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized
Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A for the Panel’s recommendations.
References
1. WHO Rapid Evidence Appraisal for COVID-19 Therapies (REACT) Working Group. Association between
administration of systemic corticosteroids and mortality among critically ill patients with COVID-19: a meta-
analysis. JAMA. 2020;324(13):1330-1341. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32876694.
2. Li H, Yan B, Gao R, Ren J, Yang J. Effectiveness of corticosteroids to treat severe COVID-19: a systematic
review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;100:108121. Available at:

respiratory support. Eur Respir J. 2022;60(1):2102532. Available at:
5. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Higher dose corticosteroids in patients admitted to hospital with
COVID-19 who are hypoxic but not requiring ventilatory support (RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled,
open-label, platform trial. Lancet. 2023;401(10387):1499-1507. Available at:
6. COVID STEROID 2 Trial Group. Effect of 12 mg vs 6 mg of dexamethasone on the number of days alive
without life support in adults with COVID-19 and severe hypoxemia: the COVID STEROID 2 randomized
trial. JAMA. 2021;326(18):1807-1817. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34673895.
7. Granholm A, Munch MW, Myatra SN, et al. Dexamethasone 12 mg versus 6 mg for patients with COVID-19
and severe hypoxaemia: a pre-planned, secondary Bayesian analysis of the COVID STEROID 2 trial.
Intensive Care Med. 2022;48(1):45-55. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34757439.
8. Bouadma L, Mekontso-Dessap A, Burdet C, et al. High-dose dexamethasone and oxygen support strategies
in intensive care unit patients with severe COVID-19 acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: the COVIDICUS
randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2022;182(9):906-916. Available at:
12. O'Halloran JA, Ko ER, Anstrom KJ, et al. Abatacept, cenicriviroc, or infliximab for treatment of adults
13. Dequin PF, Heming N, Meziani F, et al. Effect of hydrocortisone on 21-day mortality or respiratory support
among critically ill patients with COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020;324(13):1298-1306.
14. Angus DC, Derde L, Al-Beidh F, et al. Effect of hydrocortisone on mortality and organ support in patients
with severe COVID-19: the REMAP-CAP COVID-19 corticosteroid domain randomized clinical trial. JAMA.
15. Corral-Gudino L, Bahamonde A, Arnaiz-Revillas F, et al. Methylprednisolone in adults hospitalized
with COVID-19 pneumonia: an open-label randomized trial (GLUCOCOVID). Wien Klin Wochenschr.
2021;133(7-8):303-311. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33534047.
16. Tang X, Feng YM, Ni JX, et al. Early use of corticosteroid may prolong SARS-CoV-2 shedding in non-
intensive care unit patients with COVID-19 pneumonia: a multicenter, single-blind, randomized control trial.
Respiration. 2021;100(2):116-126. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33486496.
17. Czock D, Keller F, Rasche FM, Häussler U. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of systemically
administered glucocorticoids. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2005;44(1):61-98. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

18. Villar J, Ferrando C, Martínez D, et al. Dexamethasone treatment for the acute respiratory distress syndrome:
a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(3):267-276. Available at: https://www.
19. Garg D, Muthu V, Sehgal IS, et al. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) associated mucormycosis (CAM): case
report and systematic review of literature. Mycopathologia. 2021;186(2):289-298. Available at:
20. Moorthy A, Gaikwad R, Krishna S, et al. SARS-CoV-2, uncontrolled diabetes and corticosteroids—an unholy
trinity in invasive fungal infections of the maxillofacial region? A retrospective, multi-centric analysis. J
Maxillofac Oral Surg. 2021;20(3):418-425. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33716414.
21. Machado M, Valerio M, Álvarez-Uría A, et al. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in the COVID-19 era: an
expected new entity. Mycoses. 2021;64(2):132-143. Available at:
22. Chauvet P, Mallat J, Arumadura C, et al. Risk factors for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill
patients with coronavirus disease 2019-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Explor.
23. Liu J, Wang T, Cai Q, et al. Longitudinal changes of liver function and hepatitis B reactivation in COVID-19
patients with pre-existing chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatol Res. 2020;50(11):1211-1221. Available
25. Garg N, Lee YI. Reactivation TB with severe COVID-19. Chest. 2020;158(4):A777. Available at:
https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(20)32910-X/fulltext.
26. Xu R, Zhou Y, Cai L, et al. Co-reactivation of the human herpesvirus alpha subfamily (herpes simplex virus-1
and varicella zoster virus) in a critically ill patient with COVID-19. Br J Dermatol. 2020;183(6):1145-1147.
related Strongyloides hyperinfection. JAMA. 2020;324(7):623-624. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

Table 5a. Systemic Corticosteroids: Selected Clinical Trial Data
systemic corticosteroids. The studies summarized below are those that have had the greatest impact on the Panel’s recommendations. Unless
stated otherwise, the clinical trials listed below only included participants aged ≥18 years.

RECOVERY: Open-Label RCT of Dexamethasone in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in the United Kingdom1
• Hospitalized with suspected or • Mean age 66 years; 64% men; 73% White • Open-label study
laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 • 56% had ≥1 comorbidities; 24% with DM • Published data did not include results for key
infection secondary endpoints (e.g., cause-specific mortality,
• 89% had laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Key Exclusion Criteria need for renal replacement), AEs, and key
• Median of 7 days of DEX therapy subgroups (e.g., patients with comorbidities).
• Physician determination, based on • At randomization:
patient’s medical history, that risk • Patients who required supplemental oxygen (but
of participation was too great • 16% received MV or ECMO. not MV) had a range of disease severity. It is unclear
• 60% required supplemental oxygen but not MV. whether all patients in this group benefited from
• An indication for corticosteroid
DEX or whether benefit was restricted to those who
therapy outside of the study • 24% required no supplemental oxygen.
required higher levels of supplemental oxygen.
Interventions • <1% in both arms received RDV.
• Patients aged >80 years were preferentially
• DEX 6 mg IV or PO once daily plus • Received tocilizumab or sarilumab: 2% in DEX arm vs. 3% in SOC assigned to receive supplemental oxygen therapy
SOC for up to 10 days or until arm (and not MV).
hospital discharge, whichever came Primary Outcome • The high mortality in this study may limit the
first (n = 2,104) generalizability of results to populations with a
• All-cause mortality at 28 days in DEX arm vs. SOC arm:
• SOC alone (n = 4,321) lower baseline mortality.
• All patients: 23% vs. 26% (age-adjusted rate ratio 0.83; 95% CI,
Primary Endpoint 0.75–0.93; P < 0.001) Interpretation
• All-cause mortality at 28 days • Patients who required MV or ECMO at randomization: 29% vs. • In hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 who
41% (rate ratio 0.64; 95% CI, 0.51–0.81) required supplemental oxygen, the use of DEX
• Patients who required supplemental oxygen but not MV at reduced mortality at 28 days. The greatest benefit
randomization: 23% vs. 26% (rate ratio 0.82; 95% CI, 0.72–0.94) was seen in those who were receiving MV at
randomization.
• Patients who did not require supplemental oxygen at
randomization: 18% vs. 14% (rate ratio 1.19; 95% CI, 0.92–1.55) • There was no survival benefit for DEX in patients
who did not require supplemental oxygen at
randomization.

CoDEX: Open-Label RCT of Dexamethasone in Patients With Moderate to Severe ARDS and COVID-19 in Brazil2
• Suspected or laboratory-confirmed • Mean age 61 years; 63% men • Open-label study
SARS-CoV-2 infection • Comorbidities in DEX arm vs. SOC arm: • Underpowered; enrollment stopped after release
• Received MV within 48 hours of meeting • Obesity: 31% vs. 24% of data from the RECOVERY trial.
criteria for moderate to severe ARDS • Since no follow-up data were collected after
(PaO2/FiO2 ≤200 mm Hg) • DM: 38% vs. 47%
hospital discharge for patients who were
• Vasopressor use: 66% in DEX arm vs. 68% in SOC arm discharged before Day 28, no data on deaths or
• Mean PaO2/FiO2: 131 mm Hg in DEX arm vs. 133 mm Hg in rehospitalization were available for these patients
• Received immunosuppressive drugs in SOC arm between day of discharge and Day 28.
past 21 days
• Median of 10 days of DEX therapy • The high mortality in this study may limit the
• Death expected within 24 hours
• No patients received RDV or tocilizumab. generalizability of results to populations with a
Interventions lower baseline mortality.
• 35% in SOC arm received corticosteroids for indications such
• DEX 20 mg IV once daily for 5 days, then as bronchospasm or septic shock. • More than a third of those randomized to receive
DEX 10 mg IV once daily for 5 days or SOC also received corticosteroids.
until ICU discharge (n = 151) Primary Outcome
Interpretation
• SOC alone (n = 148) • Mean number of days alive and free from MV by Day 28: 7 in
DEX arm vs. 4 in SOC arm (P = 0.04) • Compared with SOC alone, DEX increased the
Primary Endpoint mean number of days alive and free of MV by Day
Secondary Outcomes 28 in patients with COVID-19 and moderate to
• Number of days alive and free from MV
by Day 28 • No differences between arms by Day 28 in all-cause mortality severe ARDS.
(56% in DEX arm vs. 62% in SOC arm), number of ICU-free
Key Secondary Endpoints days, or duration of MV
• All-cause mortality by Day 28 • No difference between arms at Day 15 in score on 6-point OS
• Number of ICU-free days by Day 28 • Mean SOFA score at Day 7: 6.1 in DEX arm vs. 7.5 in SOC arm
• Duration of MV by Day 28 (P = 0.004)
• Score on 6-point OS at Day 15 Other Outcome
• SOFA score at Day 7 • Post hoc analysis of probability of death or MV at Day 15: 68%
Key Exploratory Analysis in DEX arm vs. 80% in SOC arm (OR 0.46; P = 0.01)
• Death or MV at Day 15

Observational Cohort Study of Dexamethasone in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 Who Were Not on Intensive Respiratory Support in the United States3
• Within 14 days of a positive SARS-CoV-2 • Mean age 71 years; 95% men; 27% Black, 55% White • Retrospective observational study
test result • 77% did not receive IRS within 48 hours. • Because nearly all patients on MV or HFNC oxygen
Key Exclusion Criteria • 83% were hospitalized within 1 day of a positive SARS-CoV-2 received DEX, analysis was restricted to patients
test result. who did not receive IRS (i.e., those who received
• Recent receipt of corticosteroids
no supplemental oxygen or only low-flow nasal
• Receipt of IRS (defined as HFNC oxygen, • Median duration of DEX for patients who did not receive IRS: cannula oxygen).
NIV, or MV) within 48 hours 5 days for those not on supplemental oxygen at baseline vs. 6
days for those on low-flow nasal cannula oxygen • There were differences between the arms in other
• Hospital LOS <48 hours therapies received. The investigators attempted to
• Received RDV: 43% of those who received DEX vs. 13% of account for this using different approaches (e.g.,
Interventions those who did not propensity scoring, weighted analyses, subgroup/
• Corticosteroids (95% received DEX) • Received anticoagulants: 46% of those who received DEX vs. sensitivity analyses).
administered within 48 hours of 10% of those who did not
admission (n = 7,507) Interpretation
Primary Outcome • In hospitalized patients with COVID-19, the use
• No corticosteroids administered (n =
7,433) • Risk of all-cause mortality at 90 days was higher in those who of DEX was not associated with a reduction in
received DEX. mortality among those who received low-flow
Primary Endpoint nasal cannula oxygen during the first 48 hours
• Combination of those not on supplemental oxygen and
• All-cause mortality at 90 days those on low-flow nasal cannula oxygen: HR 1.59; 95% CI, after hospital admission, but it was associated
1.39–1.81 with increased mortality among those who
received no supplemental oxygen during the first
• Those not on supplemental oxygen: HR 1.76; 95% CI,
48 hours after admission.
1.47–2.12
• Those on low-flow nasal cannula oxygen: HR 1.08; 95% CI,
0.86–1.36

COVID STEROID 2: Blinded RCT of Dexamethasone 12 mg Versus 6 mg in Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 and Severe Hypoxemia in Denmark, India,
Sweden, and Switzerland4,5
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 • Median age 65 years; 31% women • The randomized intervention period
infection • DM: 27% in 12 mg arm vs. 34% in 6 mg arm was <10 days for some patients
• Required oxygen ≥10 L/min, NIV, CPAP, because the trial allowed up to 4
• Median of 7 days from symptom onset to hospitalization in both arms
or MV days of DEX before enrollment.
• Received ICU care: 78% in 12 mg arm vs. 81% in 6 mg arm
Key Exclusion Criteria Interpretation
• Oxygen requirements:
• Treated with DEX >6 mg (or equivalent) • Among patients with COVID-19 and
• 54% on oxygen via nasal cannula or face mask (median flow rate 23 L/min)
severe hypoxemia, the use of DEX
• Treated with corticosteroid within past • 25% on NIV 12 mg once daily did not result in
5 days more days alive without life support
• 21% on MV
• Invasive fungal infection or active TB at 28 days than the use of DEX 6 mg
• 63% received RDV; 12% received IL-6 inhibitors or JAK inhibitors.
Interventions once daily.
• Median of 7 days of DEX therapy in both arms
• DEX 12 mg IV once daily for up to 10 • A preplanned Bayesian analysis
Primary Outcome showed that DEX 12 mg had a
days (n = 497)
• Median number of days alive without life support at 28 days: 22.0 in 12 higher probability of benefit and a
• DEX 6 mg IV once daily for up to 10 days mg arm vs. 20.5 in 6 mg arm (adjusted mean difference 1.3 days; 95% CI, lower probability of harm than DEX
(n = 485) 0.0–2.6; P = 0.07) 6 mg.5
Primary Endpoint • 63.9% Bayesian probability of clinically important benefit and 0.3%
• Number of days alive without life support Bayesian probability of clinically important harm for DEX 12 mg
(MV, circulatory support, or kidney Secondary Outcomes
replacement therapy) at 28 days
• At 90 days:
Key Secondary Endpoints • Median number of days alive without life support: 84 in 12 mg arm vs. 80
• Number of days alive without life support in 6 mg arm (P = 0.15)
at 90 days • Median number of days alive and out of hospital: 62 in 12 mg arm vs. 48 in
• Number of days alive and out of hospital 6 mg arm (P = 0.09)
at 90 days • Mortality: 32% in 12 mg arm vs. 38% in 6 mg arm (adjusted relative risk
• Mortality at 90 days 0.87; 99% CI, 0.70–1.07; P = 0.09)
• Mortality at 28 days • At 28 days:
• SAEs at 28 days • Mortality: 27% in 12 mg arm vs. 32% in 6 mg arm (adjusted relative risk
0.86; 99% CI, 0.68–1.08; P = 0.10)
• SAEs, including septic shock and invasive fungal infections: 11% in 12 mg
arm vs. 13% in 6 mg arm (adjusted relative risk 0.83; 99% CI, 0.54–1.29;
P = 0.27)

CAPE COVID: Double-Blind RCT of Hydrocortisone in Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 in France6
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection or radio- • Mean age 62 years; 70% men; median BMI 28 • Underpowered; enrollment stopped after
graphically suspected COVID-19 with ≥1 of the following: • 96% had laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection. release of data from the RECOVERY trial.
• MV with PEEP ≥5 cm H2O • Median symptom duration of 9–10 days • Limited information about comorbidities
• PaO2/FiO2 <300 mm Hg and FiO2 ≥50% on HFNC • 81% required MV at baseline. Interpretation
• PaO2/FiO2 <300 mm Hg on reservoir mask oxygen • The use of hydrocortisone did not reduce
• Received vasopressors: 24% in hydrocortisone arm vs.
• Pulmonary severity index score >130 18% in placebo arm the proportion of patients with COVID-19
Key Exclusion Criteria • <5% received RDV or tocilizumab. and acute respiratory failure who
experienced treatment failure by Day 21.
• Septic shock • Median duration of treatment with study drug: 11 days in
• Do-not-intubate orders hydrocortisone arm vs. 13 days in placebo arm (P = 0.25)
Interventions Primary Outcome
• Continuous IV infusion of hydrocortisone 200 mg per • Treatment failure by Day 21: 42% in hydrocortisone arm
day for 7 days, then 100 mg per day for 4 days, then vs. 51% in placebo arm (P = 0.29)
50 mg per day for 3 days; if patient improved by Day 4, Secondary Outcomes
then IV infusion of hydrocortisone 200 mg per day for 4
days, then 100 mg per day for 2 days, then 50 mg per • No difference between arms in need for intubation or
day for 2 days (n = 76) prone positioning (too few received ECMO or inhaled
nitric oxide for comparison)
• Need for intubation in those not on MV at baseline: 50%
Primary Endpoint in hydrocortisone arm vs. 75% in placebo arm
• Treatment failure (death or dependency on MV or high- • No difference between arms in proportion of patients
flow oxygen) by Day 21 with nosocomial infection by Day 28
Key Secondary Endpoints • No difference between arms in clinical status by Day 21,
• Need for intubation, prone positioning, ECMO, or inhaled but 15% died in hydrocortisone arm vs. 27% in placebo
nitric oxide arm (P = 0.06)
• Nosocomial infection by Day 28 • Discharged from ICU by Day 21: 57% in hydrocortisone
arm vs. 44% in placebo arm; 23% in both arms still
• Clinical status by Day 21, as measured by a 5-item scale:
required MV
• Death
• In ICU and on MV
• Required high-flow oxygen therapy
• Discharged from ICU
• Required low-flow oxygen therapy

REMAP-CAP: Randomized, Open-Label, Adaptive Trial of Hydrocortisone in Patients With Severe COVID-197
• Presumed or laboratory-confirmed SARS- • Mean age 60 years; 71% men; 53% White • Open-label study
CoV-2 infection • Mean BMI range of 29.7–30.9 for the 3 arms • Enrollment stopped after release of data from
• ICU admission for respiratory or • 50% to 64% required MV. the RECOVERY trial.
cardiovascular support
Primary Outcome Interpretation
Key Exclusion Criteria • The use of hydrocortisone did not increase
• Median number of days free of organ support by Day 21: 0 in
• Presumed imminent death both arms the median number of days free of organ
• Systemic corticosteroid use support in either the fixed-dose or the shock-
• Median adjusted ORs for hydrocortisone arms vs. no dependent hydrocortisone arms; however,
• >36 hours since ICU admission hydrocortisone arm: early termination limited the power to detect
Interventions • OR 1.43 (95% CrI, 0.91–2.27) with 93% Bayesian probability differences between the arms.
of superiority for fixed-dose hydrocortisone arm
• Hydrocortisone 50 mg IV every 6 hours for 7
days (n = 137) • OR 1.22 (95% CrI, 0.76–1.94) with 80% Bayesian probability
of superiority for shock-dependent hydrocortisone arm
• Shock-dependent hydrocortisone 50 mg IV
every 6 hours for duration of shock for up to Key Secondary Outcome
28 days (n = 146) • No difference between arms in in-hospital mortality (30% in
• No hydrocortisone (n = 101) fixed-dose hydrocortisone arm vs. 26% in shock-dependent
hydrocortisone arm vs. 33% in no hydrocortisone arm)
Primary Endpoint
• Number of days free of respiratory and
cardiovascular organ support by Day 21

Single-Blind RCT of Methylprednisolone in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 Pneumonia in China8
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 • Mean age 56 years; 48% men • Small sample size
infection • Median of 8 days from symptom onset to randomization • Terminated early because of decreasing incidence
• Pneumonia confirmed by chest CT scan • At randomization, 71% were receiving oxygen via nasal of COVID-19 pneumonia at study sites
• Hospitalized on general ward for <72 cannula. Interpretation
hours
Primary Outcome • The use of methylprednisolone did not reduce
Key Exclusion Criteria • Clinical deterioration at 14 days: 4.8% in both arms (OR 1.0; the incidence of clinical deterioration among
• Severe immunosuppression 95% CI, 0.134–7.442; P = 1.00) hospitalized patients with COVID-19.
• Corticosteroid use for other diseases Secondary Outcomes
Interventions • No difference (all P > 0.05) between methylprednisolone arm
• Methylprednisolone 1 mg/kg IV per day and placebo arm for:
for 7 days (n = 43) • Clinical cure at 14 days: 51% vs. 58%
• Saline (n = 43) • Median number of days to clinical cure: 14 vs. 12
Primary Endpoint • ICU admission: 4.8% in both arms
• Clinical deterioration at 14 days • In-hospital mortality: 0% vs. 2.3%
Key Secondary Endpoints • Median number of days hospitalized: 17 vs. 13
• Clinical cure at 14 days
• Time to clinical cure
• ICU admission
• Number of days hospitalized

COVIDICUS: RCT of High-Dose Dexamethasone Versus Standard of Care Dexamethasone in Patients With COVID-19–Related Respiratory Failure in the
Intensive Care Unit in France9
• Suspected or laboratory-confirmed • Median age 67 years; 76% men • Comparator arm was initially a placebo but was
SARS-CoV-2 infection • Median of 9 days from symptom onset to randomization changed to a standard dose of DEX after the
• ICU admission in past 48 hours RECOVERY trial results were released.
• 81% had ≥1 comorbidities.
• Respiratory failure (defined as PaO2 • 17% received RDV; <1% received tocilizumab. Interpretation
<70 mm Hg, SpO2 <90% on room air, • Among ICU patients with COVID-19–related
>30 breaths/min, labored breathing, Primary Outcome respiratory failure, high-dose DEX did not
respiratory distress, or need for oxygen • All-cause mortality by Day 60: 26% in high-dose arm vs. 27% significantly improve 60-day survival.
≥6 L/min) in SOC arm (HR 0.96; 95% CI, 0.69–1.33; P = 0.79)
• Decision to limit life-sustaining treatment
• Therapy with ≥0.5 mg/kg per day of
prednisone equivalent for ≥3 weeks
• Active and untreated bacterial, fungal, or
parasitic infection
Interventions
• High dose: DEX 20 mg IV once daily for 5
days, then DEX 10 mg IV once daily for 5
days (n = 270)
• SOC: DEX 6 mg IV once daily for 10 days
(n = 239) or placebo (n = 37)
Primary Endpoint
• All-cause mortality by Day 60

RECOVERY: Open-Label RCT of 2 Doses of Dexamethasone in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in the United Kingdom, Asia, and Africa10
• Hospitalized with suspected or laboratory-confirmed • Enrollment for the subgroup of patients who received • Open-label study
SARS-CoV-2 infection conventional oxygen or did not receive supplemental • The larger RECOVERY trial stopped
• SpO2 <92% on room air oxygen was stopped prematurely due to safety enrollment of patients in this subgroup
concerns. The results reported for this analysis only (i.e., those who received conventional
Key Exclusion Criteria include patients from this subgroup. oxygen or did not receive supplemental
• Physician determination, based on patient’s medical • Mean age 61 years; 60% men; 54% Asian, 36% White oxygen) due to safety concerns.
history, that risk of participation was too great
• 51% had ≥1 comorbidities; 19% with DM. Interpretation
• Contraindication for short-term corticosteroids
• 53% received ≥1 COVID-19 vaccine doses. • In patients hospitalized with COVID-19
• Suspected or confirmed influenza who had clinical hypoxemia (SpO2 <92%)
• 34% received RDV; 12% had received tocilizumab or
• Current use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid), were going to receive tocilizumab within 24 hours of and did not require supplemental oxygen
ritonavir, or other potent CYP3A inhibitor randomization. or required only conventional oxygen,
Interventions the use of high-dose DEX increased the
Primary Outcome risk of death and hyperglycemia when
• High dose: DEX 20 mg once daily plus SOC for 5 days • All-cause mortality at 28 days: 19% in high-dose arm compared with the use of standard
followed by DEX 10 mg once daily for 5 days or until vs. 12% in SOC arm (rate ratio 1.59; 95% CI, 1.20–2.10; doses of corticosteroids.
hospital discharge, whichever came first (n = 659) P = 0.0012)
• SOC: DEX 6 mg once daily plus SOC for 10 days or until Secondary Outcomes
hospital discharge, whichever came first (n = 613)
• Time to discharge from hospital: 9 days in both arms
Primary Endpoint
• Composite of MV or death: 20% in high-dose arm vs.
• All-cause mortality at 28 days 13% in SOC arm (risk ratio 1.52; 95% CI, 1.18–1.97)
Key Secondary Endpoints Safety Outcomes
• Time to discharge from hospital • Pneumonia not due to COVID-19: 10% in high-dose arm
• Composite of MV (including ECMO) or death vs. 6% in SOC arm (absolute difference 3.7%; 95% CI,
0.7–6.6)
Key Safety Endpoints
• Hyperglycemia requiring new or increased insulin dose:
• Infections other than COVID-19 22% in high-dose arm vs. 14% in SOC arm (absolute
• Metabolic complications difference 7.4%; 95% CI, 3.2–11.5)
Key: AE = adverse event; ARDS = acute respiratory distress syndrome; BMI = body mass index; CPAP = continuous positive airway pressure; CT = computed
tomography; CYP = cytochrome P450; DEX = dexamethasone; DM = diabetes mellitus; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; FiO2 = fraction of inspired
oxygen; HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula; ICU = intensive care unit; IL = interleukin; IRS = intensive respiratory support; IV = intravenous; JAK = Janus kinase; LOS =
length of stay; MV = mechanical ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; OS = ordinal scale; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PaO2 = arterial
partial pressure of oxygen; PEEP = positive end-expiratory pressure; PO = oral; RCT = randomized controlled trial; RDV = remdesivir; SAE = serious adverse event; SOC
= standard of care; SOFA = sequential organ failure assessment; SpO2 = oxygen saturation; TB = tuberculosis

References
1. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(8):693-704. Available at: https://
2. Tomazini BM, Maia IS, Cavalcanti AB, et al. Effect of dexamethasone on days alive and ventilator-free in patients with moderate or severe acute
respiratory distress syndrome and COVID-19: the CoDEX randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020;324(13):1307-1316. Available at:
3. Crothers K, DeFaccio R, Tate J, et al. Dexamethasone in hospitalised COVID-19 patients not on intensive respiratory support. Eur Respir J.
4. COVID STEROID 2 Trial Group. Effect of 12 mg vs 6 mg of dexamethasone on the number of days alive without life support in adults with
COVID-19 and severe hypoxemia: the COVID STEROID 2 randomized trial. JAMA. 2021;326(18):1807-1817. Available at:
5. Granholm A, Munch MW, Myatra SN, et al. Dexamethasone 12 mg versus 6 mg for patients with COVID-19 and severe hypoxaemia: a pre-planned,
secondary Bayesian analysis of the COVID STEROID 2 trial. Intensive Care Med. 2022;48(1):45-55. Available at:
6. Dequin PF, Heming N, Meziani F, et al. Effect of hydrocortisone on 21-day mortality or respiratory support among critically ill patients with
7. Angus DC, Derde L, Al-Beidh F, et al. Effect of hydrocortisone on mortality and organ support in patients with severe COVID-19: the REMAP-CAP
COVID-19 corticosteroid domain randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020;324(13):1317-1329. Available at:
8. Tang X, Feng YM, Ni JX, et al. Early use of corticosteroid may prolong SARS-CoV-2 shedding in non-intensive care unit patients with COVID-19
pneumonia: a multicenter, single-blind, randomized control trial. Respiration. 2021;100(2):116-126. Available at:
9. Bouadma L, Mekontso-Dessap A, Burdet C, et al. High-dose dexamethasone and oxygen support strategies in intensive care unit patients with severe
COVID-19 acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: the COVIDICUS randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2022;182(9):906-916. Available at:
10. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Higher dose corticosteroids in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 who are hypoxic but not requiring
ventilatory support (RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled, open-label, platform trial. Lancet. 2023;401(10387):1499-1507. Available at: https://
pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37060915.

Inhaled Corticosteroids
Inhaled corticosteroids have been identified as potential COVID-19 therapeutic agents because of
their targeted anti-inflammatory effects on the lungs. In addition, certain inhaled corticosteroids have
been shown to impair viral replication of SARS-CoV-21 and downregulate the expression of the
receptors used for cell entry.2,3 Several trials provide additional insights regarding the role of inhaled
corticosteroids in treating outpatients with COVID-19. These trials are described below and in Table 5b.
Recommendations
recommend either for or against the use of inhaled corticosteroids for the treatment of COVID-19.
the combination of inhaled budesonide plus fluvoxamine for the treatment of COVID-19 in
nonhospitalized patients.
• Patients with COVID-19 who are receiving an inhaled corticosteroid for an underlying condition
should continue this therapy as directed by their health care provider (AIII).
Rationale
Compared to usual care, inhaled corticosteroid therapy decreased the time to recovery in 2 open-label
randomized controlled trials in outpatients with mild symptoms of COVID-19.4,5 However, subsequent
placebo-controlled, double-blind trials have shown that corticosteroid therapy did not reduce the
duration of COVID-19 symptoms.6-8 The available evidence does not show that inhaled corticosteroid
therapy reduces the risk of hospitalization or death due to COVID-19. However, the Panel acknowledges
that there are areas of uncertainty. Studies conducted predominantly among unvaccinated patients have
reported mixed results.
ACTIV-6 is the only randomized controlled trial of inhaled corticosteroid monotherapy that was
conducted in a predominantly vaccinated population.8 In this study, treatment with inhaled fluticasone
did not reduce the number of hospitalizations or health care visits or the time to sustained recovery.
However, this study included patients who were at modest risk for complications from COVID-19. The
median age of the patients was 45 years, and patients were not required to have a comorbidity to be
included in the study.
The mixed results from these studies make it difficult to draw definitive conclusions about the benefit
of using inhaled corticosteroids in people who are at high risk of disease progression. See Therapeutic
Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for recommendations regarding therapies for
high-risk outpatients.
The combination of inhaled budesonide plus oral fluvoxamine was studied in a large, double-blind,
placebo-controlled, adaptive randomized trial in Brazil.9 Over 90% of the patients had received at least
2 doses of a COVID-19 vaccine. Treatment with this combination significantly reduced the incidence of
the primary outcome, which was a composite of hospitalization or retention in an emergency setting for
>6 hours. The proportion of patients who were hospitalized was the same in the treatment and placebo
arms (0.9% vs. 1.1%), and the treatment did not significantly impact secondary outcomes such as health
care attendance or the need for an emergency setting visit. It is unclear how the >6-hour emergency

setting outcome translates to other settings. In addition, the treatment with budesonide plus fluvoxamine
was associated with significantly more adverse events.
For more information on these trials, see Table 5b.
No clinical trials have assessed the role of inhaled corticosteroids for the treatment of COVID-19 in
hospitalized patients.

Patients who are receiving inhaled corticosteroids may develop oral candidiasis.
Using a cytochrome P450 3A4 inhibitor, such as ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid), with inhaled
budesonide or fluticasone may lead to increased systemic absorption of the corticosteroid, which may
result in systemic adverse effects from the corticosteroid.

There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of inhaled
corticosteroids for the treatment of COVID-19 in people who are pregnant. Pregnant patients with
COVID-19 who are receiving an inhaled corticosteroid for an underlying condition should continue this
therapy as directed by their health care provider (AIII).
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of inhaled
corticosteroids for the treatment of COVID-19 in children. Children with COVID-19 who are receiving
an inhaled corticosteroid for an underlying condition should continue this therapy as directed by their
health care provider (AIII).
References
1. Matsuyama S, Kawase M, Nao N, et al. The inhaled steroid ciclesonide blocks SARS-CoV-2 RNA replication
by targeting the viral replication-transcription complex in cultured cells. J Virol. 2020;95(1):e01648-20.
2. Finney LJ, Glanville N, Farne H, et al. Inhaled corticosteroids downregulate the SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2
in COPD through suppression of type I interferon. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021;147(2):510-519.e5. Available
3. Peters MC, Sajuthi S, Deford P, et al. COVID-19-related genes in sputum cells in asthma. Relationship to
demographic features and corticosteroids. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020;202(1):83-90. Available at:
4. Ramakrishnan S, Nicolau DV Jr, Langford B, et al. Inhaled budesonide in the treatment of early COVID-19
(STOIC): a Phase 2, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(7):763-772. Available
5. Yu LM, Bafadhel M, Dorward J, et al. Inhaled budesonide for COVID-19 in people at high risk of
complications in the community in the UK (PRINCIPLE): a randomised, controlled, open-label, adaptive
platform trial. Lancet. 2021;398(10303):843-855. Available at:
6. Clemency BM, Varughese R, Gonzalez-Rojas Y, et al. Efficacy of inhaled ciclesonide for outpatient treatment
of adolescents and adults with symptomatic COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med.
7. Ezer N, Belga S, Daneman N, et al. Inhaled and intranasal ciclesonide for the treatment of COVID-19 in adult

outpatients: CONTAIN Phase II randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2021;375:e068060. Available at: https://
8. Boulware DR, Lindsell CJ, Stewart TG, et al. Inhaled fluticasone furoate for outpatient treatment of
9. Reis G, Dos Santos Moreira Silva EA, Medeiros Silva DC, et al. Oral fluvoxamine with inhaled budesonide
for treatment of early-onset COVID-19: a randomized platform trial. Ann Intern Med. 2023;176(5):667-675.

Table 5b. Inhaled Corticosteroids: Selected Clinical Trial Data
inhaled corticosteroids. The studies summarized below are those that have had the greatest impact on the Panel’s recommendations.
PRINCIPLE: Open-Label RCT of Inhaled Budesonide in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in the United Kingdom1
• Aged ≥65 years or aged ≥50 years with comorbidities • Mean age 64.2 years; 52% women; 92% • Open-label trial
• PCR-confirmed or suspected COVID-19 White • Primary endpoint of time to recovery
• ≤14 days of COVID-19 symptoms • 81% with comorbidities was based on patient self-report.
• Median of 6 days from symptom onset to Interpretation
randomization
• Already taking inhaled or systemic corticosteroids • Inhaled budesonide reduced the time to
Primary Outcomes reported recovery but not the incidence
• Unable to use an inhaler of COVID-19–related hospitalization or
• COVID-19–related hospitalization or death by
• Contraindication for inhaled budesonide Day 28: 6.8% in budesonide arm vs. 8.8% in death.
Interventions usual care arm (OR 0.75; 95% CrI, 0.55–1.03) • The clinical significance of self-reported
• Usual care plus inhaled budesonide 800 µg twice daily for 14 days • Median time to reported recovery: 11.8 days time to recovery in an open-label study
(n = 1,069) in budesonide arm vs. 14.7 days in usual care is unclear.
• Usual care (n = 787) arm (HR 1.21; 95% CrI, 1.08–1.36)
Primary Endpoints
• COVID-19–related hospitalization or death by Day 28
• Time to reported recovery up to 28 days from randomization
STOIC: Open-Label, Phase 2 RCT of Inhaled Budesonide in Nonhospitalized Adults With Early COVID-19 in the United Kingdom2
• Aged ≥18 years • Mean age 45 years; 58% women • Small, open-label trial
• ≤7 days of COVID-19 symptoms • 9% with CVD; 5% with DM • Trial was terminated early after
• 95% with positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result statistical analysis determined that
additional patients would not alter study
• Use of inhaled or systemic glucocorticoids in past 7 days • Median of 3 days from symptom onset to outcome.
randomization
• Known allergy or contraindication to budesonide

STOIC: Open-Label, Phase 2 RCT of Inhaled Budesonide in Nonhospitalized Adults With Early COVID-19 in the United Kingdom2, continued
Interventions Primary Outcome • Secondary endpoint of time to recovery
• Usual care plus inhaled budesonide 800 µg twice daily until • COVID-19–related urgent care visit: 1% in was based on patient self-report.
symptom resolution (n = 70) budesonide arm vs. 14% in usual care arm Interpretation
• Usual care (n = 69) (difference in proportion 0.131; 95% CI, 0.043–
• In adult outpatients with mild COVID-19,
0.218; P = 0.004)
Primary Endpoint inhaled budesonide may reduce the
Secondary Outcome need for urgent care, ED visit, or
• COVID-19–related urgent care visit, including ED visit or hospitalization.
hospitalization • Median time to clinical recovery: 7 days in
budesonide arm vs. 8 days in usual care arm • The clinical significance of self-reported
Key Secondary Endpoint time to recovery in an open-label study
• Time to clinical recovery is unclear.
Phase 3, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled RCT of Inhaled Ciclesonide in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in the United States3
• Aged ≥12 years • Mean age 43.3 years; 55.3% women; 86.3% White • ED visit or hospital admission outcome
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 molecular or antigen diagnostic test • Mean BMI 29.4 was based on a small number of
result in previous 72 hours events.
• 22.3% with HTN; 7.5% with type 2 DM
• ≥1 symptoms of COVID-19 (i.e., fever, cough, dyspnea) • Primary endpoint of time to alleviation
• Higher rates of DM and asthma in ciclesonide arm of all symptoms was based on patient
Key Exclusion Criteria Primary Outcome self-report.
• Use of inhaled or intranasal corticosteroid within 14 days • Median of 19 days in both arms for alleviation of Interpretation
of enrollment or systemic corticosteroid within 90 days of all COVID-19–related symptoms (HR 1.08; 95% CI,
enrollment • Inhaled ciclesonide did not reduce
0.84–1.38) the time to reported recovery in
• Unable to use an inhaler nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19.
Secondary Outcomes
Interventions • Alleviation of COVID-19–related symptoms by Day • The robustness of the conclusion that
• Ciclesonide MDI 160 µg/actuation, administered as 2 30: 70.6% in ciclesonide arm vs. 63.5% in placebo inhaled ciclesonide reduced COVID-19-
actuations twice daily for 30 days (n = 197) arm (OR 1.28; 95% CI, 0.84–19.7) related ED visits or hospital admissions
• Placebo MDI twice daily for 30 days (n = 203) • ED visit or hospital admission for COVID-19 by Day is uncertain. The small number of
30: 1.0% in ciclesonide arm vs. 5.4% in placebo arm events is most likely due to the
Primary Endpoint relatively low rate of comorbidities in
(OR 0.18; 95% CI, 0.04–0.85)
• Time to alleviation of all COVID-19–related symptoms by Day the study population.
• Hospital admission or death by Day 30: 1.5% in
30
ciclesonide arm vs. 3.4% in placebo arm (OR 0.45;
Key Secondary Endpoints 95% CI, 0.11–1.84)
• Alleviation of COVID-19–related symptoms by Day 30 • No deaths by Day 30 in either arm

Phase 3, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled RCT of Inhaled Ciclesonide in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in the United States3, continued
• ED visit or hospital admission for COVID-19 by Day 30
• Hospital admission or death by Day 30
CONTAIN: Double-Blind RCT of Inhaled Ciclesonide Plus Intranasal Ciclesonide in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Canada4
• Aged ≥18 years • Median age 35 years; 54% women; 61% White • Small study with a relatively young,
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 molecular diagnostic test result • 20% with comorbidities healthy population
• ≥1 symptoms of COVID-19 (i.e., fever, cough, shortness of Primary Outcome Interpretation
breath)
• Resolution of fever and all respiratory symptoms at • The use of inhaled ciclesonide plus
• ≤5 days of COVID-19 symptoms Day 7: 40% in ciclesonide arm vs. 35% in placebo intranasal ciclesonide did not improve
arm (adjusted risk difference 5.5%; 95% CI, -7.8% resolution of fever and respiratory
Key Exclusion Criteria symptoms in nonhospitalized patients
to 18.8%)
• Receiving an inhaled corticosteroid or received a PO or IM with COVID-19.
corticosteroid within 7 days of enrollment Secondary Outcomes
• Unable to use an inhaler • Resolution of fever and all respiratory symptoms
• Has only nonrespiratory symptoms at Day 14: 66% in ciclesonide arm vs. 58% in
placebo arm (adjusted risk difference 7.5%; 95%
• Use of oxygen at home CI, -5.9% to 20.8%)
• Vaccinated against COVID-19 • Hospital admission by Day 14: 6% in ciclesonide
Interventions arm vs. 3% in placebo arm (adjusted risk
difference 2.3%; 95% CI, -3.0% to 7.6%)
• Ciclesonide MDI 600 µg/actuation plus intranasal ciclesonide
100 µg, both twice daily for 14 days (n = 105)
• Saline placebo MDI plus intranasal saline, both twice daily for
14 days (n = 98)
Primary Endpoint
• Resolution of fever and all respiratory symptoms at Day 7
• Resolution of fever and all respiratory symptoms at Day 14
• Hospital admission by Day 14

COVERAGE: Open-Label RCT of Inhaled Ciclesonide in Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in France5
• Aged ≥60 years or aged ≥50 years with comorbidities • Median age 63 years; 51% women • Small, open-label study
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 nasopharyngeal RT-PCR result or • 72% with ≥1 comorbidities Interpretation
antigen test result • 14% received ≥1 COVID-19 vaccine doses. • In adult outpatients with mild COVID-19,
• ≤7 days of COVID-19 symptoms inhaled ciclesonide did not reduce the
Primary Outcome
Key Exclusion Criteria proportion of patients who died, were
• Composite of hospitalization from any cause, need hospitalized, or required COVID-19–
• Chronic use of inhaled corticosteroid therapy for COVID-19–related oxygen therapy at home, or related oxygen therapy at home.
• Unable to use an inhalation chamber death by Day 14: 16% in ciclesonide arm vs. 12%
in control arm
• Ongoing therapy with a potent CYP3A4 inhibitor
Secondary Outcome
Interventions
• Sustained alleviation of symptoms by Day 14: 54%
• Ciclesonide 160 µg via inhalation chamber, 2 puffs twice daily in ciclesonide arm vs. 57% in control arm
for 10 days (n = 110)
• Vitamin and trace element supplement, 2 capsules PO once or
twice daily for 10 days (n = 107)
Primary Endpoint
• Composite of hospitalization from any cause, need for
COVID-19–related oxygen therapy at home, or death by Day
14
• Sustained alleviation of symptoms by Day 14

ACTIV-6: Decentralized, Placebo-Controlled, Platform RCT of Inhaled Fluticasone in Outpatients With COVID-19 in the United States6
• Aged ≥30 years • Median age 45 years; 63% women • Low numbers of some clinical endpoints
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 nasopharyngeal RT-PCR result or • 39% with BMI >30; 26% with HTN limited the ability to assess the effect of
antigen test result inhaled fluticasone on the key secondary
• 65% received ≥2 COVID-19 vaccine doses. endpoints.
• ≤7 days of ≥2 COVID-19 symptoms
Primary Outcome • Not all patients in the placebo arm
Key Exclusion Criterion • No difference between arms in time to sustained received a matched placebo.
• Use of inhaled or systemic corticosteroids in preceding 30 recovery (HR 1.01; 95% CrI, 0.91–1.12) Interpretation
days
Secondary Outcomes • In adult outpatients with mild COVID-19,
Interventions • Hospitalization or death by Day 28: 0.5% in inhaled fluticasone did not reduce the
• Inhaled fluticasone 200 µg once daily for 14 days (n = 656) fluticasone arm vs. 0.5% in placebo arm time to sustained symptom recovery or
• Matching inhaled placebo (n = 350) or placebo from a • Urgent care visit, ED visit, or hospitalization by Day the occurrence of urgent care visits, ED
different study (n = 271) 28: 3.7% in fluticasone arm vs. in 2.1% placebo visits, or hospitalizations.
arm (HR 1.9; 95% CrI, 0.8–3.5)
Primary Endpoint
• Mean number of days unwell with ongoing
• Time to sustained recovery (i.e., the last of 3 consecutive days
symptoms: 11.2 in fluticasone arm vs. 11.3 in
without symptoms)
placebo arm
• Hospitalization or death by Day 28
• Urgent care visit, ED visit, or hospitalization by Day 28
• Number of days unwell with ongoing symptoms

TOGETHER: Placebo-Controlled, Platform RCT of Oral Fluvoxamine and Inhaled Budesonide in Adults With Early-Onset COVID-19 in Brazil7
• Aged ≥50 years or aged ≥18 years with comorbidities • Median age 51 years; 61% women • Multiple investigational treatments or
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • 42% with BMI >30 placebos were evaluated simultaneously.
Not all patients in the placebo arm
• ≤7 days of COVID-19 symptoms • 44% with HTN; 68% with ≥2 comorbidities received a matched placebo.
Key Exclusion Criteria • 94% received ≥2 COVID-19 vaccine doses.
Interpretation
• Use of an SSRI Primary Outcome • Adult outpatients with mild COVID-19 who
• Severe mental illness • Composite of ED observation >6 hours or received a combination of fluvoxamine
• Cirrhosis, recent seizures, or severe ventricular cardiac hospitalization by Day 28: 1.8% in fluvoxamine and and inhaled budesonide had fewer ED
arrythmia budesonide arm vs. 3.7% in placebo arm (relative observations >6 hours or hospitalizations
risk 0.50; 95% CrI, 0.25–0.92) for COVID-19 by Day 28 than those who
Interventions received placebo.
Secondary Outcomes
• Fluvoxamine 100 mg PO twice daily plus inhaled budesonide • The use of fluvoxamine plus inhaled
800 mcg twice daily for 10 days (n = 738) • Hospitalization by Day 28: 0.9% in fluvoxamine
plus budesonide arm vs. 1.1% in placebo arm budesonide did not reduce the risk of
• Placebo (n = 738; route, dosing frequency, and duration may hospitalization, health care attendance, or
have differed from fluvoxamine arm) • Health care attendance by Day 28: 2.6% in ED visits.
fluvoxamine plus budesonide arm vs. 4.1% in
Primary Endpoint placebo arm (relative risk 0.64; 95% CrI, 0.36– • It is difficult to define the clinical
1.11) relevance of the >6-hour ED observation
• Composite of ED observation >6 hours or hospitalization for
endpoint and apply it to practice settings
COVID-19 by Day 28 • Any ED visit by Day 28: 12.2% in fluvoxamine plus in different countries.
Key Secondary Endpoints budesonide arm vs. 13.0% in placebo arm
• More AEs occurred with the use of
• Hospitalization by Day 28 • Occurrence of treatment-emergent AEs: 17.6% fluvoxamine plus inhaled budesonide than
in fluvoxamine plus budesonide arm vs. 12.9% in with placebo.
• Health care attendance by Day 28 placebo arm (relative risk 1.37; 95% CrI, 1.07–
• Any ED visit by Day 28 1.75)
• Occurrence of treatment-emergent AEs • Most AEs were grade 2 events.
Key: AE = adverse event; BMI = body mass index; CVD = cardiovascular disease; CYP = cytochrome P450; DM = diabetes mellitus; ED = emergency department; HTN
= hypertension; IM = intramuscular; MDI = metered dose inhaler; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PCR = polymerase chain reaction; PO = oral;
RCT = randomized controlled trial; RT-PCR = reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; SSRI = selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

References
1. Yu LM, Bafadhel M, Dorward J, et al. Inhaled budesonide for COVID-19 in people at high risk of complications in the community in the UK
(PRINCIPLE): a randomised, controlled, open-label, adaptive platform trial. Lancet. 2021;398(10303):843-855. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
2. Ramakrishnan S, Nicolau DV Jr, Langford B, et al. Inhaled budesonide in the treatment of early COVID-19 (STOIC): a Phase 2, open-label, randomised
controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(7):763-772. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33844996.
3. Clemency BM, Varughese R, Gonzalez-Rojas Y, et al. Efficacy of inhaled ciclesonide for outpatient treatment of adolescents and adults with symptomatic
COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2022;182(1):42-49. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34807241.
4. Ezer N, Belga S, Daneman N, et al. Inhaled and intranasal ciclesonide for the treatment of COVID-19 in adult outpatients: CONTAIN Phase II randomised
controlled trial. BMJ. 2021;375:e068060. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34728476.
5. Duvignaud A, Lhomme E, Onaisi R, et al. Inhaled ciclesonide for outpatient treatment of COVID-19 in adults at risk of adverse outcomes: a randomised
controlled trial (COVERAGE). Clin Microbiol Infect. 2022;28(7):1010-1016. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35304280.
6. Boulware DR, Lindsell CJ, Stewart TG, et al. Inhaled fluticasone furoate for outpatient treatment of COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(12):1085-1095.
7. Reis G, Dos Santos Moreira Silva EA, Medeiros Silva DC, et al. Oral fluvoxamine with inhaled budesonide for treatment of early-onset COVID-19: a
randomized platform trial. Ann Intern Med. 2023;176(5):667-675. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37068273.

Interleukin-6 Inhibitors
Interleukin (IL)-6 is a pleiotropic, proinflammatory cytokine produced by a variety of cell types,

including lymphocytes, monocytes, and fibroblasts. Infection by SARS-CoV induces a dose-dependent
production of IL-6 from bronchial epithelial cells.1 COVID-19–associated systemic inflammation
and hypoxemic respiratory failure can be associated with heightened cytokine release, as indicated by
elevated levels of IL-6, C-reactive protein (CRP), D-dimer, and ferritin in the blood.2-4
The recombinant humanized anti–IL-6 receptor monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) tocilizumab
and sarilumab have been evaluated in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who had systemic
inflammation. Tocilizumab is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in patients
with rheumatologic disorders and in patients with cytokine release syndrome induced by chimeric
antigen receptor T cell therapy. On December 21, 2022, the FDA approved the use of intravenous
(IV) tocilizumab for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized adults who are receiving systemic
corticosteroids and require supplemental oxygen, noninvasive ventilation (NIV), mechanical ventilation,
or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO).5,6 Tocilizumab can be administered as an IV infusion
or a subcutaneous (SUBQ) injection; however, only the IV formulation of tocilizumab should be used
for the treatment of COVID-19.
Sarilumab is approved by the FDA for use in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. It is available as a
SUBQ formulation and is not approved for the treatment of cytokine release syndrome or COVID-19.
Recommendations
• See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for the COVID-19
Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations on the use of tocilizumab in
combination with dexamethasone in hospitalized patients who require conventional oxygen,
high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) oxygen, NIV, or mechanical ventilation.
• If none of the recommended immunomodulatory therapies discussed in Therapeutic Management
of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 are available or feasible to use, IV sarilumab can be used
in combination with dexamethasone (CIIa). Sarilumab is only commercially available as a SUBQ
injection; see Table 5e for information regarding the preparation of an IV infusion using the SUBQ
product.
• Tocilizumab and sarilumab should be used with caution in patients with COVID-19 who belong
to populations that have not been adequately represented in clinical trials. This includes patients
who are significantly immunosuppressed, such as those who have recently received other biologic
immunomodulators, and patients with any of the following:
• Alanine transaminase levels >5 times the upper limit of normal
• A high risk for gastrointestinal perforation
• An uncontrolled serious bacterial, fungal, or non–SARS-CoV-2 viral infection
• Absolute neutrophil counts <500 cells/µL
• Platelet counts <50,000 cells/µL

• Known hypersensitivity to tocilizumab or sarilumab
• In both the REMAP-CAP and RECOVERY trials, 29% of patients received a second dose of
tocilizumab at the discretion of their treating physician.7,8 However, there is insufficient evidence
for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of a second dose of tocilizumab for the
treatment of COVID-19.
• Cases of severe and disseminated strongyloidiasis have been reported in patients with COVID-19
during treatment with tocilizumab and corticosteroids.9,10 Many clinicians would initiate empiric
treatment for strongyloidiasis (e.g., with the antiparasitic drug ivermectin), with or without
serologic testing, in patients from areas where Strongyloides is endemic (i.e., tropical, subtropical,
or warm temperate areas).11
Rationale
The results of the RECOVERY and REMAP-CAP trials provide consistent evidence that tocilizumab,
when administered as a second immunomodulatory agent in combination with a corticosteroid, offers
a survival benefit in certain patients with COVID-19.7,8 Specifically, the patients who may benefit are
those who are severely ill and require HFNC oxygen or NIV, those who are rapidly deteriorating and
have increasing oxygen needs, or those who are having a significant inflammatory response. In the
REMAP-CAP trial, a long-term follow-up through 180 days confirmed that treatment with an anti–IL-6
receptor mAb improved survival among patients with severe to critical COVID-19.12 However, the Panel
found it challenging to determine which patients with COVID-19 who are receiving low-flow oxygen
would benefit from receiving tocilizumab or sarilumab plus dexamethasone.
If none of the recommended immunomodulatory therapies are available or feasible to use, sarilumab
may be used because the REMAP-CAP trial demonstrated that the use of tocilizumab and the use of
sarilumab improved survival and reduced the duration of organ support.12,13 Sarilumab is currently only
approved for use in the United States as a SUBQ injection.

The primary laboratory abnormalities reported in people receiving tocilizumab and sarilumab are
elevated liver enzyme levels that appear to be dose dependent and rare occurrences of neutropenia or
thrombocytopenia.5,14 In randomized trials, no excess secondary infections were seen among patients
who received tocilizumab plus corticosteroids when compared with control patients.15-17 Additional
adverse effects of tocilizumab, such as serious infections (e.g., tuberculosis, bacterial or fungal
infections) and bowel perforation, have been reported. These adverse effects may occur with long-term
use of sarilumab as well.

tocilizumab during pregnancy and lactation.
There are insufficient data to determine whether the use of sarilumab is associated with an increased risk
for major birth defects or miscarriage. As pregnancy progresses, mAbs are actively transported across
the placenta (with the greatest transfer occurring during the third trimester), and immune responses in
the exposed fetus may be affected.
See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19 for the Panel’s

recommendations regarding the use of tocilizumab and sarilumab in children.
Drug Availability
On December 21, 2022, the FDA approved the use of IV tocilizumab for the treatment of COVID-19 in
hospitalized adults who are receiving systemic corticosteroids and require supplemental oxygen, NIV,
mechanical ventilation, or ECMO.5 In June 2021, the FDA issued an Emergency Use Authorization
for the use of tocilizumab in combination with corticosteroids for the treatment of COVID-19 in
hospitalized children aged ≥2 years who require supplemental oxygen, NIV, mechanical ventilation,
or ECMO.6 If a patient’s clinical signs or symptoms worsen or do not improve after the first dose of
tocilizumab, 1 additional IV infusion of tocilizumab may be administered at least 8 hours after the initial
infusion.
The IV administration of sarilumab is not approved by the FDA, but in clinical trials, single SUBQ
sarilumab doses were modified to enable IV administration. See Table 5e for additional details.
Clinical Data
Two large randomized controlled trials, REMAP-CAP and RECOVERY, evaluated the use of
tocilizumab in combination with standard of care corticosteroids.7,8 Both studies reported a statistically
significant survival benefit from the use of tocilizumab in certain patients, including patients who
exhibited rapid respiratory decompensation associated with an inflammatory response.
REMAP-CAP enrolled critically ill patients who were within 24 hours of receiving respiratory support
in an intensive care unit.7 At baseline, 29% of these patients were receiving HFNC oxygen, 42% were
receiving NIV, and 29% were receiving mechanical ventilation. The patients were randomized to receive
open-label tocilizumab or usual care. In-hospital mortality was 28% in the tocilizumab arm and 36% in
the usual care arm. A follow-up analysis confirmed these findings.12 At 180 days, mortality was 36% in
the tocilizumab arm and 40% in the usual care arm.
The RECOVERY trial enrolled hospitalized patients with COVID-19 into an open-label platform
trial that included several treatment options.8 A subset of all trial participants who had hypoxemia and
CRP levels ≥75 mg/L were offered enrollment into a second randomization that compared the use of
tocilizumab to usual care. In this subgroup, the 28-day mortality was 31% in the tocilizumab arm and
35% in the usual care arm.
In contrast to the REMAP-CAP and RECOVERY trials, other randomized trials, including the
REMDACTA and EMPACTA trials, found that tocilizumab did not reduce all-cause mortality.18,19 In
those trials, >80% of participants received corticosteroids as part of standard care, and most participants
in the REMDACTA trial required NIV or HFNC oxygen.18
In the REMAP-CAP trial, the efficacy results for sarilumab were similar to those for tocilizumab.13
When compared with patients in the standard of care arm (n = 406), patients in the sarilumab arm
(n = 485) had more organ support-free days (OR 1.50; 95% CrI, 1.13–2.00) and a greater likelihood
of survival while hospitalized (OR 1.51; 95% CrI, 1.06–2.20). In-hospital mortality was 33% for
the sarilumab arm and 37% for the standard of care arm, and mortality at 180 days was 33% for the
sarilumab arm and 40% for the standard of care arm.12 A notable limitation to the sarilumab findings in
the REMAP-CAP trial is that patients in the standard of care arm were enrolled earlier in the pandemic
than those in the sarilumab arm.13 Randomization closed in November 2020 for the standard of care arm
and continued through April 2021 for the sarilumab arm.
An adaptive, multinational, double-blind, randomized (2:2:1) trial compared the efficacy and safety of
sarilumab 400 mg IV and sarilumab 200 mg IV to placebo in hospitalized patients with COVID-19.20

This trial did not show a clinical benefit of sarilumab in hospitalized patients who were receiving
supplemental oxygen.
A similar adaptive study conducted in the United States in patients with severe and critical COVID-19
also failed to show a benefit of sarilumab.21 In this placebo-controlled trial, mortality by Day 22 was
reduced among the sarilumab recipients with critical COVID-19 pneumonia who required mechanical
ventilation and received corticosteroids at baseline. However, due to the small sample size, this result
was not statistically significant.
The clinical data on the use of tocilizumab and sarilumab for the treatment of COVID-19, including data
from several randomized trials and large observational studies, are summarized in Table 5c.
References
1. Yoshikawa T, Hill T, Li K, Peters CJ, Tseng CTK. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus-
induced lung epithelial cytokines exacerbate SARS pathogenesis by modulating intrinsic functions of
monocyte-derived macrophages and dendritic cells. J Virol. 2009;83(7):3039-3048. Available at: https://www.
2. Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in
Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10229):1054-1062. Available at:
3. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan,
China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497-506. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31986264.
4. Wang Z, Yang B, Li Q, Wen L, Zhang R. Clinical features of 69 cases with coronavirus disease 2019 in
Wuhan, China. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(15):769-777. Available at:
5. Tocilizumab (Actemra) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2022. Available at:
6. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Actemra
(tocilizumab). 2021. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/150321/download.
related Strongyloides hyperinfection. JAMA. 2020;324(7):623-624. Available at:
12. Writing Committee for the REMAP-CAP Investigators. Long-term (180-day) outcomes in critically ill patients
with COVID-19 in the REMAP-CAP randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;329(1):39-51. Available at:

14. Sarilumab (Kevzara) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2018. Available at: https://www.
accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2018/761037s001lbl.pdf.
15. Charan J, Dutta S, Kaur R, et al. Tocilizumab in COVID-19: a study of adverse drug events reported in the
WHO database. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2021;20(9):1125-1136. Available at:
16. Peng J, Fu M, Mei H, et al. Efficacy and secondary infection risk of tocilizumab, sarilumab and anakinra in
COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev Med Virol. 2022;32(3):e2295. Available at:
17. Shah R, Shah J, Gohil J, Revathi G, Surani S. Secondary infections in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia
treated with tocilizumab compared to those not treated with tocilizumab: a retrospective study at a tertiary
hospital in Kenya. Int J Gen Med. 2022;2022(15):2415-2425. Available at:
18. Rosas IO, Diaz G, Gottlieb RL, et al. Tocilizumab and remdesivir in hospitalized patients with severe
COVID-19 pneumonia: a randomized clinical trial. Intensive Care Med. 2021;47(11):1258-1270. Available at:
19. Salama C, Han J, Yau L, et al. Tocilizumab in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. N Engl J
20. Lescure FX, Honda H, Fowler RA, et al. Sarilumab in patients admitted to hospital with severe or critical
COVID-19: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, Phase 3 trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(5):522-
21. Sivapalasingam S, Lederer DJ, Bhore R, et al. Efficacy and safety of sarilumab in hospitalized patients with
COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2022;75(1):e380-e388. Available at: https://www.ncbi.

Table 5c. Interleukin-6 Inhibitors: Selected Clinical Trial Data
Last Updated February 29, 2024
The clinical trials described in this table do not represent all the trials that the Panel reviewed while developing the recommendations for IL-6
inhibitors. The studies summarized below are those that have had the greatest impact on the Panel’s recommendations.
RECOVERY: Open-Label RCT of Tocilizumab and Usual Care in Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in the United Kingdom1
• Evidence of COVID-19 progression ≤21 days • Mean age 64 years; 67% men; 76% White • Arbitrary CRP ≥75 mg/L cutoff for
after initial randomization to an intervention • 95% with PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection enrollment
within the RECOVERY protocol, defined as: • Difficult to define exact subset of
• At baseline:
• SpO2 <92% on room air or receipt of patients in RECOVERY cohort who were
supplemental oxygen; and • 45% on conventional oxygen subsequently selected for secondary
• CRP ≥75 mg/L • 41% on HFNC oxygen or NIV randomization/tocilizumab trial
• 14% on MV Interpretation
Key Exclusion Criterion
• 82% receiving corticosteroids • Among hospitalized patients with
• Presence of non-SARS-CoV-2 infection
Primary Outcomes COVID-19, hypoxemia, and elevated
Interventions CRP levels, the use of tocilizumab was
• 28-day all-cause mortality: 31% in tocilizumab arm vs. 35% in usual
• 1 weight-based dose of tocilizumab associated with a reduction in all-cause
care arm (rate ratio 0.85; 95% CI, 0.76–0.94; P = 0.003)
(maximum 800 mg) with possible second mortality and a shorter time to hospital
dose (n = 2,022) • 28-day all-cause mortality among those who required MV at baseline: discharge.
49% in tocilizumab arm vs. 51% in usual care arm (risk ratio 0.93;
• Usual care (n = 2,094) 95% CI, 0.74–1.18)
• 28-day all-cause mortality • Proportion discharged from hospital within 28 days: 57% in
Key Secondary Endpoints tocilizumab arm vs. 50% in usual care arm (rate ratio 1.22; 95% CI,
• Time to hospital discharge within 28 days 1.12–1.33; P < 0.0001)
• Among those not on MV at baseline, death • Median time to hospital discharge: 19 days in tocilizumab arm vs. 28
or receipt of MV (including ECMO) within 28 days in usual care arm
days • Proportion not on MV at baseline who died or required MV within 28
days: 35% in tocilizumab arm vs. 42% in usual care arm (rate ratio
0.84; 95% CI, 0.77–0.92; P < 0.0001)

REMAP-CAP: Open-Label, Adaptive-Platform RCT of Tocilizumab and Sarilumab in Adults With COVID-19 in 21 Countries in Europe and North America2,4
• ICU admission • Mean age 60 years; 69% men; 75% White • The SOC arm closed in November 2020,
• Suspected or laboratory-confirmed SARS- • 86% with PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection after which patients were randomized
CoV-2 infection to active drug arms only; enrollment in
• Median of 14 hours between ICU admission and enrollment the tocilizumab and sarilumab arms was
• Receipt of MV, NIV, or cardiovascular support • At baseline: partially nonconcurrent with the SOC
Key Exclusion Criteria • 68% on HFNC oxygen or NIV arm. Although comparisons to the SOC
• >24 hours after ICU admission arm were adjusted for this time period,
• 32% on MV
there is a possibility of bias.
• Death imminent • Receiving corticosteroids: 67% in SOC arm, 82% in tocilizumab
arm, 89% in sarilumab arm Interpretation
• Immunosuppression
• Among patients with respiratory
• ALT >5 times ULN Primary Outcomes
failure who were within 24 hours of
Interventions Tocilizumab vs. SOC ICU admission, the tocilizumab and
• SOC plus 1 of the following (drug selection • Median number of organ support-free days: 7 in tocilizumab arm vs. 0 sarilumab arms had higher rates of in-
based on provider preference, availability, or in SOC arm hospital survival and shorter durations of
adaptive probability): • Improvement in OS score by Day 21 for composite outcome was more organ support than the SOC arm.
• 1 dose of tocilizumab 8 mg/kg IV with likely in tocilizumab arm (median aOR 1.46; 95% CrI, 1.13–1.87). • The use of IL-6 receptor antagonists
possible second dose in 12–24 hours (n • Highest CRP tercile: aOR 1.87 (95% CrI, 1.35–2.59) reduced all-cause mortality at 180 days.
= 952) • Outcomes were consistent across subgroups according to oxygen • The treatment effect appeared to be
• Single dose of sarilumab 400 mg IV (n = requirement at baseline. strongest in the highest CRP tercile.
485) • Tocilizumab and sarilumab were
Sarilumab vs. SOC similarly effective in these patients.
• SOC alone (n = 406)
• Median number of organ support-free days: 9 in sarilumab arm vs. 0
Primary Endpoint in SOC arm
• Composite of in-hospital mortality or • Improvement in OS score by Day 21 for composite outcome was more
number of organ support-free days by Day likely in sarilumab arm (median aOR 1.50; 95% CrI, 1.13–2.00).
21, as measured by an OS • Highest CRP tercile: aOR 1.85 (95% CrI, 1.24–2.69)
Key Secondary Endpoints • Outcomes were consistent across subgroups according to oxygen
• In-hospital survival requirement at baseline.
• All-cause mortality at 180 days Secondary Outcomes
Tocilizumab vs. SOC
• In-hospital survival: 66% in tocilizumab arm vs. 63% in SOC arm (aOR
1.42; 95% CrI, 1.05–1.93)

REMAP-CAP: Open-Label, Adaptive-Platform RCT of Tocilizumab and Sarilumab in Adults With COVID-19 in 21 Countries in Europe and North America2,4, cont’d
• All-cause mortality at 180 days: 36% in tocilizumab arm vs. 40% in
SOC arm (aHR 0.76; 95% CrI, 0.61–0.93)
Sarilumab vs. SOC
• In-hospital survival: 67% in sarilumab arm vs. 63% in SOC arm (aOR
1.51; 95% CrI, 1.06–2.20)
• All-cause mortality at 180 days: 33% in sarilumab arm vs. 40% in
SOC arm (aHR 0.72; 95% CrI, 0.56–0.91)
Pooled Tocilizumab and Sarilumab Arms vs. SOC Arm
• All-cause mortality at 180 days: 35% in pooled arms vs. 40% in SOC
arm (aHR 0.74; 95% CrI, 0.61–0.90)
COVACTA: Double-Blind RCT of Tocilizumab in Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in 9 Countries in Europe and North America5
• PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Mean age 61 years; 70% men; 58% White • Modest power to detect differences in
• Hypoxemia • 30% on HFNC oxygen or NIV clinical status at Day 28
• Bilateral chest infiltrates • 38% on MV • More patients received corticosteroids in
placebo arm than in tocilizumab arm.
Key Exclusion Criteria • 25% with multiorgan failure
• Received corticosteroids at entry or during follow-up: 36% in Interpretation
• Death imminent
tocilizumab arm vs. 55% in placebo arm • There was no difference between the
• Presence of active non-SARS-CoV-2 tocilizumab and placebo recipients in
infection Primary Outcome clinical status at Day 28 or survival.
Interventions • No significant difference between arms in clinical status at Day 28 (P • The median time to hospital discharge
= 0.31) was significantly shorter in the
• 1 dose of tocilizumab 8 mg/kg with possible
second dose, plus SOC (n = 294) Secondary Outcomes tocilizumab arm than in the placebo arm.
• Placebo plus SOC (n = 144) • Median time to hospital discharge: 20 days in tocilizumab arm vs. 28 • Although the result was not statistically
days in placebo arm (HR 1.35; 95% CI, 1.02–1.79) significant, the tocilizumab arm had a
Primary Endpoint shorter ICU LOS than the placebo arm.
• Median ICU LOS: 9.8 days in tocilizumab arm vs. 15.5 days in placebo
• Clinical status at Day 28, as measured by
arm (difference 5.8 days; 95% CI, -15.0 to 2.9)
an OS
• Mortality by Day 28: 20% in tocilizumab arm vs. 19% in placebo arm
Key Secondary Endpoints (P = 0.94)
• Time to hospital discharge
• ICU LOS
• Mortality by Day 28

EMPACTA: Double-Blind RCT of Tocilizumab in Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in 6 Countries in North America, South America, and Africa6
• PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Mean age 56 years; 59% men; 56% Hispanic/Latinx, 15% Black/ • Moderate sample size
• COVID-19 pneumonia African American, 13% American Indian/Alaska Native
Interpretation
• 84% with elevated CRP
Key Exclusion Criteria • In patients with COVID-19 pneumonia,
• Concomitant medications: tocilizumab reduced the likelihood of
• Death imminent
• Corticosteroids: 80% in tocilizumab arm vs. 88% in placebo arm progression to MV, ECMO, or death by
• Receiving NIV or MV Day 28 but did not reduce all-cause
• RDV: 53% in tocilizumab arm vs. 59% in placebo arm
Interventions mortality by Day 28.
Primary Outcome
• 1 dose of tocilizumab 8 mg/kg with possible
second dose, plus SOC (n = 249) • Proportion who progressed to MV, ECMO, or death by Day 28: 12%
in tocilizumab arm vs. 19% in placebo arm (HR 0.56; 95% CI, 0.33–
• Placebo plus SOC (n = 128)
0.97; P = 0.04)
Primary Endpoint
Secondary Outcomes
• Progression to MV, ECMO, or death by Day
• Median time to hospital discharge or readiness for discharge: 6.0
28
days in tocilizumab arm vs. 7.5 days in placebo arm (HR 1.16; 95%
Key Secondary Endpoints CI, 0.91–1.48)
• Time to hospital discharge or readiness for • All-cause mortality by Day 28: 10.4% in tocilizumab arm vs. 8.6% in
discharge, as measured by an OS placebo arm (95% CI, -5.2 to 7.8)
• All-cause mortality by Day 28

BACC Bay: Double-Blind RCT of Tocilizumab in Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in the United States7
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Median age 60 years; 58% men; 45% Hispanic/Latinx, 43% White • Wide confidence intervals due to small
• ≥2 of the following conditions: • 50% with BMI ≥30; 49% with HTN; 31% with DM sample size and low event rates
• Fever >38°C • 80% receiving oxygen ≤6 L/min; 4% on HFNC oxygen; 16% receiving • Few patients received RDV or
no supplemental oxygen corticosteroids.
• Pulmonary infiltrates
• Need for supplemental oxygen • Concomitant medications: Interpretation
• ≥1 of the following laboratory criteria: • Corticosteroids: 11% in tocilizumab arm vs. 6% in placebo arm • The use of tocilizumab did not prevent
• RDV: 33% in tocilizumab arm vs. 29% in placebo arm MV or death, reduce the risk of clinical
• CRP ≥50 mg/L worsening, or reduce the time to
• D-dimer >1,000 ng/mL Primary Outcome discontinuation of oxygen. This could
• LDH ≥250 U/L • Progression to MV or death by Day 28: 11% in tocilizumab arm vs. be due to the low rate of concomitant
12% in placebo arm (HR 0.83; 95% CI, 0.38–1.81; P = 0.64) corticosteroid use among the study
• Ferritin >500 ng/mL participants.
Key Exclusion Criteria Secondary Outcomes
• Receipt of supplemental oxygen at rate >10 • Proportion with clinical worsening of disease by Day 28: 19% in
L/min tocilizumab arm vs. 17% in placebo arm (HR 1.11; 95% CI, 0.59–
2.10; P = 0.73)
• Recent use of biologic agents or small-
molecule immunosuppressive therapy • Median time to discontinuation of supplemental oxygen: 5.0 days in
tocilizumab arm vs. 4.9 days in placebo arm (P = 0.69)
• Receipt of immunosuppressive therapy that
increased risk for infection
Interventions
• Tocilizumab 8 mg/kg plus usual care (n =
161)
• Placebo plus usual care (n = 81)
Primary Endpoint
• Progression to MV or death by Day 28
• Clinical worsening of disease by Day 28, as
measured by an OS
• Discontinuation of supplemental oxygen
among patients receiving it at baseline

Double-Blind RCT of Sarilumab in Hospitalized Adults With Severe to Critical COVID-19 in 11 Countries in Europe, North America, South America, and Asia8
• COVID-19 pneumonia • Median age 59 years; 63% men; 77% White, 36% Hispanic/Latinx • Moderate sample size
• Need for supplemental oxygen or intensive • 39% on HFNC oxygen, MV, or NIV Interpretation
care • 42% with BMI ≥30; 43% with HTN; 26% with type 2 DM • The use of sarilumab did not reduce
Key Exclusion Criteria • 20% received systemic corticosteroids before receiving intervention; mortality or time to clinical improvement
• Low probability of surviving or remaining at 63% received ≥1 doses of corticosteroids during the study. in hospitalized adults with COVID-19.
study site Primary Outcomes
• Dysfunction of ≥2 organ systems and need • Median time to clinical improvement: 10 days in sarilumab 200 mg
for ECMO or renal replacement therapy arm vs. 10 days in sarilumab 400 mg arm vs. 12 days in placebo arm
Interventions • Sarilumab 200 mg arm vs. placebo arm: HR 1.03; 95% CI, 0.75–
• Sarilumab 200 mg IV (n = 159) 1.40; P = 0.96
• Sarilumab 400 mg IV (n = 173) • Sarilumab 400 mg arm vs. placebo arm: HR 1.14; 95% CI, 0.84–
1.54; P = 0.34
Secondary Outcome
Primary Endpoint
• Survival to Day 29: 92% in placebo arm; 90% in sarilumab 200 mg
• Time to clinical improvement of ≥2 points
arm (P = 0.63 vs. placebo); 92% in sarilumab 400 mg arm (P = 0.85
on a 7-point OS
vs. placebo)
• Survival to Day 29

REMDACTA: Double-Blind RCT of Tocilizumab and Remdesivir in Hospitalized Patients With Severe COVID‑19 Pneumonia in Brazil, Russia, Spain, and the
United States9
• Aged ≥12 years • Mean age 59 years; 40% in tocilizumab arm and 34% in placebo • During the trial, primary outcome
• PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection arm aged ≥65 years; 63% men; 67% White changed from clinical status at Day 28 to
• Respiratory support: time to hospital discharge or readiness
• Hospitalized with pneumonia confirmed by
for discharge by Day 28.
CXR or CT scan • HFNC oxygen or NIV: 78% in tocilizumab arm vs. 83% in placebo
• Required supplemental oxygen >6 L/min arm • Imbalances in patient characteristics at
baseline between arms
Key Exclusion Criteria • MV or ECMO: 15% in tocilizumab arm vs. 11% in placebo arm
• Possible underrepresentation of patients
• eGFR <30 mL/min • Corticosteroid use: with rapidly progressive disease
• ALT or AST >5 times ULN • At baseline: 83% in tocilizumab arm vs. 86% in placebo arm
Interpretation
• Presence of non-SARS-CoV-2 infection • During trial: 88% in each arm
• Compared with placebo plus RDV,
• Treatment with antivirals, CCP, CQ, HCQ, or Primary Outcome tocilizumab plus RDV did not shorten
JAK inhibitors • Median time to hospital discharge or readiness for discharge by Day the time to discharge or readiness
28: 14 days in each arm (HR 0.97; 95% CI, 0.78–1.19; P = 0.74) for discharge in patients with severe
Interventions
COVID-19 pneumonia.
• Up to 10 days of RDV plus: Secondary Outcomes
• In these patients, the use of tocilizumab
• Tocilizumab 8 mg/kg IV with possible • No difference between arms in: plus RDV did not reduce mortality when
second dose in 8–24 hours (n = 434) • Proportion who required MV or died by Day 28: 29% in each arm; compared with RDV alone.
• Placebo (n = 215) time to death was not evaluable (HR 0.98; 95% CI, 0.72–1.34; P =
0.90).
Primary Endpoint
• Mean OS score for clinical status at Day 14: 2.8 in tocilizumab arm
• Time to hospital discharge or readiness for vs. 2.9 in placebo arm (P = 0.72)
discharge by Day 28
• Proportion who died by Day 28: 18% in tocilizumab arm vs. 20%
Key Secondary Endpoints in placebo arm; time to death was not evaluable (HR 0.95; 95% CI,
• Time to MV or death by Day 28 0.65–1.39; P = 0.79).
• Clinical status at Day 14, as measured by an
OS
• Time to death by Day 28
Key: ALT = alanine transaminase; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; BMI = body mass index; CCP = COVID-19 convalescent plasma; CQ = chloroquine; CRP =
C-reactive protein; CT = computed tomography; CXR = chest X-ray; DM = diabetes mellitus; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; eGFR = estimated
glomerular filtration rate; HCQ = hydroxychloroquine; HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula; HTN = hypertension; ICU = intensive care unit; IL = interleukin; IV = intravenous;
JAK = Janus kinase; LDH = lactate dehydrogenase; LOS = length of stay; MV = mechanical ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; OS = ordinal scale; the Panel =
the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PCR = polymerase chain reaction; RCT = randomized controlled trial; RDV = remdesivir; SOC = standard of care; SpO2 =
oxygen saturation; ULN = upper limit of normal

References
1. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Tocilizumab in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled, open-label,
platform trial. Lancet. 2021;397(10285):1637-1645. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33933206.
2. REMAP-CAP Investigators. Effectiveness of tocilizumab, sarilumab, and anakinra for critically ill patients with COVID-19: the REMAP-CAP
COVID-19 immune modulation therapy domain randomized clinical trial. medRxiv. 2021;Preprint. Available at:
https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.06.18.21259133v2.
3. REMAP-CAP Investigators. Interleukin-6 receptor antagonists in critically ill patients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(16):1491-1502.
4. Writing Committee for the REMAP-CAP Investigators. Long-term (180-day) outcomes in critically ill patients with COVID-19 in the REMAP-CAP
randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;329(1):39-51. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36525245.
5. Rosas IO, Bräu N, Waters M, et al. Tocilizumab in hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(16):1503-1516.
6. Salama C, Han J, Yau L, et al. Tocilizumab in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(1):20-30. Available at:
7. Stone JH, Frigault MJ, Serling-Boyd NJ, et al. Efficacy of tocilizumab in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(24):2333-
8. Lescure FX, Honda H, Fowler RA, et al. Sarilumab in patients admitted to hospital with severe or critical COVID-19: a randomised, double-blind,
placebo-controlled, Phase 3 trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(5):522-532. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33676590.
9. Rosas IO, Diaz G, Gottlieb RL, et al. Tocilizumab and remdesivir in hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia: a randomized clinical
trial. Intensive Care Med. 2021;47(11):1258-1270. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34609549.

Janus Kinase Inhibitors
Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors interfere with phosphorylation of the signal transducer and activator of
transcription (STAT) proteins1,2 that are involved in vital cellular functions, including signaling, growth,
and survival. JAK inhibitors are used to treat COVID-19 because they can prevent phosphorylation of
key proteins involved in the signal transduction that leads to immune activation and inflammation (e.g.,
the cellular response to proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin [IL]-6).3 Several JAK inhibitors
are available for clinical use, but only baricitinib and tofacitinib have been studied for the treatment of
COVID-19.
In May 2022, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of baricitinib for the treatment
of COVID-19 in hospitalized adults who require supplemental oxygen, noninvasive ventilation (NIV),
mechanical ventilation, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.4 Baricitinib is an oral JAK inhibitor
that is selective for JAK1 and JAK2. It can modulate downstream inflammatory responses via JAK1/
JAK2 inhibition and has exhibited dose-dependent inhibition of IL-6–induced STAT3 phosphorylation.5
Tofacitinib is a JAK inhibitor that is predominantly selective for JAK1 and JAK3. However, it also has
modest activity against JAK2; thus, it can block signaling from gamma-chain cytokines (e.g., IL-2,
IL-4) and glycoprotein 130 proteins (e.g., IL-6, IL-11, interferons). It is an oral agent that was first
approved by the FDA for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and has been shown to decrease levels of
IL-6 in patients with this disease.6 Tofacitinib is also approved by the FDA for the treatment of psoriatic
arthritis, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, and ulcerative colitis.7
Recommendation
Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations on the use of baricitinib in
combination with dexamethasone in hospitalized patients who require conventional oxygen,
high-flow nasal cannula oxygen, NIV, or mechanical ventilation.
Additional Consideration
• If none of the recommended immunomodulatory therapies discussed in Therapeutic Management
of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 are available or feasible to use, oral tofacitinib can be
used in combination with dexamethasone (CIIa).
Rationale
Several large randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that some patients who require
supplemental oxygen and most patients who require oxygen through a high-flow device, NIV, or
mechanical ventilation benefit from the use of dexamethasone in combination with a JAK inhibitor.
In the RECOVERY trial, baricitinib was associated with a survival benefit among hospitalized patients,
with a treatment effect that was most pronounced among patients who were receiving NIV or oxygen
supplementation through a high-flow device.8 The COV-BARRIER trial also demonstrated a survival
benefit for baricitinib that was most pronounced among patients who were receiving high-flow oxygen
or NIV.9 In the addendum to the COV-BARRIER trial, the benefit extended to patients who were
receiving mechanical ventilation.10 Data from the ACTT-211 and ACTT-412 trials support the overall

safety of baricitinib and the potential for benefit, but neither trial studied baricitinib use in combination
with dexamethasone as standard care.
The STOP-COVID study examined the use of tofacitinib in people with COVID-19 pneumonia who
were not receiving NIV, mechanical ventilation, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation at the time of
enrollment.13 The study demonstrated a survival benefit in patients who received tofacitinib; nearly all
of these patients also received corticosteroids. If none of the other recommended immunomodulatory
therapies for the treatment of COVID-19 are available or feasible to use, tofacitinib may be used as a
substitute based on the findings from the STOP-COVID study.
The clinical trial data on the use of baricitinib and tofacitinib in patients with COVID-19 are
summarized in Table 5d.

The FDA reviewed the data from a large, randomized, safety clinical trial that compared the use of
tofacitinib to tumor necrosis factor inhibitors in people with rheumatoid arthritis over 4 years.14 The
FDA review reported that the use of tofacitinib was associated with a higher incidence of serious adverse
events, including heart attack, stroke, cancer, blood clots, and death. Therefore, the FDA now requires
new and updated warnings for drugs in the JAK inhibitor class, including baricitinib and tofacitinib. The
data from randomized trials that have evaluated the safety of short-term use of JAK inhibitors in patients
with COVID-19 have not revealed significant safety signals, such as thrombosis.8,9,11-13 Because JAK
inhibitors have immunosuppressive effects, all patients who are receiving either baricitinib or tofacitinib
should be monitored for new infections.
No clinically significant drug-drug interactions are expected between baricitinib and concomitant drugs.
Tofacitinib is a cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4 substrate. Dose modifications are required when the drug
is coadministered with strong CYP3A4 inhibitors, or when it is used with a moderate CYP3A4 inhibitor
that is coadministered with a strong CYP2C19 inhibitor. Coadministering tofacitinib with a strong
CYP3A4 inducer is not recommended. See Table 5e for JAK inhibitor drug characteristics and dosing
information.

See Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics for the Panel’s guidance regarding the use
of baricitinib during pregnancy and lactation. Pregnancy registries provide some outcome data on
tofacitinib use during pregnancy for other conditions (e.g., ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis,
psoriasis). Among the cases reported, pregnancy outcomes were similar to those among the general
population.15-17
See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19 for the Panel’s
recommendations regarding the use of baricitinib or tofacitinib in children with COVID-19.
References
1. Babon JJ, Lucet IS, Murphy JM, Nicola NA, Varghese LN. The molecular regulation of Janus kinase (JAK)
activation. Biochem J. 2014;462(1):1-13. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25057888.
2. Bousoik E, Montazeri Aliabadi H. “Do we know jack” about JAK? A closer look at JAK/STAT signaling
pathway. Front Oncol. 2018;8:287. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30109213.
3. Zhang W, Zhao Y, Zhang F, et al. The use of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of people with severe

coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): the perspectives of clinical immunologists from China. Clin Immunol.
4. Baricitinib (Olumiant) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2022. Available at:
5. McInnes IB, Byers NL, Higgs RE, et al. Comparison of baricitinib, upadacitinib, and tofacitinib mediated
regulation of cytokine signaling in human leukocyte subpopulations. Arthritis Res Ther. 2019;21(1):183.
6. Migita K, Izumi Y, Jiuchi Y, et al. Effects of Janus kinase inhibitor tofacitinib on circulating serum amyloid
A and interleukin-6 during treatment for rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Exp Immunol. 2014;175(2):208-214.
7. Tofacitinib (Xeljanz) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2019. Available at:
https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2019/203214s024,208246s010lbl.pdf.
10. Ely EW, Ramanan AV, Kartman CE, et al. Efficacy and safety of baricitinib plus standard of care for
the treatment of critically ill hospitalised adults with COVID-19 on invasive mechanical ventilation or
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: an exploratory, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir
14. Food and Drug Administration. FDA requires warnings about increased risk of serious heart-related events,
cancer, blood clots, and death for JAK inhibitors that treat certain chronic inflammatory conditions. 2021.
Available at: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-requires-warnings-about-increased-
risk-serious-heart-related-events-cancer-blood-clots-and-death. Accessed January 16, 2024.
15. Clowse ME, Feldman SR, Isaacs JD, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in the tofacitinib safety databases for
rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis. Drug Saf. 2016;39(8):755-762. Available at:
16. Mahadevan U, Dubinsky MC, Su C, et al. Outcomes of pregnancies with maternal/paternal exposure in the
tofacitinib safety databases for ulcerative colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2018;24(12):2494-2500. Available at:
17. Wieringa JW, van der Woude CJ. Effect of biologicals and JAK inhibitors during pregnancy on health-
related outcomes in children of women with inflammatory bowel disease. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol.
2020;44-45:101665. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32359679.

Table 5d. Janus Kinase Inhibitors: Selected Clinical Trial Data
The clinical trials described in this table do not represent all the trials that the Panel reviewed while developing the recommendations for JAK
inhibitors. The studies summarized below are those that have had the greatest impact on the Panel’s recommendations.

RECOVERY: Open-Label RCT of Baricitinib Versus Usual Care in the United Kingdom1
• Hospitalized with suspected or laboratory- • Mean age 58 years; 66% men; 80% White • Open-label study
confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Median of 9 days of symptoms at enrollment Interpretation
Key Exclusion Criteria • 91% with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • In patients who were hospitalized for
• eGFR <15 mL/min/1.73m 2
• At baseline: COVID-19, the use of BAR reduced the
• ANC <500 cells/mm 3
• 42% received ≥1 doses of a COVID-19 vaccine. risk of death.
• Evidence of active TB • 95% received corticosteroids; 23% received tocilizumab; 20%
Interventions received RDV.
• BAR 4 mg PO daily for 10 days or until • 6% not on supplemental oxygen; 68% on conventional oxygen; 24%
hospital discharge, whichever came first (n on NIV; 3% on MV
= 4,148) Primary Outcome
• SOC (n = 4,008) • 28-day all-cause mortality: 12% in BAR arm vs. 14% in SOC arm
Primary Endpoint (age-adjusted rate ratio 0.87; 95% CI, 0.77–0.98; P = 0.028)
• 28-day all-cause mortality Secondary Outcomes
Key Secondary Endpoints • Hospital discharge within 28 days: 80% in BAR arm vs. 78% in SOC
arm (age-adjusted rate ratio 1.10; 95% CI, 1.04–1.15; P = 0.002)
• Time to discharge from hospital
• Median time to discharge: 8 days in both arms
• Composite of MV, ECMO, or death within 28
days • Composite of MV, ECMO, or death within 28 days: 16% in BAR arm vs.
17% in SOC arm (age-adjusted risk ratio 0.89; 95% CI, 0.81–0.98; P
= 0.016)

COV-BARRIER: Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Baricitinib in Hospitalized Adults in 12 Countries in Asia, Europe, North America, and
South America2
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Mean age 58 years; 63% men • Results from the ACTT-2 trial prompted
• Evidence of pneumonia or active, • 79% received corticosteroids; 19% received RDV; 13% received a protocol amendment that limited
symptomatic COVID-19 oxygen but no steroids. enrollment to patients who required
oxygen at baseline.
• ≥1 elevated inflammatory markers (CRP, Primary Outcome
D-dimer, LDH, or ferritin) Interpretation
• Clinical progression or death by Day 28: 28% in BAR arm vs. 31% in
Key Exclusion Criteria placebo arm (OR 0.85; 95% CI, 0.67–1.08; P = 0.18) • Although the primary outcome of
clinical progression or death was not
• Required MV or ECMO Secondary Outcomes significantly different between the arms,
• Receiving immunosuppressants (including • Mortality by Day 28: 8% in BAR arm vs. 13% in placebo arm (HR 0.57; treatment with BAR was associated with
high-dose corticosteroids) 95% CI, 0.41–0.78; P = 0.0018) reduced mortality in hospitalized adults
• Previously received CCP or IVIG • Mortality by Day 28 for those receiving corticosteroids at baseline: 9% with COVID-19 who were not receiving
in BAR arm vs. 14% in placebo arm (HR 0.63; 95% CI, 0.45–0.89) MV (see the addendum below for results
• ANC <1,000 cells/µL
in patients who required MV or ECMO).
• ALC <200 cells/µL
• For patients who were receiving oxygen
• ALT or AST >5 times ULN but not corticosteroids at baseline, the
• eGFR <30 mL/min primary and secondary outcomes were
similar to the outcomes for the overall
Interventions study population.
• BAR 4 mg PO once daily for up to 14 days
(n = 764)
Primary Endpoint
• Clinical progression or death by Day 28

COV-BARRIER Addendum: Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Baricitinib in Hospitalized Adults on Mechanical Ventilation or
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and the United States3
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Mean age 59 years; 55% men • Very small sample size
• Evidence of pneumonia or active, • 86% received corticosteroids; 2% received RDV. • Exploratory analysis
symptomatic COVID-19 • High mortality in placebo arm
Outcomes
• ≥1 elevated inflammatory markers (CRP,
• Mortality by Day 28: 39% in BAR arm vs. 58% in placebo arm (HR Interpretation
D-dimer, LDH, or ferritin)
0.54; 95% CI, 0.31–0.96; P = 0.030) • In critically ill patients with COVID-19
• Receiving MV or ECMO at baseline
• No significant difference between arms in number of ventilator-free who were receiving MV or ECMO,
Key Exclusion Criteria days or duration of hospitalization treatment with BAR decreased mortality.
• Receiving immunosuppressants (including
high-dose corticosteroids)
• Previously received CCP or IVIG
• ANC <1,000 cells/µL
• ALC <200 cells/µL
• ALT or AST >5 times ULN
• eGFR <30 mL/min
Interventions
• BAR 4 mg PO once daily for up to 14 days
(n = 51)
Key Endpoints
• Number of ventilator-free days
• Duration of hospitalization

ACTT-2: Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Baricitinib Plus Remdesivir in Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in 8 Countries in Europe,
North America, and Asia4
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 PCR result • Mean age 55 years; 63% men; 48% White, 15% Black, 10% Asian • Not powered to detect difference in
• Radiographic infiltrates; SpO2 ≤94% on • At baseline: mortality between arms
room air; or required supplemental oxygen, • 13% not on supplemental oxygen • Steroids not part of SOC
MV, or ECMO
• 55% on conventional oxygen Interpretation
Key Exclusion Criteria • 21% on HFNC oxygen or NIV • Compared with RDV alone, BAR plus RDV
• Receiving glucocorticoids for COVID-19 • 11% on MV or ECMO reduced recovery time and improved
indications clinical status, particularly for patients
• ALT or AST >5 times ULN Primary Outcomes who were receiving HFNC oxygen or NIV
• Median time to recovery by Day 28: 7 days in BAR arm vs. 8 days in at baseline.
• Impaired renal function
placebo arm (rate ratio 1.16; 95% CI, 1.01–1.32; P = 0.03)
Interventions • Median time to recovery for those receiving HFNC oxygen or NIV: 10
• BAR 4 mg PO once daily for 14 days or until days in BAR arm vs. 18 days in placebo arm (rate ratio for recovery
hospital discharge, plus RDV IV for 10 days 1.51; 95% CI, 1.10–2.08)
or until hospital discharge (n = 515)
Secondary Outcomes
• Placebo PO once daily for 14 days or until
hospital discharge, plus RDV IV for 10 days • Odds of improvement in clinical status at Day 15 were greater in BAR
or until hospital discharge (n = 518) arm than in placebo arm (OR 1.3; 95% CI, 1.0–1.6).
• Mortality by Day 28: 5% in BAR arm vs. 8% in placebo arm (HR 0.65;
Primary Endpoint 95% CI, 0.39–1.09)
• Time to recovery by Day 28
• Clinical status at Day 15, as measured by
an OS

ACTT-4: Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Remdesivir With Baricitinib Versus Dexamethasone for Hospitalized Patients Requiring
Supplemental Oxygen in Japan, Mexico, Singapore, South Korea, and the United States5
• Hospitalized and required conventional • Median age 58 years; 58% men; 58% White, 34% Hispanic/Latinx • Study closed before enrolling 1,500
oxygen, HFNC oxygen, or NIV • At baseline: patients, as it was unlikely to show a
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • 85% on low-flow oxygen difference between arms.
Key Exclusion Criterion • 15% on HFNC oxygen or NIV • Study was not powered to detect
differences between BAR and DEX in the
• Receipt of CCP or >1 dose of DEX 6 mg (or • Mean of 8 days of symptoms at enrollment subgroup of patients on HFNC oxygen or
equivalent) or BAR before enrollment NIV at baseline.
Primary Outcome
Interventions • MV-free survival by Day 29: 87% in BAR arm vs. 88% in DEX arm (risk • Few patients died or required MV, which
• RDV IV for ≤10 days plus BAR 4 mg PO daily difference 0.6%; 95% CI, -3.6% to 4.8%; P = 0.91) may have decreased the power to detect
for ≤14 days plus DEX placebo IV (n = 516) a difference between arms for MV-free
Secondary Outcomes survival.
• RDV IV for ≤10 days plus BAR placebo PO
plus DEX 6 mg IV daily for ≤10 days (n = • Odds of improvement in clinical status at Day 15 were similar • Treatment-related differences in AEs
494) between arms (OR 1.01; 95% CI, 0.80–1.27). for BAR arm vs. DEX arm were mainly
• For those on low-flow oxygen at baseline: OR 0.91; 95% CI, related to laboratory abnormalities, not
Primary Endpoint 0.70–1.17 clinical events. The clinical relevance
• MV-free survival by Day 29 • For those on HFNC oxygen or NIV at baseline: OR 1.64; 95% CI, of these differences in laboratory
Key Secondary Endpoints 0.92–2.90 abnormalities is unclear.
• Clinical status at Day 15, as measured by • Median time to recovery: 6 days in BAR arm vs. 5 days in DEX arm Interpretation
an OS (rate ratio 1.04; 95% CI, 0.91–1.19) • In hospitalized patients who required
• Time to recovery Safety Outcomes conventional oxygen, HFNC oxygen, or
• Occurrence of treatment-related AEs: 4% in BAR arm vs. 10% in DEX NIV, the use of BAR or DEX resulted in
arm (risk difference 6.0%; 95% CI, 2.8%–9.3%; P = 0.0004) similar MV-free survival by Day 29.
• Occurrence of treatment-related AEs
• Occurrence of SAEs • Occurrence of SAEs: 28% in BAR arm vs. 36% in DEX arm (risk
difference 7.7%; 95% CI, 1.8%–13.4%; P = 0.012)
• Most SAEs and treatment-related AEs were laboratory abnormalities.

STOP-COVID: Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Tofacitinib in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 Pneumonia in Brazil6
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Mean age 56 years; 35% women • Small sample size
• COVID-19 pneumonia on CXR or CT • Median of 10 days from symptom onset to randomization • RDV not available during trial
• Hospitalized for <72 hours • At baseline: Interpretation
Key Exclusion Criteria • 75% on supplemental oxygen
• When compared with placebo, use of
• Receiving NIV, MV, or ECMO at baseline • 13% on HFNC oxygen tofacitinib led to a lower risk of mortality
• History of or current thrombosis • Use of glucocorticoids: 79% at baseline, 89% during hospitalization or respiratory failure among hospitalized
adults with COVID-19 pneumonia, most
• Immunosuppression or active cancer Primary Outcome
of whom received glucocorticoids.
treatment • Mortality or respiratory failure by Day 28: 18% in tofacitinib arm vs.
Interventions 29% in placebo arm (risk ratio 0.63; 95% CI, 0.41–0.97; P = 0.04)
• Tofacitinib 10 mg PO twice daily for up to 14 Secondary Outcome
days or until hospital discharge (n = 144) • Mortality by Day 28: 2.8% in tofacitinib arm vs. 5.5% in placebo arm
• Placebo (n = 145) (HR 0.49; 95% CI, 0.15–1.63)
Primary Endpoint
• Mortality or respiratory failure by Day 28
Key: AE = adverse event; ALC = absolute lymphocyte count; ALT = alanine transaminase; ANC = absolute neutrophil count; AST = aspartate aminotransferase;
BAR = baricitinib; CCP = COVID-19 convalescent plasma; CRP = C-reactive protein; CT = computed tomography; CXR = chest X-ray; DEX = dexamethasone;
ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula; IV = intravenous; IVIG = intravenous
immunoglobulin; JAK = Janus kinase; LDH = lactate dehydrogenase; MV = mechanical ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; OS = ordinal scale; the Panel = the
COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PCR = polymerase chain reaction; PO = oral; RCT = randomized controlled trial; RDV = remdesivir; SAE = serious adverse event;
SOC = standard of care; SpO2 = oxygen saturation; TB = tuberculosis; ULN = upper limit of normal
References
1. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Baricitinib in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled, open-label,
platform trial and updated meta-analysis. Lancet. 2022;400(10349):359-368. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35908569.
2. Marconi VC, Ramanan AV, de Bono S, et al. Efficacy and safety of baricitinib for the treatment of hospitalised adults with COVID-19 (COV-
BARRIER): a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled Phase 3 trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(12):1407-1418. Available at:

3. Ely EW, Ramanan AV, Kartman CE, et al. Efficacy and safety of baricitinib plus standard of care for the treatment of critically ill hospitalised adults
with COVID-19 on invasive mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: an exploratory, randomised, placebo-controlled trial.
Lancet Respir Med. 2022;10(4):327-336. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35123660.
4. Kalil AC, Patterson TF, Mehta AK, et al. Baricitinib plus remdesivir for hospitalized adults with COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(9):795-807.
5. Wolfe CR, Tomashek KM, Patterson TF, et al. Baricitinib versus dexamethasone for adults hospitalised with COVID-19 (ACTT-4): a randomised,
double-blind, double placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2022;10(9):888-899. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35617986.
6. Guimarães PO, Quirk D, Furtado RH, et al. Tofacitinib in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(5):406-415.

Abatacept
Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) is a protein receptor that is expressed by

activated T cells. By mediating inhibitory signals, this receptor can decrease T cell proliferation and
cytokine production.1,2 Abatacept (CTLA-4-Ig) is a soluble fusion protein that contains CTLA-4 linked to
human immunoglobulin, and it is used to block T cell activation. Because excessive T cell stimulation and
proliferation is thought to propagate the pathogenesis of COVID-19,3 modulating this response may be a
potential option for treating COVID-19.4
Abatacept is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of inflammatory arthritis
and for the prophylaxis of acute graft-versus-host disease.5 It is currently not approved for the treatment
of COVID-19, but it has been evaluated in clinical trials for the treatment of hospitalized patients with
moderate to severe COVID-19.
Recommendation
• See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for the COVID-19 Treatment
Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations on the use of abatacept in hospitalized patients
who require conventional oxygen, high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) oxygen, or noninvasive
ventilation (NIV).
Rationale
analyses included data from a shared placebo arm. One substudy compared the use of a single dose of
intravenous abatacept 10 mg/kg to placebo. The primary endpoint was time to recovery by Day 28. Key
secondary endpoints included clinical status at Day 14 and mortality through Days 28 and 60.
The study concluded that use of abatacept in patients with COVID-19 did not have a significant effect on the
time to recovery. A reduction in 28-day mortality, a secondary endpoint, was found. Patients who required
mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation did not benefit from the use of abatacept.

Concomitant use of abatacept and other immunomodulatory agents may increase the risk of serious
infections. Due to its immunosuppressive effects, all patients who are receiving abatacept should also be
monitored for new infections. In the ACTIV-1 trial, the use of a single dose of abatacept in patients with
COVID-19 did not reveal significant safety concerns.
Most of the data on the adverse effects of abatacept come from the chronic use of the agent for the
treatment of autoimmune diseases and graft-versus-host disease. When abatacept is used for the
prevention of acute graft-versus-host disease, the most commonly reported adverse effects include
fever, anemia, hypertension, cytomegalovirus infection (or reactivation), pneumonia, epistaxis, CD4
lymphopenia, and acute kidney injury.5


abatacept during pregnancy and lactation.
The intravenous formulation of abatacept is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the
treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis and acute graft-versus-host disease in children aged ≥2 years.
It is not approved for the treatment of COVID-19 in children, and there are no published reports on the
efficacy of using abatacept in this population. No patients aged <18 years were included in the ACTIV-1
trial.
Clinical Data
In the ACTIV-1 trial, the modified intention-to-treat analysis for the abatacept substudy included
509 patients in the abatacept arm and 510 patients in the placebo arm. At baseline, 53% of patients
required conventional oxygen supplementation, and 33% required HFNC oxygen or NIV. As part of
their standard care before or during the study, 93% of patients received remdesivir, and 91% received
corticosteroids.
Results
• The median time to recovery was 9 days in both the infliximab and placebo arms (recovery rate
ratio 1.12; 95% CI, 0.98–1.28; P = 0.09), and there was no differential effect across subgroups
based on disease severity (interaction P = 0.66).
• Mortality by Day 28 was lower among patients who received abatacept (56 of 509 patients
[11.0%]) than among those who received placebo (77 of 510 patients [15.1%]; OR 0.62; 95% CI,
0.41–0.94).
• Subgroup analyses showed reduced mortality only among patients in the abatacept arm who
required HFNC oxygen or NIV (OR 0.48; 95% CI, 0.28–0.84).
• Among patients who required mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation,
there was no difference in mortality by Day 28 (OR 1.63; 95% CI, 0.66–4.05).
• There were no differences in secondary infections or in the number or severity of serious adverse
events between the abatacept and placebo arms.
Limitations
• Each of the 3 active agents was compared to a shared placebo group without adjusting for multiple
comparisons.
• Mortality was a secondary endpoint. Although the treatment difference for mortality by Day 28
was nominally significant, no adjustment was made to the analysis to assess multiple outcomes
(primary outcome and mortality).
• The study was not powered to analyze differences within disease severity subgroups.
References
1. Alegre ML, Frauwirth KA, Thompson CB. T-cell regulation by CD28 and CTLA-4. Nat Rev Immunol.
2. Oyewole-Said D, Konduri V, Vazquez-Perez J, Weldon SA, Levitt JM, Decker WK. Beyond T-cells:
functional characterization of CTLA-4 expression in immune and non-immune cell types. Front Immunol.
2020;11:608024. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33384695.
3. Chen Z, Wherry EJ. T cell responses in patients with COVID-19. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20:529-536.

4. Julià A, Bonafonte-Pardàs I, Gómez A, et al. Targeting of the CD80/86 proinflammatory axis as a therapeutic
strategy to prevent severe COVID-19. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):11462. Available at:
5. Abatacept (Orencia) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2021. Available at:

Infliximab
Tumor necrosis factor–alpha (TNF-alpha) is a pleiotropic proinflammatory cytokine that is mainly

generated by activated macrophages, lymphocytes, and natural killer cells. TNF-alpha plays a significant
role in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, increased levels
of interleukin-6 and TNF-alpha were identified as independent predictors of disease severity and
death.1 Furthermore, several cohort studies and registries noted that people with immune-mediated
inflammatory diseases who were receiving TNF-alpha inhibitors were at lower risk for COVID-19–
related hospitalizations and severe disease than people with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases
who were receiving non–TNF-alpha biologic products.2,3 It has been hypothesized that modulating levels
of TNF-alpha or its effects may reduce the duration or severity of COVID-19. Infliximab is a TNF-alpha
inhibitor that has been evaluated for the treatment of hospitalized patients with moderate to severe
COVID-19.
Recommendation
Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendations on the use of infliximab in
hospitalized patients who require conventional oxygen, high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) oxygen,
or noninvasive ventilation (NIV).
Rationale
analyses included data from a shared placebo arm. One substudy compared the use of a single dose of
intravenous infliximab 5 mg/kg to placebo. The primary endpoint was time to recovery by Day 28. Key
secondary endpoints included clinical status at Day 14 and mortality through Days 28 and 60.
The study concluded that use of infliximab in patients with COVID-19 did not have a significant effect
on the time to recovery. A reduction in 28-day mortality, a secondary endpoint, was found. Patients who
required mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation did not benefit from the use of
infliximab.

Because of infliximab’s immunosuppressive effects, all patients who receive it should be monitored for
new infections. In the ACTIV-1 trial, the use of a single dose of infliximab in patients with COVID-19
did not reveal significant safety concerns.
Most of the data on the adverse effects of infliximab come from the chronic use of the agent for the
treatment of autoimmune diseases. Adverse effects include serious infections (including invasive fungal
infections), infusion-related reactions and hypersensitivity, cytopenias, hepatotoxicity, and, rarely,
cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events.5


infliximab during pregnancy and lactation.
Infliximab is approved for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease in children and is often used
to treat juvenile idiopathic arthritis. The Food and Drug Administration has not approved the use of
infliximab for the treatment of COVID-19 in children, and there are no published reports on the efficacy
of using infliximab in this population. No patients aged <18 years were included in the ACTIV-1 trial.
See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A for
the Panel’s recommendations regarding the use of infliximab in pediatric patients with multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C).
Clinical Data
In the ACTIV-1 trial, the modified intention-to-treat analysis for the infliximab substudy included
517 patients in the infliximab arm and 516 patients in the placebo arm. At baseline, 52% of patients
required conventional oxygen supplementation, and 33% required HFNC oxygen or NIV. As part of
their standard care before or during the study, 93% of patients received remdesivir, and 92% received
corticosteroids.
Results
• The median time to recovery was 8 days in the infliximab arm versus 9 days in the placebo arm
(recovery rate ratio 1.12; 95% CI, 0.99–1.28; P = 0.08), and there was no differential effect across
subgroups based on disease severity (interaction P = 0.36).
• Mortality by Day 28 was lower among patients who received infliximab (52 of 517 patients
[10.1%]) than among those who received placebo (75 of 516 patients [14%]; OR 0.59; 95% CI,
0.39–0.90).
• Subgroup analyses showed reduced mortality only among patients in the infliximab arm who
required HFNC oxygen or NIV (OR 0.52; 95% CI, 0.29–0.91).
• Among patients who required mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation,
there was no difference in mortality by Day 28 (OR 1.11; 95% CI, 0.45–2.72).
• There were no differences in secondary infections or in the number or severity of serious adverse
events between the infliximab and placebo arms.
Limitations
• Each of the 3 active agents was compared to a shared placebo group without adjusting for multiple
comparisons.
• Mortality was a secondary endpoint. Although the treatment difference for mortality by Day 28
was nominally significant, no adjustment was made to the analysis to assess multiple outcomes
(primary outcome and mortality).
• The study was not powered to analyze differences within disease severity subgroups.
References
1. Del Valle DM, Kim-Schulze S, Huang HH, et al. An inflammatory cytokine signature predicts COVID-19
severity and survival. Nat Med. 2020;26(10):1636-1643. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/32839624.
2. Curtis JR, Zhou X, Rubin DT, et al. Characteristics, comorbidities, and outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection in

patients with autoimmune conditions treated with systemic therapies: a population-based study. J Rheumatol.
3. Izadi Z, Brenner EJ, Mahil SK, et al. Association between tumor necrosis factor inhibitors and the risk of
hospitalization or death among patients with immune-mediated inflammatory disease and COVID-19. JAMA
Netw Open. 2021;4(10):e2129639. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34661663.
5. Infliximab (Remicade) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2021. Available at: https://www.

Endogenous interleukin (IL)-1 is elevated in patients with COVID-19.1-3 In addition, SARS-CoV-2

infection causes epithelial damage that leads to the release of IL-1 beta, which recruits inflammatory
cells and induces the release of IL-1 beta in monocytes. This in turn leads to the release of more IL-1 to
recruit and activate additional innate immune cells. Drugs that block the IL-1 receptor (e.g., anakinra) or
drugs that block IL-1 signaling (e.g., canakinumab) can potentially interrupt this autoinflammatory loop.
These drugs have been investigated as potential treatments for COVID-19.
Anakinra is a recombinant human IL-1 receptor antagonist. It is approved by the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) to treat rheumatoid arthritis and cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes,
specifically neonatal-onset multisystem inflammatory disease.4 It is used off-label to treat severe
chimeric antigen receptor T cell-mediated cytokine release syndrome and macrophage activation
syndrome/secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. On November 8, 2022, the FDA issued
an Emergency Use Authorization for anakinra. The Emergency Use Authorization allows the use of
anakinra to treat COVID-19 in certain hospitalized adults with pneumonia. These patients must have
laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, require supplemental oxygen (either low- or high-flow
oxygen), be at risk of progressing to severe respiratory failure, and be likely to have elevated plasma
levels of soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR), a marker of inflammation.5
Canakinumab is a human monoclonal antibody that targets the beta subunit of IL-1 and is approved by
the FDA for the treatment of systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis, Still’s disease, and gout.6
Recommendations
recommend either for or against the use of anakinra for the treatment of COVID-19.
• The Panel recommends against the use of canakinumab for the treatment of COVID-19, except
in a clinical trial (BIIa).
Rationale
In the SAVE-MORE trial, 594 hospitalized patients who had moderate or severe COVID-19 pneumonia
and plasma suPAR levels ≥6 ng/mL were randomized to receive either anakinra or placebo.7 The study
found that patients who received anakinra had a lower risk of clinical progression of COVID-19 than
those who received placebo. REMAP-CAP, an open-label, adaptive platform trial that evaluated the use
of several immunomodulators in patients with COVID-19 who required organ support, found no clinical
benefit of anakinra in these patients. In addition, among patients who received anakinra, no reduction
in mortality was observed during a 180-day follow up.8 Several smaller trials that evaluated the use of
anakinra in people with COVID-19 were either stopped early due to futility or did not detect a benefit
of anakinra in these patients.9-11 Meta-analyses of the available data have not detected a benefit of using
anakinra to treat COVID-19.12,13
The SAVE-MORE study population was restricted to participants with high levels of suPAR (≥6 ng/
mL) based on the hypothesis that this group is most likely to benefit from IL-1 inhibition. However,
the laboratory assay that is used to assess suPAR levels is not currently available in many countries,
including the United States. Using data from the SAVE-MORE and SAVE trials (both a priori,
open-label, single-arm prospective studies), the FDA developed a scoring system that uses common

clinical and laboratory factors to identify patients who are likely to have suPAR levels ≥6 ng/mL.
The Panel has concluded that there is insufficient evidence to recommend either for or against the use
of anakinra for the treatment of COVID-19. After reviewing the available evidence, the Panel notes the
following:
• Data from randomized trials have not consistently demonstrated a benefit of using anakinra to treat
COVID-19.
• The suPAR assays that were used to identify patients for participation in the SAVE-MORE trial
are not available in the United States.
• The scoring system that the FDA developed to identify patients who are likely to have high suPAR
levels requires further validation.
The Panel recommends against the use of canakinumab for the treatment of COVID-19, except in a
clinical trial (BIIa). CAN-COVID, a randomized controlled trial that evaluated the use of canakinumab
in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who were hypoxemic but did not require ventilatory support,
reported that the use of canakinumab did not improve the likelihood of survival without mechanical
ventilation.14 CanCovDia was a randomized controlled trial that compared the use of canakinumab to
placebo in hospitalized patients with COVID-19, type 2 diabetes, and a body mass index >25. This
trial did not find a difference between the arms in the occurrence of a composite outcome that included
length of survival, ventilation, intensive care unit (ICU) stay, and hospitalization through Day 29.15

Headache, nausea, vomiting, and liver enzyme elevations can occur with both anakinra and
canakinumab.
Anakinra was not associated with any significant safety concerns when used in clinical trials for the
treatment of sepsis.16-18 Increased rates of infection were reported with prolonged anakinra use in
combination with tumor necrosis factor–alpha blockade but not with short-term use.19

The data on using IL-1 inhibitors to treat COVID-19 in pregnant patients are currently limited. The
American College of Rheumatology recommends against the use of anakinra during pregnancy.20
Unintentional first-trimester exposure to anakinra is unlikely to be harmful, given the minimal transfer
of monoclonal antibodies across the placenta early in pregnancy.21
Anakinra has been used to treat severely ill children with rheumatologic conditions, including systemic
juvenile idiopathic arthritis and macrophage activation syndrome. The data on the use of anakinra in
pediatric patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome or sepsis are limited. Information on the
use of anakinra in pediatric patients with acute COVID-19 is limited to small case series.22,23 However,
anakinra has been used in approximately 10% of cases of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in
children (MIS-C).24-29 Anakinra is often included in institutional protocols for the treatment of MIS-C in
the United States, and it is an option for second-line therapy for refractory MIS-C in national consensus
guidelines, including the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines.30-32 For more information, see Therapeutic
Management of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A.
Data on using canakinumab in pediatric patients are limited to use in patients with periodic fever
syndromes and systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis. There are no data on its use in pediatric patients

with acute COVID-19 or MIS-C.
Clinical Data
SAVE-MORE
SAVE-MORE was a randomized controlled trial in 594 hospitalized patients with moderate to severe
COVID-19 pneumonia and plasma suPAR levels ≥6 ng/mL.7 Patients who required noninvasive
ventilation (NIV) or mechanical ventilation were excluded from the study. Patients were randomized
2:1 to receive anakinra 100 mg subcutaneously once daily for 10 days or placebo. The primary endpoint
was clinical status at Day 28 on the 11-point World Health Organization Clinical Progression Scale
(WHO-CPS). Additional analyses assessed outcomes at Days 60 and 90.33
Results
• Patients who were randomized to receive anakinra had lower odds of a worse WHO-CPS score at
Day 28 (OR 0.36; 95% CI, 0.26–0.50; P < 0.0001).
• The secondary endpoints also favored anakinra, including the absolute decrease in WHO-CPS
scores from baseline at Days 14 and 28, the absolute decrease in sequential organ failure
assessment (SOFA) scores from baseline at Day 7, the median time to hospital discharge, and the
median duration of ICU stays.
• A smaller proportion of patients in the anakinra arm experienced secondary infections, including
ventilator-associated pneumonias, than in the placebo arm (8.4% vs. 15.9%; P = 0.01).
• Twenty-eight–day mortality was lower among patients who received anakinra than among those
who received placebo (3.2% vs. 6.9%; HR 0.45; 95% CI, 0.21–0.98; P = 0.045).
• Additional analyses performed at Days 60 and 90 showed a sustained survival benefit for
anakinra.
Limitations
The laboratory assay that is used to assess suPAR levels is not currently available in many countries,
including the United States. The FDA worked with the SAVE-MORE investigators to develop a scoring
system that predicts whether a patient has suPAR levels ≥6 ng/mL using baseline data from patients who
were randomized during the trial and a subset of patients who were screened but not randomized. The
FDA’s surrogate for suPAR levels ≥6 ng/mL is called SCORE 2, and it includes the following patient
characteristics:
• Aged ≥75 years
• Severe pneumonia, as determined by WHO criteria
• Current or past smoker
• SOFA score ≥3
• Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio ≥7
• Hemoglobin ≤10.5 g/dL
• Medical history of ischemic stroke
• Blood urea ≥50 mg/dL and/or medical history of renal disease
Patients who met ≥3 of these criteria were considered positive for SCORE 2 and likely to have a suPAR
level ≥6 ng/mL. SCORE 2 had a positive predictive value of 0.95, a sensitivity of 0.41, and specificity
of 0.96 when retrospectively applied to the SAVE-MORE trial, and it had similar characteristics
when applied to the SAVE trial, an open-label, single-arm prospective study that served as an external

validation dataset. In the SAVE-MORE trial, a greater proportion of patients who were positive for
SCORE 2 developed severe respiratory failure at Day 14 compared with those who met ≤2 of the
SCORE 2 criteria (41.4% vs. 8.0%).4,34
REMAP-CAP
The REMAP-CAP trial is an open-label, adaptive platform trial in which eligible participants are
randomized to several domains, including the Immune Modulation Therapy domain, which consists of 2
IL-6 inhibitors, anakinra, interferon beta-1a, and a control group.8 Participants are eligible for enrollment
if they are within 24 hours of receiving respiratory or cardiovascular organ support in the ICU and they
have suspected or microbiologically confirmed COVID-19. This population had more advanced disease
than the population enrolled in the SAVE-MORE trial.
Anakinra 300 mg was given intravenously (IV) as a loading dose, followed by anakinra 100 mg IV
every 6 hours for 14 days until patients were either free from mechanical ventilation for >24 hours
or discharged from the ICU. The primary outcome was measured using an ordinal scale that included
a composite of in-hospital mortality and duration of respiratory and cardiovascular organ support at
21 days; all deaths up to 90 days were assigned the worst outcome. The trial used a Bayesian design
that allowed the authors to compare nonconcurrently randomized interventions across time periods.
Additional analyses assessed outcomes at 180 days.3,8
Results
• Of the 2,274 participants who were randomized to 1 of the arms in the Immune Modulation
Therapy domain, 365 individuals were assigned to receive anakinra and included in the analysis,
406 were assigned to the usual care (control) arm, 943 were assigned to receive tocilizumab, and
483 were assigned to receive sarilumab.
• Of those assigned to receive anakinra, 37% were receiving mechanical ventilation at study entry
compared with 32% of patients in the other arms. The other patients received oxygen through a
high-flow nasal cannula or NIV, with a few exceptions.
• The median number of organ support-free days was similar for patients who received anakinra and
those who received usual care (0 days [IQR -1 to 15 days] vs. 0 days [IQR -1 to 15 days]). The
aOR for organ support-free days was 0.99 for anakinra (95% CrI, 0.74–1.35), with a 47% posterior
probability of superiority to control. Sixty percent of those who were assigned to receive anakinra
survived compared with 63% of those who were assigned to the control arm, with a 44% posterior
probability that anakinra was superior to usual care.
• Additional analyses performed at 180 days showed no reduction in mortality among patients who
received anakinra.3,8
• The risk of experiencing serious adverse events was similar between the arms.
Limitations
Patients were not randomized contemporaneously to receive anakinra or usual care; the treatment
effect was estimated from an overarching model that mostly included patients who were randomized to
receive an IL-6 inhibitor (tocilizumab or sarilumab) or usual care, and patients who were randomized to
receive an IL-6 inhibitor or anakinra. Thus, the estimate of the treatment effect is not fully protected by
randomization. This study also had an open-label design.
CORIMUNO-ANA-1
The CORIMUNO-ANA-1 trial randomized 116 hospitalized patients with COVID-19 pneumonia 1:1
to receive either usual care plus anakinra (200 mg IV twice daily on Days 1–3, 100 mg IV twice on Day

4, and 100 mg IV once on Day 5) or usual care alone.9 Patients were eligible for enrollment if they had
laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection with COVID-19 pneumonia and they required >3 L/min
of supplemental oxygen. Patients who required high-flow oxygen, ventilation, or ICU admission were
excluded. The 2 coprimary outcomes were the proportion of patients who had died or who needed NIV
or mechanical ventilation by Day 4 (score of >5 on the WHO-CPS) and the proportion who survived
without the need for NIV or mechanical ventilation (including high-flow oxygen) by Day 14.
Results
• There was no difference between the arms in the occurrence of the coprimary outcomes: by Day
4, 36% of patients in the anakinra arm had died or required high-flow oxygen or ventilation
compared with 38% in the usual care arm (90% CrI, -17.1 to 12.0; posterior probability of benefit
61%). By Day 14, 47% of patients in the anakinra arm had died or required NIV or mechanical
ventilation compared with 51% in the usual care arm (median HR 0.97; 90% CrI, 0.62–1.52;
posterior probability of benefit 55%).
• Fifty-two percent of patients received corticosteroids at study entry.
• Serious adverse events occurred in 46% of patients in the anakinra arm compared with 38% in
the usual care arm; 11 of 59 patients (18.6%) in the anakinra arm experienced bacterial or fungal
infections compared with 4 of 55 patients (7.3%) who received usual care.
Limitations
The limitations of this study include the small sample size, narrow eligibility criteria, and the fact that
many patients did not receive current standard of care therapy (e.g., corticosteroids, remdesivir).
COV-AID
The COV-AID trial enrolled 342 hospitalized patients with COVID-19, hypoxia, and signs of
hyperinflammation.10 This trial had an open-label, 2 x 2 factorial design to compare IL-1 inhibition
to no IL-1 inhibition and IL-6 inhibition to no IL-6 inhibition. The primary outcome was the time to
clinical improvement, which was defined as an increase of 2 or more points on a 6-point ordinal scale or
discharge from the hospital.
Results
• There was no difference between the anakinra arm and the usual care arm in the occurrence of
the primary outcome. The estimated median time to clinical improvement was 12 days (95% CI,
10–16 days) in the anakinra arm and 12 days (95% CI, 10–15 days) in the usual care arm (HR
0.94; 95% CI, 0.73–1.21).
• Fifty-five patients died during the study, and no statistically significant differences in mortality
were found between the study arms.
• The risk of experiencing serious adverse events was similar between the arms.
Limitations
The limitations of this study include the open-label design and the fact that many patients did not
receive current standard of care therapy (e.g., corticosteroids, remdesivir). In addition, the 2 x 2 factorial
structure was underpowered to detect interactions between treatment arms, because some patients
received both an IL-1 inhibitor and an IL-6 inhibitor.
ANA-COVID-GEAS
ANA-COVID-GEAS was a multicenter, randomized, open-label, Phase 2/3 clinical trial of 179
hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia and hyperinflammation.11 Patients were

randomized 1:1 to receive anakinra 100 mg IV 4 times daily plus standard of care or standard of care
alone for up to 15 days. The length of treatment was based on the patient’s clinical response per the
protocol-defined criteria. The primary outcome was the proportion of patients who did not require
mechanical ventilation up to 15 days after treatment initiation.
Results
• There was no statistical difference between the anakinra arm and standard of care arm in the
proportion of patients who did not require mechanical ventilation up to 15 days after treatment
initiation (77.1% vs. 85.9%; relative risk ratio 0.90; 95% CI, 0.77–1.04)
• The secondary outcomes were also not statistically different between groups. These included the
time to mechanical ventilation (HR 1.72; 95% CI, 0.82–3.62) and the number of deaths by Day 28
(4 vs. 5; relative risk ratio 0.77; 95% CI, 0.21–2.77).
Limitations
Key limitations of this study were its open-label design, modest sample size, the fact that only half of
the patients received dexamethasone, and the fact that the proportion of patients who required oxygen
supplementation at baseline was significantly higher in the anakinra arm.
CAN-COVID
CAN-COVID was a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial of 454 hospitalized patients with
COVID-19 who were hypoxemic but not mechanically ventilated and had elevated levels of C-reactive
protein (≥20 mg/L) or ferritin (≥600 µg/L).14 Patients were randomized 1:1 to receive a single dose of
IV canakinumab (450 mg for a body weight of 40 kg to <60 kg, 600 mg for 60–80 kg, and 750 mg for
>80 kg) or placebo. The primary outcome was survival without the need for mechanical ventilation from
Days 3 through Day 29.
Results
• There was no statistical difference between the canakinumab arm and placebo arm in the
proportion of patients who survived without mechanical ventilation (88.8% vs. 85.7%; P = 0.29).
• The number of COVID-19–related deaths at 4 weeks was similar for the 2 arms (11 of 223 patients
[4.9%] in the canakinumab arm vs. 16 of 222 patients [7.2%] in the placebo arm; OR 0.67; 95%
CI, 0.30–1.50).
• Forty-one percent of patients in the canakinumab arm and 32% in the placebo arm received
dexamethasone.
• Serious adverse events occurred in 16% of patients who received canakinumab and in 21% of
patients who received placebo.
Limitations
The use of corticosteroids was unbalanced in this study, with more patients receiving dexamethasone at
baseline in the canakinumab arm than in the placebo arm. More patients received dexamethasone after
the trial was underway in the placebo arm than in the canakinumab arm (22.5% vs. 14.5%), and more
patients received tocilizumab in the placebo arm than in the canakinumab arm (8.8% vs. 2.2%).
CanCovDia
CanCovDia was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of 116 hospitalized patients with
type 2 diabetes, a body mass index >25, and COVID-19.15 Most patients (65.8%) required oxygen
supplementation. Patients were randomized 1:1 to receive a single dose of canakinumab (using weight-
adapted dosing between 450 and 750 mg) or placebo. The primary outcome was reported as a win

ratio, which was calculated by dividing the number of winners by the number of losers in a sequence of
hierarchical comparisons based on ordered components. This hierarchy included:
1. Longer survival time
2. Longer ventilation-free time
3. Longer ICU-free time
4. Shorter hospitalization time within 29 days after treatment with canakinumab compared with
placebo
Results
• The win ratio for canakinumab versus placebo was 1.08 (95% CI, 0.69–1.69; P = 0.75).
• At 4 weeks, there was no statistically significant difference between the canakinumab arm and
placebo arm in the number of deaths (4 vs. 7; OR 0.54; 95% CI, 0.13–1.90).
Limitations
At baseline, patients in the canakinumab arm had poorer kidney function and higher levels of ferritin and
suPAR compared to those in the placebo arm.
Other small cohort studies, case-control studies, and case series have reported mixed findings with
regard to improvement in outcomes among patients who received anakinra for the treatment of COVID-
19.35-38 The clinical implication of these findings is uncertain due to small sample sizes and unmeasured
confounding factors. Therefore, these studies did not substantially influence the Panel’s current
recommendations for using IL-1 inhibitors.
References
1. Shakoory B, Carcillo JA, Chatham WW, et al. Interleukin-1 receptor blockade is associated with reduced
mortality in sepsis patients with features of macrophage activation syndrome: reanalysis of a prior Phase III
trial. Crit Care Med. 2016;44(2):275-281. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26584195.
2. Monteagudo LA, Boothby A, Gertner E. Continuous intravenous anakinra infusion to calm the cytokine storm
in macrophage activation syndrome. ACR Open Rheumatol. 2020;2(5):276-282. Available at:
3. Writing Committee for the REMAP-CAP Investigators. Long-term (180-day) outcomes in critically ill patients
with COVID-19 in the REMAP-CAP randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;329(1):39-51. Available at:
4. Anakinra (Kineret) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2020. Available at: https://www.
5. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Kineret.
2022. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/163075/download.
6. Canakinumab (Ilaris) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2020. Available at: https://www.
7. Kyriazopoulou E, Poulakou G, Milionis H, et al. Early treatment of COVID-19 with anakinra guided by
soluble urokinase plasminogen receptor plasma levels: a double-blind, randomized controlled Phase 3 trial.
Nat Med. 2021;27(10):1752-1760. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34480127.
9. CORIMUNO-19 Collaborative Group. Effect of anakinra versus usual care in adults in hospital with

COVID-19 and mild-to-moderate pneumonia (CORIMUNO-ANA-1): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet
Respir Med. 2021;9(3):295-304. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33493450.
10. Declercq J, Van Damme KFA, De Leeuw E, et al. Effect of anti-interleukin drugs in patients with COVID-19
and signs of cytokine release syndrome (COV-AID): a factorial, randomised, controlled trial. Lancet Respir
11. Fanlo P, Gracia-Tello BDC, Fonseca Aizpuru E, et al. Efficacy and safety of anakinra plus standard of care for
patients with severe COVID-19: a randomized Phase 2/3 clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(4):e237243.
12. Davidson M, Menon S, Chaimani A, et al. Interleukin-1 blocking agents for treating COVID-19. Cochrane
Database Syst Rev. 2022;1(1):CD015308. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35080773.
13. Dahms K, Mikolajewska A, Ansems K, et al. Anakinra for the treatment of COVID-19 patients: a systematic
review and meta-analysis. Eur J Med Res. 2023;28(1):100. Available at:
14. Caricchio R, Abbate A, Gordeev I, et al. Effect of canakinumab vs placebo on survival without invasive
mechanical ventilation in patients hospitalized with severe COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA.
15. Hepprich M, Mudry JM, Gregoriano C, et al. Canakinumab in patients with COVID-19 and type 2 diabetes
- a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. EClinicalMedicine. 2022;53:101649.
16. Fisher CJ Jr, Dhainaut JF, Opal SM, et al. Recombinant human interleukin 1 receptor antagonist in the
treatment of patients with sepsis syndrome. Results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
Phase III rhIL-1ra Sepsis Syndrome Study Group. JAMA. 1994;271(23):1836-1843. Available at:
17. Fisher CJ Jr, Slotman GJ, Opal SM, et al. Initial evaluation of human recombinant interleukin-1 receptor
antagonist in the treatment of sepsis syndrome: a randomized, open-label, placebo-controlled multicenter trial.
Crit Care Med. 1994;22(1):12-21. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8124953.
18. Opal SM, Fisher CJ Jr, Dhainaut JF, et al. Confirmatory interleukin-1 receptor antagonist trial in severe sepsis:
a Phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. The Interleukin-1 Receptor
Antagonist Sepsis Investigator Group. Crit Care Med. 1997;25(7):1115-1124. Available at:
19. Winthrop KL, Mariette X, Silva JT, et al. ESCMID Study Group for Infections in Compromised Hosts
(ESGICH) Consensus Document on the safety of targeted and biological therapies: an infectious diseases
perspective (soluble immune effector molecules [II]: agents targeting interleukins, immunoglobulins and
complement factors). Clin Microbiol Infect. 2018;24 Suppl 2:S21-S40. Available at:
20. Sammaritano LR, Bermas BL, Chakravarty EE, et al. 2020 American College of Rheumatology guideline
for the management of reproductive health in rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases. Arthritis Rheumatol.
21. Flint J, Panchal S, Hurrell A, et al. BSR and BHPR guideline on prescribing drugs in pregnancy and
breastfeeding-part II: analgesics and other drugs used in rheumatology practice. Rheumatology (Oxford).
22. Stubbs LA, Szafron V, Forbes LR, et al. Severe pediatric COVID-19 pneumonia treated with adjuvant
anakinra. Hosp Pediatr. 2022;12(5):e162-e170. Available at:
23. Calò Carducci FI, De Ioris MA, Agrati C, et al. Hyperinflammation in two severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus 2-infected adolescents successfully treated with the interleukin-1 inhibitor
anakinra and glucocorticoids. Front Pediatr. 2020;8:576912. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/33330276.

24. Pouletty M, Borocco C, Ouldali N, et al. Paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated
with SARS-CoV-2 mimicking Kawasaki disease (Kawa-COVID-19): a multicentre cohort. Ann Rheum Dis.
27. Çaǧlayan Ş, Sönmez HE, Yener GO, et al. Anakinra treatment in multisystemic inflammatory syndrome in
children (MIS-C) associated with COVID-19. Front Pediatr. 2022;10:942455. Available at:
28. Brisca G, Consolaro A, Caorsi R, et al. Timely recognition and early multi-step antinflammatory therapy may
prevent ICU admission of patients with MIS-C: proposal for a severity score. Front Pediatr. 2021;9:783745.
29. Chang JC, Young CC, Muscal E, et al. Variation in early anakinra use and short-term outcomes in multisystem
inflammatory syndrome in children. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2023;75(8):1466-1476. Available at:
30. Dove ML, Jaggi P, Kelleman M, et al. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children: survey of protocols
for early hospital evaluation and management. J Pediatr. 2021;229:33-40. Available at:
31. Henderson LA, Canna SW, Friedman KG, et al. American College of Rheumatology clinical guidance for
multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children associated with SARS-CoV-2 and hyperinflammation in
pediatric COVID-19: version 3. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2022;74(4):e1-e20. Available at:
32. Harwood R, Allin B, Jones CE, et al. A national consensus management pathway for paediatric inflammatory
multisystem syndrome temporally associated with COVID-19 (PIMS-TS): results of a national Delphi
process. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2021;5(2):133-141. Available at:
33. Akinosoglou K, Kotsaki A, Gounaridi IM, et al. Efficacy and safety of early soluble urokinase plasminogen
receptor plasma-guided anakinra treatment of COVID-19 pneumonia: a subgroup analysis of the
SAVE-MORE randomised trial. EClinicalMedicine. 2023;56:101785. Available at:
34. Kyriazopoulou E, Panagopoulos P, Metallidis S, et al. An open label trial of anakinra to prevent respiratory
failure in COVID-19. Elife. 2021;10:e66125. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33682678.
35. Aouba A, Baldolli A, Geffray L, et al. Targeting the inflammatory cascade with anakinra in moderate to severe
COVID-19 pneumonia: case series. Ann Rheum Dis. 2020;79(10):1381-1382. Available at:
36. Cavalli G, De Luca G, Campochiaro C, et al. Interleukin-1 blockade with high-dose anakinra in patients with
COVID-19, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and hyperinflammation: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet
Rheumatol. 2020;2(6):e325-e331. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32501454.
37. Huet T, Beaussier H, Voisin O, et al. Anakinra for severe forms of COVID-19: a cohort study. Lancet
Rheumatol. 2020;2(7):e393-e400. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32835245.
38. Kooistra EJ, Waalders NJB, Grondman I, et al. Anakinra treatment in critically ill COVID-19 patients:
a prospective cohort study. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):688. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/33302991.

Vilobelimab
Vilobelimab is an anti-C5a monoclonal antibody. High concentrations of C5a have been reported
in patients with severe COVID-19.1 C5a activates innate immune system responses, including
inflammation and the release of histamines, and can increase damage to local tissues.2 A study in mice
demonstrated that an anti-C5a monoclonal antibody reduced immune system activation and inhibited
lung injury.3 Vilobelimab targets C5a, which is a product of complement activation, and preserves
membrane attack complex function.4 Vilobelimab is not approved by the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) for any indication.
On April 4, 2023, the FDA issued an Emergency Use Authorization for the use of vilobelimab for the
treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized adults when it is administered within 48 hours of mechanical
ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.5
Recommendation
recommend either for or against the use of vilobelimab for the treatment of COVID-19.
Rationale
Results from the PANAMO trial were used to support the FDA Emergency Use Authorization.5
However, the prespecified analysis that stratified by study site showed that 28-day mortality among
patients with COVID-19 who received vilobelimab was not significantly different from 28-day mortality
among those who received placebo. The initially proposed primary study analysis did not stratify
by study site. In the second phase of the study, the primary analysis was changed to stratify by site
based on a recommendation from the FDA. The analysis that did not stratify by site demonstrated that
all-cause mortality through Day 28 was significantly lower in the vilobelimab arm than in the placebo
arm. Concomitant use of corticosteroids (97%) and antithrombotic agents (98%) was high in this study
population. Prior or concomitant use of additional immunomodulators, such as tocilizumab (17% in
the vilobelimab arm, 16% in the placebo arm) and baricitinib (3% in each arm), was low. The Panel
determined that the results from the PANAMO trial were insufficient to recommend either for or against
the use of vilobelimab for the treatment of COVID-19.

Reports of adverse effects of vilobelimab are limited to a Phase 3 trial that included critically ill adult
patients with COVID-19 who received intravenous vilobelimab 800 mg for up to 6 doses.5,6 Common
adverse reactions (i.e., those with an incidence ≥3% and that were observed at least 1% more frequently
in the vilobelimab arm than in the placebo arm through Day 60) were pneumonia, sepsis, delirium,
pulmonary embolism, hypertension, pneumothorax, deep vein thrombosis, herpes simplex, enterococcal
infection, bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, increased hepatic enzymes, urinary tract infection,
hypoxemia, thrombocytopenia, pneumomediastinum, respiratory tract infection, supraventricular
tachycardia, constipation, and rash.
Vilobelimab is not expected to be associated with any pharmacokinetic drug-drug interactions.


There are no data on the use of vilobelimab during pregnancy, as pregnant individuals were excluded
from the PANAMO trial.
There are no data on the use of vilobelimab in children. Vilobelimab is not authorized by the FDA for
the treatment of COVID-19 in pediatric patients.
Clinical Data
The small (n = 30) Phase 2 portion of the Phase 2/3 PANAMO trial was too underpowered to draw any
conclusions about study outcomes, including physiologic improvement at 5 days and mortality.7
The Phase 3 portion of the trial was a double-blind, randomized trial performed at 46 hospitals in
Western Europe (i.e., Netherlands, France, Germany, Belgium), Brazil, Mexico, Russia, Peru, and
South Africa from October 1, 2020, to October 4, 2021.6 The trial compared the use of vilobelimab
plus standard of care with placebo plus standard of care in patients aged ≥18 years who had laboratory-
confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, were receiving mechanical ventilation (and were within 48 hours of
intubation), and had a ratio of arterial partial pressure of oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen of 60 to
200 mm Hg at study entry. Vilobelimab 800 mg was administered intravenously on Days 1, 2, 4, 8, 15,
and 22, if the patient remained hospitalized, for a maximum of 6 doses.
The primary outcome was all-cause mortality at 28 days. Secondary outcomes included all-cause
mortality at 60 days, the proportion of patients who improved on a World Health Organization 8-point
ordinal scale, the proportion of patients who developed acute kidney failure by Day 28, and the
proportion of patients free from renal replacement therapy at Day 28.
Results
• The trial enrolled 369 patients; 368 patients were included in the analysis that did not stratify by
study site (177 in the vilobelimab arm, 191 in the placebo arm).
• In the prespecified analysis that stratified by study site (n = 307), 28-day mortality was not
significantly different between the vilobelimab and placebo arms (HR 0.73; 95% CI, 0.50–1.06;
P = 0.094). The analysis for 28-day mortality that stratified by study site excluded the 61 patients
(16.6%) from sites that had no deaths or had only 1 treatment group.
• In the analysis that did not stratify by study site (n = 368), 28-day mortality was lower in the
vilobelimab arm than in the placebo arm (54 of 177 patients [31%] vs. 77 of 191 patients [44%]),
and the difference between arms was statistically significant (HR 0.67; 95% CI, 0.48–0.96; P =
0.027).
• Prespecified subgroup analyses identified a significant reduction in 28-day mortality in the
vilobelimab arm for subgroups of patients with severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (HR
0.55; 95% CI, 0.30–0.98; P = 0.044), patients with an estimated glomerular filtration rate of <60
mL/min (HR 0.55; 95% CI, 0.31–0.96; P = 0.036), and patients receiving mechanical ventilation
and additional organ support (category 7 on the World Health Organization 8-point ordinal scale;
HR 0.62; 95% CI, 0.40–0.95; P = 0.028).
• In a prespecified analysis of the Western Europe subgroup (i.e., Netherlands, France, Germany,
Belgium), the vilobelimab arm had significantly lower 28-day mortality than the placebo arm (HR
0.51; 95% CI, 0.30–0.87; P = 0.014).
• For the secondary outcomes:
• The analysis that stratified by study site showed no significant difference between the arms for

all-cause mortality at 60 days (HR 0.74; 95% CI, 0.52–1.04; P = 0.082).
• The vilobelimab arm had significantly fewer patients who required renal replacement therapy
at Day 28 than the placebo arm (age-adjusted HR 0.54; 95% CI, 0.30–0.98; P = 0.042).
Limitations
• The results for the study’s site-stratified, prespecified analysis were not significant.
• The analysis for 28-day mortality that stratified by study site excluded the 61 patients (16.6%)
from sites that had no deaths or had only 1 treatment group.
• Very few patients received a second immunomodulator (tocilizumab or baricitinib), which makes
the study results difficult to apply to current practice.
• Compared to other studies that have evaluated the use of immunomodulators for the treatment of
COVID-19, Phase 3 of the PANAMO trial had a relatively small sample size.
References
1. Cugno M, Meroni PL, Gualtierotti R, et al. Complement activation in patients with COVID-19: a novel
therapeutic target. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;146(1):215-217. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/32417135.
2. Manthey HD, Woodruff TM, Taylor SM, Monk PN. Complement component 5a (C5a). Int J Biochem Cell
Biol. 2009;41(11):2114-2117. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19464229.
3. Carvelli J, Demaria O, Vély F, et al. Association of COVID-19 inflammation with activation of the
C5a-C5aR1 axis. Nature. 2020;588(7836):146-150. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32726800.
4. Chouaki Benmansour N, Carvelli J, Vivier E. Complement cascade in severe forms of COVID-19: recent
advances in therapy. Eur J Immunol. 2021;51(7):1652-1659. Available at:
5. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Gohibic.
2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/166824/download.
6. Vlaar APJ, Witzenrath M, van Paassen P, et al. Anti-C5a antibody (vilobelimab) therapy for critically ill,
invasively mechanically ventilated patients with COVID-19 (PANAMO): a multicentre, double-blind,
randomised, placebo-controlled, Phase 3 trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2022;10(12):1137-1146. Available at:
7. Vlaar APJ, de Bruin S, Busch M, et al. Anti-C5a antibody IFX-1 (vilobelimab) treatment versus best
supportive care for patients with severe COVID-19 (PANAMO): an exploratory, open-label, Phase 2
randomised controlled trial. Lancet Rheumatol. 2020;2(12):e764-e773. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/33015643.

Table 5e. Characteristics of Immunomodulators
• The information in this table is derived from data on the use of these drugs for FDA-approved indications or from clinical trials that
evaluated their use in patients with COVID-19.
• For dose modifications for patients with organ failure or those who require extracorporeal devices, please refer to product labels or EUAs,
when available.
• There are currently not enough data to determine whether certain medications can be safely coadministered with therapies for the treatment
of COVID-19. When using concomitant medications with similar toxicity profiles, consider performing additional safety monitoring.
• The potential additive, antagonistic, or synergistic effects and the safety of using certain combination therapies for the treatment of
COVID-19 are unknown. Clinicians are encouraged to report AEs to the FDA MedWatch program.
• For drug-drug interaction information, please refer to product labels and visit the Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website.
• For the Panel’s recommendations on using the drugs listed in this table, please refer to the drug-specific sections of the Guidelines;
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19; Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19;
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19; and Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics.

Corticosteroid (Systemic)
Recommended by the Panel for the treatment of COVID-19 in certain hospitalized patients.
Dexamethasone Dose for Adults With • Hyperglycemia • Blood glucose • Moderate CYP3A4 • If DEX is not available, an
COVID-19 • Secondary infections • BP inducer alternative corticosteroid
• DEX 6 mg IV or PO once daily • Reactivation of latent • CYP3A4 substrate (e.g., prednisone,
• Signs and methylprednisolone,
for up to 10 days or until infections (e.g., HBV, HSV, symptoms of
hospital discharge, whichever hydrocortisone) can be used.
strongyloidiasis, TB) new infection
comes first1 • For these drugs, the total
• Psychiatric disturbances daily dose equivalencies to
• Avascular necrosis DEX 6 mg (IV or PO) are:
• Adrenal insufficiency • Prednisone 40 mg
• Increased BP • Methylprednisolone 32 mg
• Peripheral edema • Hydrocortisone 160 mg
• Myopathy (particularly if
used with NMBAs)

Monitoring Drug-Drug
Parameters Interaction Potential
Janus Kinase Inhibitors
Baricitinib FDA-Approved Doses for • Lymphoma and other • CBC with • Dose modification • See the FDA label2 and EUA3 for
COVID-19 in Adults Aged ≥18 malignancies differential recommended when dosing guidance in patients with:
Years, per eGFR2 • Thrombotic events • Renal function coadministering BAR • ALC <200 cells/µL
≥60 mL/min/1.73 m2 (e.g., PE, DVT, arterial with a strong OAT3
• Liver enzymes inhibitor. • ANC <500 cells/µL
• BAR 4 mg PO once daily for 14 thrombosis)
• Signs and • If increases in ALT or AST are
days or until hospital discharge, • GI perforation symptoms of observed and DILI is suspected,
whichever comes first • Treatment-related new infections interrupt BAR treatment until the
30 to <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 changes in lymphocytes, diagnosis of DILI is excluded.
neutrophils, Hgb, liver
• BAR 2 mg PO once daily for 14 • BAR tablets can be taken PO or
enzymes
days or until hospital discharge, crushed, dispersed in water, and
whichever comes first • HSV reactivation given via gastrostomy tube.2
15 to <30 mL/min/1.73 m2 • Herpes zoster Availability
• BAR 1 mg PO once daily for 14 • Secondary infections • BAR is approved by the FDA for
days or until hospital discharge, • Serious cardiac-related the treatment of COVID-19 in
whichever comes first events (e.g., MI, stroke) adults aged ≥18 years.2
<15 mL/min/1.73 m2 • BAR is available through an FDA
EUA for children aged 2–17
• Not recommended
years who require supplemental
FDA EUA Dose for COVID-19 in oxygen, NIV, MV, or ECMO.3
Children Aged 9–17 Years3
• Same as adults
FDA EUA Doses for COVID-19
in Children Aged 2 to <9 Years,
per eGFR3
≥60 mL/min/1.73 m2
• BAR 2 mg PO once daily for 14
days or until hospital discharge,
whichever comes first
<30 mL/min/1.73 m2
• Not recommended

Janus Kinase Inhibitors, continued
Tofacitinib Dose for COVID-19 in Clinical • Thrombotic events (e.g., PE, • CBC with • Requires dose • Avoid use in patients with
Trials DVT, arterial thrombosis) differential modification when ALC <500 cells/µL, ANC
• Tofacitinib 10 mg PO twice • Anemia • Liver enzymes administered with <1,000 cells/µL, or Hgb <9
daily for up to 14 days or until strong CYP3A4 g/dL.
• Secondary infections • Signs and inhibitors or when
hospital discharge, whichever symptoms of • May require dose
comes first4 • GI perforation used with a moderate modification in patients with
new infections CYP3A4 inhibitor that
• Diarrhea moderate to severe renal
is coadministered with impairment or moderate
• Headache
a strong CYP2C19 hepatic impairment
• Herpes zoster inhibitor
• Lipid elevations • Coadministration
• Liver enzyme elevations with strong CYP3A4
• Lymphoma and other inducers is not
malignancies recommended.
• Serious cardiac-related
events (e.g., MI, stroke)
Interleukin-6 Inhibitors (Anti-Interleukin-6 Receptor Monoclonal Antibodies)
Sarilumab Dose for COVID-19 in Clinical • Neutropenia • HSRs • Elevated IL-6 may • Sarilumab is not
Trials • Thrombocytopenia • Infusion-related downregulate CYP recommended in patients
• 1 dose of sarilumab 400 mg by • GI perforation reactions enzymes; thus, use of with ALT or AST >1.5
IV infusion over 1 hour5,6 sarilumab may lead to times the upper limit of the
• HSRs • CBC with increased metabolism reference range, ANC <2,000
differential of coadministered cells/µL, or PLT <150,000
• Liver enzyme elevations
• Liver enzymes drugs that are CYP cells/µL.7
• HBV reactivation
substrates.
• Infusion-related reactions Availability
• The effects of
• The IV formulation of
sarilumab on CYP
sarilumab is not approved by
enzymes may persist
the FDA, but in clinical trials,
for weeks after the
a single SUBQ dose (using
drug is stopped.
the prefilled syringes, not the
prefilled pen) of sarilumab 400
mg was reconstituted in 100
cc 0.9% NaCl and given as an
IV infusion over 1 hour.6,8

Interleukin-6 Inhibitors (Anti-Interleukin-6 Receptor Monoclonal Antibodies), continued
• IV infusion of sarilumab
should occur within 4 hours
of its preparation; it can be
stored at room temperature
until administered.
Tocilizumab FDA-Approved Dose for • HSRs • HSRs • Inhibition of IL-6 may lead • Tocilizumab is not
COVID-19 in Hospitalized • Infusion-related reactions • Infusion-related to increased metabolism of recommended in patients
Adults reactions coadministered drugs that are with ALT or AST >10
• GI perforation CYP450 substrates. times the upper limit of
• 1 dose of tocilizumab 8 • CBC with
mg/kg actual body weight • Hepatotoxicity • The effects of tocilizumab the reference range, ANC
differential <1,000 cells/µL, or PLT
(up to 800 mg) by IV • Treatment-related on CYP enzymes may persist
infusion over 1 hour changes on laboratory • Liver enzymes for weeks after the drug is <50,000 cells/µL.9
tests for neutrophils, stopped. • SUBQ formulation of
FDA EUA Doses for platelets, lipids, and liver tocilizumab is not intended
COVID-19 in Hospitalized enzymes for IV administration.
Children
• HBV reactivation Availability
Body Weight ≥30 kg
• Secondary infections • IV tocilizumab is approved
• Tocilizumab 8 mg/kg by IV
infusion over 1 hour • Cases of disseminated by the FDA for the treatment
strongyloidiasis have of COVID-19 in hospitalized
Body Weight <30 kg been reported in adults aged 18 years.10
• Tocilizumab 12 mg/kg by patients with COVID-19 • Tocilizumab is available
IV infusion over 1 hour during treatment through an FDA EUA for the
with tocilizumab and treatment of COVID-19 in
For All Doses
corticosteroids. certain hospitalized children
• If clinical signs or aged 2–17 years.9
symptoms worsen or do
not improve following
the first IV infusion, 1
additional dose may be
administered at least 8
hours after the first dose.

Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte-Associated Antigen 4 Agonist
Abatacept Dose for COVID-19 in • HSRs, including • HSRs • Drug-drug interactions • The IV formulation of
Clinical Trials anaphylaxis • Infusion-related are unlikely between abatacept includes
• 1 dose of abatacept 10 mg/ • Infusion-related reactions reactions abatacept and maltose, which may give
kg actual body weight (up medications that falsely elevated blood
• HBV reactivation • CBC with differential are CYP substrates, glucose readings with
to 1,000 mg) by IV infusion
over 30 minutes 11 • Secondary infections • Electrolytes inhibitors, or inducers. certain blood glucose
• Patients with COPD may • Renal function monitors (e.g., GDH-
develop more frequent PQQ–based monitoring
respiratory AEs. systems) on the day of
infusion.
• Headache
• In the ACTIV-1 trial, 1
• Upper respiratory
case of anaphylaxis and 2
infection, nasopharyngitis
infusion-related reactions
• Nausea were reported among
• Anemia abatacept recipients.11
• HTN Availability
• Decrease in CD4 count • The IV formulation of
• Hypermagnesemia abatacept is commercially
available.
• Acute kidney injury12
Tumor Necrosis Factor–Alpha Inhibitor
Infliximab Dose for COVID-19 in • HSRs, including • HSRs • Inhibition of cytokine Availability
Clinical Trials anaphylaxis • Infusion-related activity may lead to • Infliximab is available as
• 1 dose of infliximab 5 mg/ • Infusion-related reactions reactions increased metabolism an originator biologic or a
kg actual body weight by IV • The following AEs are of coadministered biosimilar.
• CBC with differential drugs that are CYP450
infusion over 2 hours 11
associated with chronic • PLT substrates.
use of infliximab:
• Liver enzymes
• Hepatotoxicity
• If infliximab is
• Cytopenia (e.g., administered to
leukopenia, neutropenia, patients with heart
thrombocytopenia, failure, they should be
pancytopenia closely monitored.

Tumor Necrosis Factor–Alpha Inhibitor, continued
• HBV reactivation
• Secondary infections (e.g.,
invasive fungal infections,
reactivation of latent TB)
• Heart failure
• CVA, MI, hypotension,
hypertension, arrhythmias
• Transient vision loss
• Demyelinating disease
• Lupus-like syndrome
• Headache
• Abdominal pain13
Anti-C5a Monoclonal Antibody
Received an FDA EUA for the treatment of COVID-19 when it is administered within 48 hours of MV or ECMO. There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to
recommend either for or against its use..
Vilobelimab FDA EUA Dose for COVID-19 in • Secondary infections • Signs and • None expected Availability
Hospitalized Adults Receiving • Infusion-related reactions symptoms of new • Vilobelimab is not
MV or ECMO infections approved by the FDA,
• Delirium
• Vilobelimab 800 mg by IV • Infusion-related but it is commercially
infusion after dilution, up to 6 • PE reactions available for use in
doses; start treatment within • HTN • CBC with hospitalized adults with
48 hours of intubation (Day • Pneumothorax differential COVID-19, as authorized
1) followed by administration by the EUA.14
• DVT • Liver enzymes
on Days 2, 4, 8, 15, and 22
if patient is still hospitalized • Liver enzyme elevations
(even if discharged from ICU) • Hypoxemia
• Thrombocytopenia
• Pneumomediastinum
• Supraventricular tachycardia
• Constipation
• Rash

Anakinra: Received an FDA EUA for the treatment of COVID-19 in certain hospitalized adults. There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or
against its use.
Canakinumab: The Panel recommends against the use of canakinumab for the treatment of COVID-19, except in a clinical trial.
Anakinra FDA EUA Dose for COVID-19 in • Neutropenia, • CBC with • Use with TNF- • Contraindicated in patients
Hospitalized Adults Aged ≥18 particularly when used differential; assess blocking agents is not with known hypersensitivity
Years concomitantly with other neutrophils before recommended due to to proteins derived from
• Anakinra 100 mg SUBQ once agents that can cause starting treatment potential increased risk of Escherichia coli, anakinra,
daily for 10 days neutropenia and during infection. or any component of the
• HSRs, including therapy. product15
Dose for Patients With CrCl
anaphylaxis and • BMP
<30 mL/min
angioedema • Liver enzymes
• Anakinra 100 mg SUBQ every
• Secondary infections • Renal function
other day for 5 total doses
over 10 days15 • Injection site reactions
• Hyperkalemia
• Hypernatremia
• Rash
Canakinumab Dose for COVID-19 in Clinical • HSRs • HSRs • Binding of canakinumab Availability
Trials • Neutropenia • CBC with to IL-1 may increase • The IV formulation of
• Canakinumab 450–750 mg differential formation of CYP canakinumab is not
• Nasopharyngitis enzymes and alter
(based on body weight) by IV • Liver enzymes approved by the FDA for use
infusion over 2 hours16,17 • Diarrhea metabolism of drugs that in the United States.18
• Respiratory tract are CYP substrates.
FDA-Approved Dose for infections • Use with TNF-
Systemic JIA
• Bronchitis blocking agents is not
• Canakinumab 4 mg/kg (up recommended due to
to 300 mg) SUBQ every 4 • Gastroenteritis
potential increased risk of
weeks18 • Pharyngitis infection.
• Musculoskeletal pain
• Vertigo
• Abdominal pain
• Injection site reactions

Corticosteroids (Inhaled)
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of inhaled corticosteroids for the treatment of COVID-19.
Budesonide Dose for COVID-19 in • Secondary infections • Signs of AEs • CYP3A4 substrate • No comments
(Inhaled) Clinical Trials • Oral thrush involving the oral • Do not use with strong
• Budesonide 800 µg oral mucosa or throat, CYP3A4 inhibitors.
• Systemic AEs are not including thrush
inhalation twice daily until common, but they may
symptom resolution or for occur when budesonide • Signs of systemic
up to 14 days19,20 is coadministered with a corticosteroid
strong CYP3A4 inhibitor. effects (e.g., adrenal
suppression)
Ciclesonide Dose for COVID-19 in • Secondary infections • Signs of AEs • CYP3A4 substrate • No comments
(Inhaled) Clinical Trials • Oral thrush involving the oral • Strong CYP3A4 inhibitors
• Ciclesonide 160 µg as 2 mucosa or throat, are expected to have
• Systemic AEs (less including thrush
MDI inhalations twice daily common) less effect on ciclesonide
for 30 days21 • Signs of systemic exposure than on
corticosteroid budesonide or fluticasone
effects (e.g., adrenal exposure.
suppression)
Fluticasone Dose for COVID-19 in • Secondary infections • Signs of AEs • CYP3A4 substrate • No comments
(Inhaled) Clinical Trials • Oral thrush involving the oral • Do not use with strong
• Fluticasone 200 µg as 1 mucosa or throat, CYP3A4 inhibitors.
• Systemic AEs are not including thrush
MDI inhalation once daily common, but they may
for 14 days22 occur when fluticasone • Signs of systemic
is coadministered with a corticosteroid
strong CYP3A4 inhibitor. effects (e.g., adrenal
suppression)
Key: AE = adverse event; ALC = absolute lymphocyte count; ALT = alanine transaminase; ANC = absolute neutrophil count; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; BAR =
baricitinib; BMP = basic metabolic panel; BP = blood pressure; CBC = complete blood count; CD4 = CD4 T lymphocyte; COPD = chronic obstructive pulmonary disease;
CrCl = creatinine clearance; CVA = cerebral vascular accident; CYP = cytochrome P450; DEX = dexamethasone; DILI = drug-induced liver injury; DVT = deep vein
thrombosis; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; EUA = Emergency Use Authorization; FDA = Food and Drug
Administration; GDH-PQQ = glucose dehydrogenase pyrroloquinoline quinone; GI = gastrointestinal; HBV = hepatitis B virus; Hgb = hemoglobin; HSR = hypersensitivity
reaction; HSV = herpes simplex virus; HTN = hypertension; ICU = intensive care unit; IL = interleukin; IV = intravenous; JIA = juvenile idiopathic arthritis; MDI =
metered dose inhaler; MI = myocardial infarction; MV = mechanical ventilation; NaCl = sodium chloride; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; NMBA = neuromuscular blocking
agent; OAT = organic anion transporter; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PE = pulmonary embolism; PLT = platelet count; PO = oral; SUBQ =
subcutaneous; TB = tuberculosis; TNF = tumor necrosis factor

References
1. Randomised Evaluation of COVID-19 Therapy (RECOVERY). Low-cost dexamethasone reduces death by up to one third in hospitalised patients with
severe respiratory complications of COVID-19. 2020. Available at: https://www.recoverytrial.net/news/low-cost-dexamethasone-reduces-death-by-up-
to-one-third-in-hospitalised-patients-with-severe-respiratory-complications-of-covid-19. Accessed January 23, 2024.
2. Baricitinib (Olumiant) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2022. Available at:
3. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) of baricitinib. 2022. Available at:
4. Guimarães PO, Quirk D, Furtado RH, et al. Tofacitinib in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(5):406-415.
5. REMAP-CAP Investigators. Effectiveness of tocilizumab, sarilumab, and anakinra for critically ill patients with COVID-19: the REMAP-CAP
COVID-19 immune modulation therapy domain randomized clinical trial. medRxiv. 2021;Preprint. Available at:
6. Sivapalasingam S, Lederer DJ, Bhore R, et al. Efficacy and safety of sarilumab in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial.
Clin Infect Dis. 2022;75(1):e380-e388. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35219277.
7. Sarilumab (Kevzara) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2018. Available at:
8. REMAP-CAP Investigators. Interleukin-6 receptor antagonists in critically ill patients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(16):1491-1502.
9. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Actemra (tocilizumab). 2021. Available at:
10. Tocilizumab (Actemra) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2022. Available at:
11. O’Halloran JA, Ko ER, Anstrom KJ, et al. Abatacept, cenicriviroc, or infliximab for treatment of adults hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia: a
randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;330(4):328-339. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37428480.
12. Abatacept (Orencia) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2021. Available at:
13. Infliximab (Remicade) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2021. Available at:
14. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Gohibic. 2023. Available at:
15. Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Kineret. 2022. Available at:

16. Caricchio R, Abbate A, Gordeev I, et al. Effect of canakinumab vs placebo on survival without invasive mechanical ventilation in patients hospitalized
with severe COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021;326(3):230-239. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34283183.
17. Hepprich M, Mudry JM, Gregoriano C, et al. Canakinumab in patients with COVID-19 and type 2 diabetes - a multicentre, randomised, double-blind,
placebo-controlled trial. EClinicalMedicine. 2022;53:101649. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36128334.
18. Canakinumab (Ilaris) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2020. Available at:
19. Ramakrishnan S, Nicolau DV Jr, Langford B, et al. Inhaled budesonide in the treatment of early COVID-19 (STOIC): a Phase 2, open-label,
randomised controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(7):763-772. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33844996.
20. Yu LM, Bafadhel M, Dorward J, et al. Inhaled budesonide for COVID-19 in people at high risk of complications in the community in the UK
(PRINCIPLE): a randomised, controlled, open-label, adaptive platform trial. Lancet. 2021;398(10303):843-855. Available at:
21. Clemency BM, Varughese R, Gonzalez-Rojas Y, et al. Efficacy of inhaled ciclesonide for outpatient treatment of adolescents and adults with
symptomatic COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2022;182(1):42-49. Available at:
22. Boulware DR, Lindsell CJ, Stewart TG, et al. Inhaled fluticasone furoate for outpatient treatment of COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(12):1085-

Antithrombotic Therapy in Patients With
COVID-19
Chronic Anticoagulant and Antiplatelet Therapy
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends that patients with COVID-19 who are receiving
anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapies for underlying conditions continue these medications unless significant bleeding
develops or other contraindications are present (AIII).
• Before prescribing ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) to patients who are receiving anticoagulant or antiplatelet
therapy, clinicians should carefully review the patient's concomitant medications to evaluate potential drug-drug
interactions. It may be necessary to modify the dosage of the antithrombotic agent, switch to another antithrombotic
agent, or prescribe an alternative COVID-19 therapy. See Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted
Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Concomitant Medications for more information.
Screening and Evaluation for Venous Thromboembolism
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against routine screening for venous
thromboembolism (VTE) in patients with COVID-19 who do not have signs or symptoms of VTE, regardless of the status
of their coagulation markers.
• For hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who experience rapid deterioration of pulmonary, cardiac, or neurological
function or sudden, localized loss of peripheral perfusion, the Panel recommends evaluating the patients for
thromboembolic disease (AIII).
Antithrombotic Therapy for Nonhospitalized Adults Without Evidence of Venous Thromboembolism
• In nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19, the Panel recommends against the use of anticoagulant and antiplatelet
therapy (i.e., aspirin, P2Y12 inhibitors) for the prevention of VTE or arterial thrombosis, except in a clinical trial (AIIa).
This recommendation does not apply to patients with other indications for antithrombotic therapy.
Antithrombotic Therapy for Hospitalized, Nonpregnant Adults Without Evidence of Venous Thromboembolism
• The Panel recommends against using anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapy to prevent arterial thrombosis outside of
the usual standard of care for patients without COVID-19 (AIII).
• In hospitalized patients, low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) or unfractionated heparin (UFH) is preferred over
oral anticoagulants (AIII). Because these types of heparin have shorter half-lives, their effects can be reversed quickly.
They can also be administered intravenously or subcutaneously, and they have fewer drug-drug interactions than oral
anticoagulants.
• When heparin is used, LMWH is preferred over UFH.
For adults who require low-flow oxygen and do not require intensive care unit (ICU)-level care:
• The Panel recommends the use of a therapeutic dose of heparin for patients with D-dimer levels above the upper
limit of normal who require low-flow oxygen and who do not have an increased risk of bleeding (CIIa).
• Contraindications for the use of therapeutic anticoagulation in patients with COVID-19 include a platelet count
<50,000 cells/µL, hemoglobin <8 g/dL, the need for dual antiplatelet therapy, bleeding within the past 30 days
that required an emergency department visit or hospitalization, a history of a bleeding disorder, or an inherited or
active acquired bleeding disorder. This list is based on the exclusion criteria from clinical trials; patients with these
conditions have an increased risk of bleeding
• In patients without VTE who have started treatment with therapeutic doses of heparin, treatment should continue until 1
of the following occurs, whichever comes first:
• The patient receives 14 days of treatment, at which time, they should be switched to prophylactic anticoagulation
until hospital discharge;
• The patient is transferred to the ICU, and prophylactic anticoagulation should be administered for the remainder of
the hospitalization period; or

• The patient is discharged from the hospital.
• The Panel recommends the use of a prophylactic dose of heparin for patients who do not meet the criteria
for receiving therapeutic heparin or are not receiving a therapeutic dose of heparin for other reasons, unless a
contraindication exists (AI).
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of a therapeutic dose of
apixaban for VTE prophylaxis or the prevention of COVID-19 progression.
• The Panel recommends against the use of a therapeutic dose of rivaroxaban for VTE prophylaxis or the prevention
of COVID-19 progression (AIIa).
• The Panel recommends against the use of antiplatelet therapy to prevent COVID-19 progression or death in
noncritically ill patients (BIIa).
For adults who require ICU-level care, including those receiving high-flow oxygen:
• The Panel recommends using a prophylactic dose of heparin as VTE prophylaxis, unless a contraindication exists (AI).
• The Panel recommends against the use of a therapeutic dose of anticoagulation for VTE prophylaxis (BI).
• For patients who start on a therapeutic dose of heparin in a non-ICU setting due to COVID-19 and then transfer to the
ICU, the Panel recommends switching from the therapeutic dose to a prophylactic dose of heparin, unless VTE is
confirmed (BIII).
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of an intermediate dose of
anticoagulation for VTE prophylaxis.
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of antiplatelet therapy in
critically ill patients with COVID-19.
Antithrombotic Therapy for Patients Discharged From the Hospital
• The Panel recommends against routinely continuing VTE prophylaxis in patients with COVID-19 after hospital
discharge unless they have another indication for anticoagulation (AIIa).
Pregnant and Lactating Patients
• The Panel recommends that pregnant patients who are receiving anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapies for underlying
conditions continue these medications after they receive a diagnosis of COVID-19 (AIII).
• The Panel recommends the use of a prophylactic dose of anticoagulation for pregnant patients who are hospitalized for
manifestations of COVID-19, unless a contraindication exists (BIII).
• Because pregnant patients were not included in most of the clinical trials that evaluated the use of therapeutic
anticoagulation in people with COVID-19, there is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against
the use of therapeutic anticoagulation in pregnant patients with COVID-19 who do not have evidence of VTE.
• As in nonpregnant patients with COVID-19, VTE prophylaxis after hospital discharge is not routinely recommended
for pregnant patients (BIII). Clinicians should consider an individual patient's VTE risk factors when making decisions
about continuing VTE prophylaxis after discharge in pregnant or postpartum patients.
• The use of anticoagulant therapy during labor and delivery requires specialized care and planning. The management
of anticoagulant therapy in pregnant patients with COVID-19 should be similar to the management used for pregnant
patients with other conditions (AIII).
• UFH, LMWH, and warfarin do not accumulate in breast milk and do not induce an anticoagulant effect in the newborn;
therefore, they can be used by breastfeeding individuals who require VTE prophylaxis or treatment (AIII).
Children With COVID-19 or MIS-C
• For the Panel’s recommendations on the use of antithrombotic therapy in children, see Therapeutic Management
of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19 and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a
Discussion on MIS-A.

Association Between COVID-19 and Thromboembolism
COVID-19 has been associated with inflammation and a prothrombotic state, with increases in levels
of fibrin, fibrin degradation products, fibrinogen, and D-dimer.1,2 In some studies, elevations in these
markers have been associated with worse clinical outcomes.3,4
Studies have reported varying incidences of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in patients with
COVID-19. A meta-analysis of studies of hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who received VTE
prophylaxis found an overall VTE prevalence of 14.1% (95% CI, 11.6–16.9).5 The VTE prevalence
was higher in studies that used ultrasound screening (40.3%; 95% CI, 27.0–54.3) than in studies that
did not (9.5%; 95% CI, 7.5–11.7). In randomized controlled trials conducted prior to the pandemic, the
incidence of VTE in hospitalized patients who received VTE prophylaxis ranged from 0.3% to 1% for
symptomatic VTE and from 2.8% to 5.6% for VTE overall.6-8 In randomized trials, the VTE incidence
among critically ill patients without COVID-19 who received a prophylactic dose of anticoagulants
ranged from 5% to 16%, and a prospective cohort study of critically ill patients with sepsis reported a
VTE incidence of 37%.9-12
Guidelines for the use of antithrombotic therapy in patients with COVID-19 have been released by
multiple organizations, including the American College of Chest Physicians,13 the American Society of
Hematology,14 the Anticoagulation Forum,15 the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis,16
the Italian Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis,17 the National Institute for Health and Care
Excellence,18 and the Royal College of Physicians.19 The American College of Chest Physicians also has
guidance on the use of antithrombotic therapy to treat arterial thrombosis in people with COVID-19.20
The guidelines referenced above agree that hospitalized, nonpregnant patients with COVID-19 should
receive, at a minimum, a prophylactic dose of anticoagulation to prevent VTE. The National Institute
for Health and Care Excellence guidelines state: “Consider a treatment dose of a low-molecular-weight
heparin (LMWH) for young people and adults with COVID-19 who need low-flow oxygen and who do
not have an increased bleeding risk.” Results from clinical trials have provided further information on
the safety and efficacy of different antithrombotic strategies for patients with COVID-19.
Chronic Anticoagulant or Antiplatelet Therapy

The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends that patients with COVID-19 who
are receiving anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapies for underlying conditions continue these medications
unless significant bleeding develops or other contraindications are present (AIII). Outpatients with
COVID-19 who are receiving warfarin and are in isolation and unable to have international normalized
ratio monitoring may be candidates for switching to direct oral anticoagulant therapy.21 Patients with
a mechanical heart valve, a ventricular assist device, valvular atrial fibrillation, or antiphospholipid
antibody syndrome and patients who are lactating should not discontinue treatment with warfarin (AIII).
Before prescribing ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) to patients who are receiving anticoagulant
or antiplatelet therapy, clinicians should carefully review the patient’s concomitant medications to
evaluate potential drug-drug interactions. It may be necessary to modify the dosage of the antithrombotic
agent, switch to another antithrombotic agent, or prescribe an alternative COVID-19 therapy. See
Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Concomitant
Medications for more information.
Screening and Evaluation for Venous Thromboembolism

VTE guidelines for patients without COVID-19 have recommended against performing routine
screening ultrasounds in critically ill patients because no study has shown that this strategy reduces

the rate of subsequent symptomatic thromboembolic complications.22 Although the incidence of
thromboembolic events, especially pulmonary embolism, can be high among hospitalized patients with
COVID-19, no published data demonstrate the clinical utility of using lower extremity ultrasounds as
routine surveillance for deep vein thrombosis in this population.
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against routine screening for
VTE in patients with COVID-19 who do not have signs or symptoms of VTE, regardless of the status of
their coagulation markers. For hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who experience rapid deterioration
of pulmonary, cardiac, or neurological function or sudden, localized loss of peripheral perfusion, the
Panel recommends evaluating the patients for thromboembolic disease (AIII).
Selection of Anticoagulant or Antiplatelet Drugs

Whenever anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapy is used, potential drug-drug interactions with other
concomitant medications must be considered. The Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website
provides a list of drug-drug interactions. In hospitalized patients, LMWH or unfractionated heparin
(UFH) is preferred over oral anticoagulants (AIII). Because these types of heparin have shorter
half-lives, their effects can be reversed quickly. They can also be administered intravenously or
subcutaneously (SUBQ), and they have fewer drug-drug interactions than oral anticoagulants.
Management of Nonhospitalized Adults

ACTIV-4b was a placebo-controlled, randomized trial that evaluated the efficacy of using aspirin or
prophylactic doses (2.5 mg) or therapeutic doses (5 mg) of apixaban in outpatients with COVID-19
aged >40 years.23 After 657 outpatients were randomized, the trial was stopped in June 2021 due to a
low event rate for the composite outcome of thromboembolic events, hospitalization, or death (1 patient
each in the placebo, aspirin, and apixaban 2.5 mg arms and 2 patients in the apixaban 5 mg arm). The
median time from randomization to receipt of treatment was 3 days, and 22 patients were hospitalized
for COVID-19 prior to initiation of the study drugs.
Two trials evaluated the use of LMWH and its impact on hospitalization and mortality in outpatients
with COVID-19. The ETHIC trial was a multicenter, open-label randomized controlled trial of
unvaccinated outpatients with COVID-19.24 Adults with at least 1 risk factor for severe disease were
randomized to receive enoxaparin 40 mg SUBQ once daily (if they weighed <100 kg) or enoxaparin
40 mg SUBQ twice daily (if they weighed >100 kg) for 21 days or standard of care. The study was
terminated early due to a low event rate and slow accrual of participants. There was no difference
between the arms in the number of patients who met the composite endpoint of all-cause mortality
or all-cause hospitalization (12 of 105 patients [11%] in the enoxaparin arm vs. 12 of 114 patients
[11%] in the standard of care arm). Four of the 12 patients in the enoxaparin arm who were admitted
to the hospital required acute medical care or intensive care unit (ICU) admission (3 patients
required mechanical ventilation or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation [ECMO]). There were no
hospitalizations in the standard of care arm. Bleeding events occurred in 2 patients who received
enoxaparin and in 1 patient who received standard of care.
The OVID trial was a multicenter, open-label randomized controlled trial of 472 outpatients with
COVID-19 aged >50 years who were randomized to receive enoxaparin 40 mg SUBQ once daily for
14 days or standard of care.25 The study was terminated after recruiting 50% of the planned number
of participants due to a low probability that enoxaparin would be superior to standard of care for the
primary outcome. There was no difference between the arms in the number of patients who met the
primary composite endpoint of all-cause hospitalization or mortality (8 of 234 patients [3%] in the
enoxaparin arm vs. 8 of 238 patients [3%] in the standard of care arm). No major bleeding events

occurred during the study.
The clinical data for these trials are summarized in Table 6a.
In nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19, the Panel recommends against the use of anticoagulant
and antiplatelet therapy (i.e., aspirin, P2Y12 inhibitors) for the prevention of VTE or arterial
thrombosis, except in a clinical trial (AIIa). This recommendation does not apply to patients with other
indications for antithrombotic therapy.
Management of Hospitalized Adults

Several studies have evaluated the risks and benefits of using prophylactic or therapeutic doses of
anticoagulants in patients with COVID-19. Observational studies and clinical trials have examined the
effects of anticoagulation on mortality, progression of COVID-19, thrombosis, and bleeding. Some
of these studies are outlined below. Observational studies are included here only when evidence from
clinical trials is not available. The clinical data for these trials are summarized in Table 6a.
Prophylactic Dose of Anticoagulation Versus No Anticoagulation

An observational study of 4,297 veterans hospitalized with COVID-19 evaluated the use of prophylactic
anticoagulation.26 A prophylactic dose of anticoagulation was administered to 3,627 patients with
COVID-19 within 24 hours of hospital admission. An inverse probability of treatment weighted
analysis showed a cumulative 30-day mortality of 14% among patients who received prophylactic
anticoagulation and 19% among patients who were not treated with anticoagulation (HR 0.73; 95%
CI, 0.66–0.81). Patients treated with the prophylactic dose did not have a significant difference in the
risk of bleeding that required transfusion when compared with patients who were not treated with
anticoagulation (HR 0.87; 95% CI, 0.71–1.05). Overall, the study demonstrated that patients with
COVID-19 may benefit from a prophylactic dose of anticoagulation.
Therapeutic Versus Prophylactic Doses of Heparin in Hospitalized Patients Who Do Not

Require Intensive Care Unit-Level Care
Four open-label randomized controlled trials (the large ATTACC/ACTIV-4a/REMAP-CAP
multiplatform trial and the FREEDOM trial, and the smaller RAPID and HEP-COVID trials) compared
therapeutic doses of heparin to prophylactic or intermediate doses of the anticoagulant in selected
hospitalized patients who did not require intensive care. The inclusion and exclusion criteria for
these studies varied, but most of the studies included patients who required supplemental oxygen and
had no risk of a major bleeding event. In the larger multiplatform trial, therapeutic doses of heparin
increased the number of organ support-free days but did not significantly affect mortality or length
of hospitalization when compared with prophylactic doses of heparin.27 In the FREEDOM trial, there
was no difference between the therapeutic and prophylactic anticoagulation arms in the occurrence
of the 30-day primary composite outcome of all-cause mortality, need for ICU-level care, systemic
thromboembolism, or ischemic stroke. In a secondary analysis, 30-day mortality was significantly lower
in patients who received therapeutic enoxaparin than in patients who received prophylactic enoxaparin.28
However, only a small proportion of patients received concomitant corticosteroids or remdesivir as
standard of care, and the trial was stopped early due to slow recruitment.
The RAPID trial enrolled patients with elevated D-dimer levels and hypoxemia.29 The patients were
randomized to receive therapeutic or prophylactic doses of heparin. There was no statistically significant
difference between the arms for the primary endpoint, which was a composite of ICU admission,
noninvasive ventilation (NIV) or mechanical ventilation, or death by Day 28. However, the therapeutic
dose of heparin reduced the risk of all-cause death, a secondary outcome.

The HEP-COVID trial enrolled patients who required supplemental oxygen and had a D-dimer value
>4 times the upper limit of normal (ULN) or a sepsis-induced coagulopathy score of ≥4.30 There were
significantly fewer occurrences of the primary endpoint of VTE, arterial thromboembolism, or all-cause
death within 32 days of randomization in the therapeutic LMWH arm than in the prophylactic LMWH
arm, but there was no difference between arms for the outcome of death within 32 days.
Given the results of the ATTACC/ACTIV-4a/REMAP-CAP, FREEDOM, RAPID, and HEP-COVID
trials, for hospitalized, nonpregnant adults with COVID-19 who do not require ICU-level care and have
no evidence of VTE:
• The Panel recommends the use of a therapeutic dose of heparin for patients with D-dimer levels
above the ULN who require low-flow oxygen and who do not have an increased risk of bleeding
(CIIa).
• Contraindications for the use of therapeutic anticoagulation in patients with COVID-19 include
a platelet count <50,000 cells/µL, hemoglobin <8 g/dL, the need for dual antiplatelet therapy,
bleeding within the past 30 days that required an emergency department visit or hospitalization,
a history of a bleeding disorder, or an inherited or active acquired bleeding disorder. This list
is based on the exclusion criteria from clinical trials; patients with these conditions have an
increased risk of bleeding.
• LMWH is preferred over UFH because of its ease of administration and because LMWH was the
predominant form of heparin used in the clinical trials for COVID-19.
• In patients without VTE who have started treatment with therapeutic doses of heparin, treatment
should continue until 1 of the following occurs, whichever comes first:
• The patient receives 14 days of treatment, at which time, they should be switched to
prophylactic anticoagulation until hospital discharge;
• The patient is transferred to the ICU, and prophylactic anticoagulation should be administered
for the remainder of the hospitalization period; or
• The patient is discharged from the hospital.
• Patients with predicted hospitalizations of <72 hours were excluded from the multiplatform
ATTACC/ACTIV-4a/REMAP-CAP trial. It is currently unknown whether the benefits of using
therapeutic doses of anticoagulation for short hospital stays outweigh the risks.
• The Panel recommends the use of a prophylactic dose of heparin for patients who do not meet
the criteria for receiving therapeutic heparin or are not receiving a therapeutic dose of heparin for
other reasons, unless a contraindication exists (AI).
Prophylactic Versus Intermediate or Therapeutic Doses of Heparin in Hospitalized Patients

Who Require Intensive Care Unit-Level Care
Several randomized controlled trials have evaluated the role of therapeutic doses of heparin in reducing
the incidence of VTE events or death in patients in the ICU setting. The clinical data for these trials are
summarized in Table 6a.
The INSPIRATION trial compared the use of an intermediate dose of enoxaparin (1 mg/kg SUBQ once
daily) to a prophylactic dose of enoxaparin (40 mg/kg SUBQ once daily) in patients with COVID-19
who were in the ICU.31 The study reported no difference between the arms in the occurrence of the
composite endpoint of adjudicated VTE, arterial thrombosis, ECMO, or all-cause mortality. Major
bleeding occurred in 2.5% of patients in the intermediate-dose anticoagulation arm and in 1.4% of
patients who received the prophylactic dose. Overall, there was no significant benefit of receiving an

intermediate dose of anticoagulation for patients with COVID-19 who were in the ICU.
The ANTICOVID trial was an open-label study of hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who required
oxygen therapy.32 Patients were randomized to receive a prophylactic dose of LMWH (n = 114), an
intermediate dose of LWMH (n = 110), or a therapeutic dose of LMWH (n = 110). Patients in the study
received either enoxaparin or tinzaparin. Patients underwent a computed tomography scan at baseline to
ensure they did not have a pulmonary embolism. The study excluded patients weighing <40 kg or >100
kg.
The primary hierarchical outcome for this study was all-cause mortality or time to clinical improvement
by Day 28. There was no difference between the arms for this outcome. The study also evaluated net
clinical outcome, which was defined as a composite of venous and arterial thrombosis, major bleeding
events (as defined by the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis), or all-cause mortality
by Day 28. A smaller percentage of patients who received the intermediate dose of anticoagulation
met the net clinical outcome criteria compared with those who received the prophylactic dose of
anticoagulation (16.4% vs. 29.8%; absolute difference -13.5%; P = 0.02). There was no statistically
significant difference in the occurrence of the net clinical outcome between the therapeutic-dose
anticoagulation arm and the prophylactic-dose or intermediate-dose arms. No difference in the
occurrence of major bleeding events was seen among the study arms.
Tinzaparin is not available in the United States. This lack of availability, combined with the
conflicting results of the INSPIRATION and ANTICOVID trials, has led the Panel to conclude that
there is insufficient evidence to recommend either for or against the use of an intermediate dose of
anticoagulation for VTE prophylaxis.
The multiplatform ATTACC/ACTIV-4a/REMAP-CAP trial compared the effectiveness of a therapeutic
dose of heparin or LMWH with usual care in reducing the number of organ support-free days among
critically ill patients with COVID-19.27 All 3 trials were stopped for futility. The doses of heparin that
were administered to patients in the usual care arm varied. The median number of organ support-free
days and likelihood of survival to hospital discharge did not differ between the arms. Major bleeding
occurred in 4% of patients who received therapeutic anticoagulation and in 2% of patients who received
usual care. Therapeutic doses of heparin showed no significant benefit in patients with COVID-19 who
were admitted to the ICU.
The COVID-PACT trial was a multicenter trial with a 2 x 2 factorial design.33 Critically ill patients with
COVID-19 were randomized to receive a therapeutic dose or a prophylactic dose of anticoagulation.
They were also randomized to receive either clopidogrel or no antiplatelet therapy. The trial was stopped
early because the decreasing number of ICU admissions for patients with COVID-19 made recruitment
difficult. There was no difference between the arms in the occurrence of the primary endpoint (a
composite of VTE or arterial thrombotic events at hospital discharge or Day 28). More moderate to
severe bleeding events occurred among patients who were treated with therapeutic anticoagulation than
among those who received prophylactic anticoagulation.
Given the results from the studies discussed above, for hospitalized, nonpregnant adults with COVID-19
who require ICU-level care and who do not have documented or suspected VTE:
contraindication exists (AI).
prophylaxis (BI).

prophylactic dose of heparin, unless VTE is confirmed (BIII).
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of an
intermediate dose of anticoagulation for VTE prophylaxis.
Apixaban or Rivaroxaban in Hospitalized Patients

The FREEDOM trial randomized patients 1:1:1 to receive a therapeutic dose of apixaban, a therapeutic
dose of enoxaparin, or a prophylactic dose of enoxaparin.28 The trial showed no difference in the
occurrence of the primary composite endpoint between the therapeutic and prophylactic anticoagulation
arms. In a secondary analysis, fewer deaths were reported at 30 days among patients who were treated
with a therapeutic dose of apixaban than among those who received prophylactic enoxaparin (5% vs.
7%; HR 0.7; 95% CI, 0.49–0.99). Only a small proportion of patients were treated with dexamethasone
or remdesivir as part of usual care; both of these drugs have been shown to have a benefit in this
population. This open-label trial was also stopped early due to slow recruitment.
The FREEDOM trial is the only study that has evaluated the use of therapeutic apixaban in patients
with COVID-19; in contrast, 4 trials have evaluated the use of therapeutic heparin. Additionally, oral
anticoagulants have the potential for drug-drug interactions and present unique challenges for managing
hemorrhages. Due to these limitations, there is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either
for or against the use of a therapeutic dose of apixaban for VTE prophylaxis or the prevention of
COVID-19 progression.
The ACTION trial randomized adults who were hospitalized with COVID-19 and elevated D-dimer
levels (defined as levels that were above the laboratory ULN) to receive rivaroxaban 20 mg once
daily for 30 days (n = 311) or usual care (n = 304).34 A heterogenous population was included; 25% of
patients did not require oxygen, 60% were treated with low-flow oxygen, and 15% needed high-flow
oxygen, NIV, or mechanical ventilation. No statistical difference was found between the arms for the
composite endpoint of time to death, hospitalization duration, or oxygen use duration (hierarchical
analysis; win ratio 0.86; 95% CI, 0.59–1.22) or for the individual components of the composite
endpoint. The probability of clinically relevant, nonmajor bleeding was greater in the rivaroxaban arm
(5% in the rivaroxaban arm vs. 1% in the usual care arm; relative risk 5.23; 95% CI, 1.54–17.77), but
for major bleeding events, the difference in probability between the arms was not significant (3% in
the rivaroxaban arm vs. 1% in the usual care arm; relative risk 2.45; 95% CI, 0.78–7.73). Given the
lack of benefit and the increased risk of bleeding events, the Panel recommends against the use of a
therapeutic dose of rivaroxaban for VTE prophylaxis or the prevention of COVID-19 progression
(AIIa).
Antiplatelet Therapy Versus Usual Care in Hospitalized Patients

The RECOVERY trial randomized hospitalized adults with COVID-19 to receive usual care plus aspirin
150 mg once daily (n = 7,351) or usual care only (n = 7,541).35 At enrollment, 38% of the patients
required NIV or mechanical ventilation. Mortality at 28 days was 17% in both arms (rate ratio 0.96; 95%
CI, 0.89–1.04). Among patients who were not receiving mechanical ventilation at baseline, there was
no difference between the arms in the proportion of patients who progressed to requiring mechanical
ventilation or who died (21% in the aspirin arm vs. 22% in the usual care arm; rate ratio 0.96; 95%
CI, 0.90–1.03). Among those treated with aspirin, the incidence of thrombotic events was lower (4.6%
vs. 5.3%; absolute difference 0.6%; SE 0.4%), and the incidence of major bleeding events was higher
(1.6% vs. 1.0%; absolute difference 0.6%; SE 0.2%). Overall, the use of aspirin was associated with an
increase in the incidence of major bleeding events and did not reduce the risk of death.

The ACTIV-4a trial compared the use of P2Y12 inhibitor therapy plus a therapeutic dose of heparin to a
therapeutic dose of heparin alone in hospitalized patients with COVID-19.36 In this study, enrollment of
noncritically ill patients was stopped early due to futility; the combination therapy did not increase the
number of organ support-free days. The limitations of this study include the open-label design, the use of
different P2Y12 inhibitors, and the small sample size.
After reviewing the results of the ACTIV-4a and RECOVERY trials, the Panel recommends against the
use of antiplatelet therapy to prevent COVID-19 progression or death in noncritically ill patients (BIIa).
The REMAP-CAP study team randomized critically ill patients with COVID-19 to receive aspirin (n
= 565), a P2Y12 inhibitor (n = 455), or no antiplatelet therapy (n = 529).37 Treatment continued for
14 days or until hospital discharge, whichever came first. The aspirin and P2Y12 inhibitor arms were
pooled for analysis because the criteria for equivalence were met. The trial was stopped early due to
futility, as the median number of organ support-free days did not differ between the pooled antiplatelet
arm and the control arm (7 days; IQR 1–16 days; 95.7% posterior probability of futility). There was no
statistically significant difference between the arms in the number of patients who survived to hospital
discharge (723 of 1,011 patients [71.5%] in the pooled antiplatelet arm vs. 354 of 521 patients [67.9%]
in the control arm; median-adjusted OR 1.27; 95% CrI, 0.99–1.62). The pooled antiplatelet arm had
improved survival by 90 days (median aHR 1.22; 95% CrI, 1.06–1.40). The use of antiplatelet therapy
was associated with an increased incidence of major bleeding (2.1% in the pooled antiplatelet arm vs.
0.4% in the control arm; aOR 2.97; 95% CrI, 1.23–8.28; adjusted absolute risk difference of 0.8%; 95%
CrI, 0.1% to 2.7%).
In the RECOVERY trial, the use of aspirin therapy was not associated with a reduction in mortality
at 28 days in the subgroups of patients who required NIV or mechanical ventilation at baseline. In
the REMAP-CAP trial, administering antiplatelet therapy to critically ill patients with COVID-19
improved 90-day survival but did not increase the number of organ support-free days. In both studies,
the use of antiplatelet therapy was associated with an increased risk of bleeding. The COVID-PACT
trial randomized 292 adult patients with COVID-19 who required ICU-level care to receive either
clopidogrel or no antiplatelet therapy.33 There was no difference between the arms in the incidence of
VTE, arterial thrombotic events, or bleeding.
Given the inconsistent results of these trials, there is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend
either for or against the use of antiplatelet therapy in critically ill patients with COVID-19. Eligible
patients should be encouraged to participate in clinical trials that are evaluating the use of antiplatelet
therapy.
The clinical data for the trials discussed above are summarized in Table 6b.
Patients Discharged From the Hospital

For patients with a high risk of VTE who do not have COVID-19, post-discharge prophylaxis has been
shown to be beneficial. The Food and Drug Administration approved the use of rivaroxaban 10 mg once
daily for 31 to 39 days in these patients.38 Inclusion criteria for the trials39,40 that studied post-discharge
VTE prophylaxis included:
• A VTE risk score of ≥4 on the modified International Medical Prevention Registry on Venous
Thromboembolism (IMPROVE) tool;41 or
• A VTE risk score ≥2 on the modified IMPROVE tool42 and a D-dimer level >2 times ULN.39
The MICHELLE trial randomized 320 patients with COVID-19 and an IMPROVE score of ≥4 or
an IMPROVE score of 2 to 3 with a D-dimer level >500 ng/mL to receive rivaroxaban 10 mg orally

once daily or no anticoagulation for 35 days.43 The primary outcome was a composite of symptomatic
VTE, fatal pulmonary embolism, symptomatic arterial thromboembolism, cardiovascular death, or
asymptomatic VTE detected on screening imaging at Day 35. Five patients (3%) who were treated with
rivaroxaban and 15 patients (9%) who did not receive anticoagulation experienced a thrombotic event
(relative risk 0.33; 95% CI, 0.13–0.9). One patient who received rivaroxaban and 10 patients who did
not receive anticoagulation experienced symptomatic events. No major bleeding events occurred, and 2
patients in each arm had clinically relevant, nonmajor bleeding. The open-label design and the inclusion
of asymptomatic events that were detected on screening ultrasounds and computed tomography scans
may have biased the results. Additionally, two-thirds of the screened patients did not meet the eligibility
criteria for the trial, which limits the generalizability of the results.
The ACTIV-4c trial randomized 1,217 patients who were hospitalized for symptomatic COVID-19 for
>48 hours to receive apixaban 2.5 mg orally twice daily or placebo at hospital discharge.44 The 30-day
composite endpoint of all-cause mortality, venous thrombosis, or arterial thrombosis occurred in 2.13%
of patients in the apixaban arm and in 2.31% of patients in the placebo arm. Major bleeding events were
infrequent, occurring in 2 patients (0.4%) in the apixaban arm and in 1 patient (0.2%) in the placebo
arm. The trial's leadership and sponsors stopped the trial early because the event rate for the composite
endpoint was lower than expected, and the decreasing number of hospitalizations for people with
COVID-19 made recruitment difficult.
After reviewing the results of the MICHELLE and ACTIV-4c trials, the Panel recommends against
routinely continuing VTE prophylaxis in patients with COVID-19 after hospital discharge unless they
have another indication for anticoagulation (AIIa).
Although there is no clear benefit of administering anticoagulation after hospital discharge in all patients
with COVID-19, results from the MICHELLE trial, which evaluated patients with COVID-19, and the
MARINER trial, which evaluated patients who were hospitalized for other conditions and who had risk
factors for VTE, suggest a possible benefit of using anticoagulation after discharge in patients who are at
high risk of VTE. The need for VTE prophylaxis after a COVID-19–related hospital discharge should be
assessed on a case-by-case basis. The criteria for assessing the risk of VTE in these patients are the same
as the criteria used for patients who are hospitalized for other acute illnesses.
Pregnant and Lactating Patients

Because pregnancy is a hypercoagulable state, the risk of thromboembolism is greater in pregnant
individuals than in nonpregnant individuals.45 It is not yet known whether COVID-19 increases this
risk, though some data do suggest that there is an increased risk. A cohort study in California compared
perinatal outcomes among almost 44,000 pregnant people with and without COVID-19.46 After adjusting
for demographic factors and comorbidities, those with COVID-19 had a higher risk of severe maternal
morbidity, preterm birth, and VTE.
In several other cohort studies of pregnant women with COVID-19 in the United States and Europe,
VTE was not reported as a complication even among women with severe disease, although the receipt of
prophylactic or therapeutic anticoagulation varied across the studies.47-49 Although there are currently not
enough data to recommend either for or against the use of VTE prophylaxis, the American College of
Obstetricians and Gynecologists notes that VTE prophylaxis can reasonably be considered for pregnant
individuals who are hospitalized with COVID-19, particularly those who have severe disease. If there
are no contraindications, the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine recommends using heparin or LMWH
in pregnant patients who are critically ill or receiving mechanical ventilation.50 Several professional
societies, including the American Society of Hematology and the American College of Obstetricians
and Gynecologists, have guidelines that specifically address the management of VTE in the context of
pregnancy.51,52 If delivery is imminent, or if there are other risks for bleeding, the risk of bleeding may

outweigh the potential benefit of using VTE prophylaxis in pregnant individuals.
In nonpregnant people, D-dimer levels have been used to stratify VTE risk. However, physiologic
increases in D-dimer levels may occur during pregnancy, making elevated D-dimer values an unreliable
predictor that should not be used to evaluate VTE risk in pregnant people with COVID-19.53-55
In general, heparin compounds are the preferred anticoagulants to use during pregnancy. Because of its
reliability and ease of administration, LMWH is recommended rather than UFH for the prevention and
treatment of VTE in pregnant people.52 Direct-acting anticoagulants are not routinely recommended for
use during pregnancy because of a lack of safety data for pregnant individuals.51 The use of warfarin to
prevent or treat VTE should be avoided in pregnant individuals regardless of their COVID-19 status,
especially during the first trimester, due to the concern for teratogenicity.
Specific recommendations for pregnant or lactating individuals with COVID-19 include:
• The Panel recommends that pregnant patients who are receiving anticoagulant or antiplatelet
therapies for underlying conditions continue these medications after they receive a diagnosis of
COVID-19 (AIII).
• The Panel recommends the use of a prophylactic dose of anticoagulation for pregnant patients who
are hospitalized for manifestations of COVID-19, unless a contraindication exists (BIII).
• Because pregnant patients were not included in most of the clinical trials that evaluated the use of
therapeutic anticoagulation in people with COVID-19, there is insufficient evidence for the Panel
to recommend either for or against the use of therapeutic anticoagulation in pregnant patients with
COVID-19 who do not have evidence of VTE.
• As in nonpregnant patients with COVID-19, VTE prophylaxis after hospital discharge is not
routinely recommended for pregnant patients (BIII). Clinicians should consider an individual
patient's VTE risk factors when making decisions about continuing VTE prophylaxis after
discharge in pregnant or postpartum patients.
• The use of anticoagulant therapy during labor and delivery requires specialized care and planning.
The management of anticoagulant therapy in pregnant patients with COVID-19 should be similar
to the management used for pregnant patients with other conditions (AIII).
• UFH, LMWH, and warfarin do not accumulate in breast milk and do not induce an anticoagulant
effect in the newborn; therefore, they can be used by breastfeeding individuals who require VTE
prophylaxis or treatment (AIII).
Children With COVID-19 or MIS-C

For the Panel’s recommendations on the use of antithrombotic therapy in children, see Therapeutic
Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19 and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized
Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A.
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COVID-19 (OVID): a randomised, open-label, parallel-group, multicentre, Phase 3 trial. Lancet Haematol.
26. Rentsch CT, Beckman JA, Tomlinson L, et al. Early initiation of prophylactic anticoagulation for prevention
of coronavirus disease 2019 mortality in patients admitted to hospital in the United States: cohort study. BMJ.
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survival and organ support-free days in critically ill patients with COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial.
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hospitalization. Ann Intern Med. 2023;176(4):515-523. Available at:
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Table 6a. Anticoagulant Therapy: Selected Clinical Trial Data
anticoagulant therapy. The studies summarized below are those that have had the greatest impact on the Panel’s recommendations.

ATTACC/ACTIV-4a/REMAP-CAP: Multiplatform, Open-Label RCT of Therapeutic Anticoagulation in Noncritically Ill, Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in 9
Countries1
• Hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed SARS- • Median age 59 years; 59% men; median BMI 30 • Open-label study
CoV-2 infection without need for HFNC oxygen, • 52% with HTN; 30% with DM; 11% with CVD • Dose for anticoagulation varied in SOC
NIV, MV, vasopressors, or inotropes arm (27% received intermediate dose of
• 66% required low-flow oxygen.
Key Exclusion Criteria thromboprophylaxis).
• D-dimer level:
• Hospital discharge expected in ≤72 hours • Inclusion criteria for hospital LOS and
• 48.4% <2 times ULN ICU-level care differed across trials.
• Need for therapeutic anticoagulation or dual • 28.4% ≥2 times ULN
antiplatelet therapy • Trial only enrolled 17% of screened
• 23.1% unknown patients.
• High bleeding risk
• 62% on corticosteroids; 36% on RDV Interpretation
Interventions
Primary Outcomes • Therapeutic heparin increased the
• Therapeutic UFH or LMWH for 14 days or until
• Therapeutic anticoagulation was superior to SOC for organ number of organ support-free days
hospital discharge, whichever came first (n =
support-free days (aOR 1.27; 95% CrI, 1.03–1.58; 99% posterior and decreased the number of patients
1,190)
probability). requiring organ support.
• SOC, which included prophylactic UFH or LMWH
• 4% absolute difference in survival until hospital discharge • Therapeutic heparin did not significantly
(n = 1,054)
without organ support that favored therapeutic arm (95% CrI, affect hospital LOS or the number of
Primary Endpoint 0.5–7.2) major thrombosis events or deaths.
• Organ support-free days by Day 21, as measured • Outcome was consistent across D-dimer stratum. • Major bleeds occurred 1% more
by an OS frequently in the therapeutic arm than in
Secondary Outcomes the SOC arm.
• Survival until hospital discharge: 92% in both arms
• Survival until hospital discharge
• No difference between arms in hospital LOS (aOR 1.03; 95% CrI,
• Hospital LOS 0.94–1.13)
• Thrombosis or major bleeding events • Thrombosis: 1% in therapeutic arm vs. 2% in SOC arm
• Major bleeding events: 2% in therapeutic arm vs. 1% in SOC arm

RAPID: Open-Label RCT of Therapeutic Heparin in Moderately Ill, Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in 6 Countries2
• Hospitalized with COVID-19 and D-dimer level • Median age 60 years; 57% men; mean BMI 30 • Open-label study
≥2 times ULN or any elevated D-dimer level and • 48% with HTN; 34% with DM; 7% with CVD • Trial only enrolled 12% of screened patients.
SpO2 ≤93% on room air
• 91% with hypoxia; 6% received HFNC oxygen. Interpretation
• Hospitalized <5 days
• D-dimer level: • Compared to prophylactic heparin, therapeutic
Key Exclusion Criteria • 49% <2 times ULN heparin reduced mortality (a secondary endpoint)
• Need for therapeutic anticoagulation • 51% ≥2 times ULN but had no effect on the primary composite
• Receiving dual antiplatelet therapy endpoint of ICU admission, the need for NIV or MV,
• 69% on corticosteroids or death up to 28 days.
• High bleeding risk
Primary Outcome • There were no differences between the arms in
Interventions • Composite of ICU admission, NIV or MV, or death at 28 the percentages of patients who experienced VTE
• Therapeutic UFH or LMWH for 28 days or until days: 16% in therapeutic arm vs. 22% in prophylactic or major bleeding events.
hospital discharge or death (n = 228) arm (OR 0.69; 95% CI, 0.43–1.10)
• Prophylactic UFH or LMWH for 28 days or until Secondary Outcomes
hospital discharge or death (n = 237)
• All-cause death at 28 days: 2% in therapeutic arm vs.
Primary Endpoint 8% in prophylactic arm (OR 0.22; 95% CI, 0.07–0.65)
• Composite of ICU admission, NIV or MV, or death • Mean number of organ support-free days: 26 in
at 28 days therapeutic arm vs. 24 in prophylactic arm (OR 1.41;
Key Secondary Endpoints 95% CI, 0.9–2.21)
• All-cause death at 28 days • No difference between arms for VTE (1% in therapeutic
arm vs. 3% in prophylactic arm) or major bleeding
• Mean number of organ support-free days events (1% in therapeutic arm vs. 2% in prophylactic
• VTE arm)
• Major bleeding events • Mean number of hospital-free days alive: 20 in
• Mean number of hospital-free days alive therapeutic arm vs. 18 in prophylactic arm (OR 1.09;
95% CI, 0.79–1.50)

HEP-COVID: Open-Label RCT of Therapeutic Heparin in High-Risk, Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in the United States3
• Hospitalized with COVID-19 and required • Median age 67 years; 54% men; mean BMI 30 • Open-label study
supplemental oxygen • 60% with HTN; 37% with DM; 75% with CVD • Trial only enrolled 2% of screened patients.
• D-dimer level >4 times ULN or sepsis-induced • 64% received oxygen via nasal cannula; 15% received Interpretation
coagulopathy score of ≥4 HFNC oxygen or NIV; 5% received MV.
• Compared to usual care, therapeutic LMWH
• Hospitalized <72 hours • 80% on corticosteroids reduced the incidence of VTE, ATE, and death.
Key Exclusion Criteria Primary Outcomes • Among patients who were not in the ICU,
• Need for therapeutic anticoagulation • Composite of VTE, ATE, or death within 32 days: 29% in therapeutic LMWH significantly reduced the
• Receiving dual antiplatelet therapy therapeutic arm vs. 42% in usual care arm (relative risk percentage of patients who experienced
0.68; 95% CI, 0.49–0.96) thrombotic events and did not increase the
• High bleeding risk percentage of patients who experienced major
• CrCl <15 mL/min • Thrombotic events: 11% in therapeutic arm vs. bleeding events.
29% in usual care arm (relative risk 0.37; 95% CI,
Interventions 0.21–0.66)
• Therapeutic LMWH until hospital discharge or • Death: 19% in therapeutic arm vs. 25% in usual care
primary endpoint met (n = 129) arm (relative risk 0.78; 95% CI, 0.49–1.23)
• Usual care of prophylactic or intermediate- • Non-ICU stratum composite of VTE, ATE, or death within
dose LMWH until hospital discharge or primary 32 days: 17% in therapeutic arm vs. 36% in usual care
endpoint met (n = 124) arm (relative risk 0.46; 95% CI, 0.27–0.81)
Primary Endpoint Safety Outcomes
• Composite of VTE, ATE, or death from any cause • Major bleeding events within 32 days: 5% in
within 32 days of randomization therapeutic arm vs. 2% in usual care arm (relative risk
Key Safety Endpoint 2.88; 95% CI, 0.59–14.02)
• Major bleeding events within 32 days • Non-ICU stratum major bleeding events within 32
days: 2% in both arms

ACTION: Open-Label RCT of Therapeutic Rivaroxaban in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Brazil4
• Hospitalized with COVID-19 and elevated • Median age 57 years; 60% men; mean BMI 30 • Open-label study
D-dimer level • 49% with HTN; 24% with DM; 5% with CAD • Trial only enrolled 18% of screened patients.
• Symptoms for ≤14 days • Critically ill: 7% in therapeutic arm vs. 5% in usual care • Therapeutic rivaroxaban was administered for a
Key Exclusion Criteria arm longer duration than prophylactic anticoagulation
• 75% required oxygen: 60% received low-flow oxygen; (30 days vs. a mean duration of 8 days).
• Need for therapeutic anticoagulation
8% received HFNC oxygen; 1% received NIV; 6% Interpretation
• CrCl <30 mL/min
received MV.
• Receiving P2Y12 inhibitor therapy or aspirin • When compared with usual care, therapeutic
• 83% on corticosteroids rivaroxaban did not reduce mortality, hospital
>100 mg
Primary Outcome duration, oxygen use duration, or the percentage
• High bleeding risk of patients who experienced thrombosis.
• No difference between arms in the composite of time to
Interventions
death, hospital duration, or oxygen use duration by Day • Patients who received therapeutic rivaroxaban had
• Therapeutic anticoagulation for 30 days: 30 (win ratio 0.86; 95% CI, 0.59–1.22) more clinically relevant, nonmajor bleeding events
rivaroxaban 15 mg or 20 mg once daily; if than those who received usual care.
clinically unstable, enoxaparin 1 mg/kg twice Secondary Outcomes
• The longer duration of therapy in the therapeutic
daily or UFH (n = 311) • No difference between therapeutic and usual care arms arm may have influenced the difference in
• Usual care prophylactic anticoagulation with in: bleeding events.
enoxaparin or UFH during hospitalization (n = • Thrombosis: 7% vs. 10%
304) • Death by Day 30: 11% vs. 8%
Primary Endpoint • Any bleeding events: 12% in therapeutic arm vs. 3% in
• Hierarchical composite of time to death, hospital usual care arm
duration, or oxygen use duration by Day 30 • Major bleeding events: 3% in therapeutic arm vs. 1% in
Key Secondary Endpoints usual care arm
• Thrombosis, with and without all-cause death • Clinically relevant, nonmajor bleeding events: 5% in
therapeutic arm vs. 1% in usual care arm
• Death by Day 30
• Bleeding events

FREEDOM: RCT of Anticoagulation Strategies in Noncritically Ill Patients Who Were Hospitalized With COVID-19 in 10 Countries5
• Hospitalized with symptomatic COVID-19 for <48 • Median age 52 years; 59% men; mean BMI 26 • Open-label study
hours • 32% with HTN; 19% with DM • Trial was terminated early due to slow recruitment
Key Exclusion Criteria • 22% on corticosteroids; 10% on RDV (3,452 of 3,600 planned patients recruited).
• Need for therapeutic anticoagulation • Minimal treatment with RDV or DEX as SOC for
Primary Outcome
COVID-19
• CrCl <30 mL/min • 30-day composite outcome: 11.3% in combined
• Receiving P2Y12 inhibitor therapy or aspirin therapeutic arms vs. 13.2% in prophylactic arm (HR Interpretation
>100 mg per day 0.85; 95% CI, 0.69–1.04; P = 0.11) • When compared with prophylactic enoxaparin,
• Anticipated hospitalization for <72 hours • Primary endpoint was not statistically significant when therapeutic apixaban and therapeutic enoxaparin
therapeutic enoxaparin or apixaban were compared to did not reduce 30-day mortality, the need for ICU-
Interventions level care, or the occurrence of thromboembolism
prophylactic enoxaparin.
• Therapeutic apixaban 5 mg twice daily (n = or ischemic stroke.
1,121) Secondary Outcomes
• Fewer patients died in the therapeutic enoxaparin
• Therapeutic enoxaparin 1 mg/kg twice daily (n = • 30-day all-cause mortality: 4.9% in therapeutic and therapeutic apixaban arms than in the
1,136) enoxaparin arm vs. 7.0% in prophylactic enoxaparin prophylactic enoxaparin arm.
arm (HR 0.69; 95% CI, 0.49–0.99)
• Usual care prophylactic enoxaparin (n = 1,141) • There were no statistically significant differences
• 30-day all-cause mortality: 5.0% in therapeutic between the arms in the percentages of patients
Primary Endpoint apixaban arm vs. 7.0% in prophylactic enoxaparin arm who experienced severe bleeding events.
• 30-day composite of all-cause mortality, need (HR 0.7; 95% CI, 0.49–0.99)
for ICU-level care, systemic thromboembolism, • BARC type 3 or 5 bleeding events: 0.4% in combined
or ischemic stroke. Endpoint assessed for the therapeutic arms vs. 0.1% in prophylactic arm (IRR
combined therapeutic arms vs. the prophylactic 3.96; 95% CI, 0.50–31.27)
arm.
• 30-day all-cause mortality
• BARC type 3 or 5 bleeding events

COVID-PACT: Open-Label RCT of Full-Dose Versus Prophylactic-Dose Anticoagulation in Adults With COVID-19 Who Were Receiving Intensive Care Unit-
Level Care in the United States6
• Aged ≥18 years • Median age 61 years; 41% women; 71% White • Open-label study (adjudication committee
• Acute SARS-CoV-2 infection • 99% received HFNC oxygen, NIV, or MV; 15% members were blinded to the study arms).
• Required ICU-level care for ≤96 hours prior to received MV. • Trial was stopped early because the
randomization • 41% received MV during the study. decreasing number of ICU admissions for
patients with COVID-19 made recruitment
Key Exclusion Criteria • 31% to 37% crossed over to an alternative study difficult.
treatment during the study.
• Ongoing or planned use of full-dose anticoagulation or • There was an unequal crossover between
dual antiplatelet therapy Primary Outcome the arms, with a greater crossover from the
• High bleeding risk • Composite of VTE or ATE events by hospital discharge prophylactic anticoagulation arm to the full-
• History of HIT or Day 28: 12% in full-dose anticoagulation arm vs. dose anticoagulation arm.
6% in prophylactic anticoagulation arm (win ratio Interpretation
• Ischemic stroke within 2 weeks 1.95; 95% CI, 1.08–3.55; P = 0.028)
Interventions • Among patients with COVID-19 who required
Secondary Outcome ICU-level care, patients who received full-dose
• Full-dose anticoagulation until Day 28 or hospital • Composite of clinically evident VTE or ATE events anticoagulation had fewer VTE or ATE events
discharge, whichever came first (n = 197) by hospital discharge or Day 28: 10% in full- but no survival benefit compared to those who
• Prophylactic anticoagulation (n = 193) dose anticoagulation arm vs. 6% in prophylactic received prophylactic anticoagulation.
• Eligible patients were also randomized 1:1 to receive anticoagulation arm (win ratio 1.79; 95% CI, 0.92– • The prevalence of moderate or severe
clopidogrel or no antiplatelet therapy (n = 292) 3.47; P = 0.087) bleeding events was higher among patients
Safety Outcomes who received full-dose anticoagulation than
Primary Endpoint
among those who received prophylactic
• Composite of VTE or ATE events by hospital discharge • No fatal bleeding events occurred. anticoagulation.
or Day 28. Events included death due to VTE or • Life-threatening bleeding events: 4 (2.1%) in full-
ATE, PE, clinically evident DVT, MI, ischemic stroke, dose anticoagulation arm vs. 1 (0.5%) in prophylactic
systemic embolic event or acute limb ischemia, and anticoagulation arm (P = 0.19)
clinically silent DVT. • Moderate or severe bleeding events: 15 (7.9%)
Key Secondary Endpoint in full-dose anticoagulation arm vs. 1 (0.5%) in
• Individual outcomes listed above, with the exception of prophylactic anticoagulation arm (P = 0.002)
clinically silent DVT
• Fatal or life-threatening bleeding events
• Moderate or severe bleeding events

REMAP-CAP/ACTIV-4a/ATTACC: Multiplatform, Open-Label RCT of Therapeutic Anticoagulation in Critically Ill, Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in 20
Countries7
• Hospitalized with severe COVID-19 and receiving • Median age 60 years; 70% men; median BMI 30 • Open-label study
HFNC oxygen, NIV, MV, ECMO, vasopressors, or • 24% with chronic respiratory disease; 33% with DM; • Dose of thromboprophylaxis varied in usual
inotropes 10% with chronic kidney disease; 8% with severe CVD care arm (51% received intermediate dose;
• Hospitalized <72 hours (ACTIV-4a, ATTACC) or • 32% received HFNC oxygen; 38% received NIV; 29% 2% received subtherapeutic dose; 5% received
<14 days (REMAP-CAP) received MV. therapeutic dose).
Key Exclusion Criteria • 18% on vasopressors; 82% on corticosteroids; 32% on • Inclusion criteria for hospital LOS and ICU-level
RDV care differed across trials.
• Hospital discharge expected in ≤72 hours
• Trial stopped for futility.
• Need for therapeutic anticoagulation or dual Primary Outcome
antiplatelet therapy • Median number of organ support-free days by Day 21: Interpretation
• High bleeding risk 4 in therapeutic arm vs. 5 in usual care arm (aOR 0.83; • In patients who required ICU-level care,
95% CrI, 0.67–1.03; 99.9% posterior probability of therapeutic heparin did not reduce the duration of
Interventions
futility; OR < 1.2) organ support or mortality.
• Therapeutic UFH or LMWH for 14 days or until
Secondary Outcomes • Although the differences were not significant,
hospital discharge, whichever came first (n =
patients who received therapeutic anticoagulation
534) • No difference between therapeutic and usual care arms
had more bleeding events and fewer thrombotic
• Usual care thromboprophylaxis (n = 564) in:
events than patients who received usual care.
• Survival to hospital discharge: 63% vs. 65% (aOR
Primary Endpoint
0.84; 95% CrI, 0.64–1.11)
• Number of organ support-free days by Day 21
• Thrombosis: 6% vs. 10%
Key Secondary Endpoints • Composite of major thrombotic events or death: 41%
• Survival to hospital discharge in both arms
• Any thrombosis • Major bleeding events: 4% vs. 2% (aOR 1.48; 95%
• Composite of major thrombotic events or death CrI, 0.75–3.04)
• Bleeding events

INSPIRATION: Open-Label RCT of Intermediate-Dose Versus Prophylactic-Dose Anticoagulation in Patients With COVID-19 in Intensive Care Units in Iran8
• Admitted to ICU • Median age 62 years; 58% men; median BMI 27 • Open-label study
• Hospitalized <7 days • 44% with HTN; 28% with DM; 14% with CAD • Not all patients received ICU-level care.
Key Exclusion Criteria • 32% received NIV; 20% received MV. Interpretation
• Life expectancy <24 hours • 23% on vasopressors; 93% on corticosteroids; 60% on • Intermediate-dose anticoagulation did not
RDV significantly reduce the occurrence of VTE and
• Need for therapeutic anticoagulation
Primary Outcome ATE, the need for ECMO, or mortality.
• Bleeding or high bleeding risk
• Composite of adjudicated acute VTE, ATE, the need • Although the difference was not significant,
Interventions patients who received intermediate-dose
for ECMO, or all-cause mortality at 30 days: 46% in
• Intermediate-dose anticoagulation: enoxaparin 1 intermediate-dose arm vs. 44% in prophylactic arm (OR anticoagulation had more bleeding events
mg/kg once daily (n = 276) 1.06; 95% CI, 0.76–1.48) than patients who received prophylactic-dose
• Prophylactic-dose anticoagulation (n = 286) anticoagulation.
Secondary Outcomes
Primary Endpoint • No difference between intermediate-dose arm and
• Composite of adjudicated acute VTE, ATE, the prophylactic arm in:
need for ECMO, or all-cause mortality at 30 days • All-cause mortality at 30 days: 43% vs. 41%
Key Secondary Endpoints • VTE: 3% in both arms
• All-cause mortality at 30 days • Major bleeding events and clinically relevant,
• VTE nonmajor bleeding events: 6.3% vs. 3.1% (OR 2.02;
95% CI, 0.89–4.61)
• Bleeding events

ANTICOVID: Open-Label RCT of Therapeutic-Dose Versus Intermediate-Dose Versus Prophylactic-Dose Anticoagulation in Patients With COVID-19 in
Intensive Care Units in France9
• Hospitalized for <72 hours with hypoxemic • Mean age 58 years; 67% men; median BMI 27–28 • Open-label study
COVID-19 pneumonia • 31% with HTN; 18% with DM; 4% with CAD • Not all patients received ICU-level care.
Key Exclusion Criteria • 23% received conventional oxygen; 61% received • Study excluded patients weighing >100 kg.
• Weight <40 kg or >100 kg HFNC oxygen; 7% received NIV; 10% received MV. • Tinzaparin is not available in the United States.
• Indication or contraindication for therapeutic • 92% on corticosteroids; 0.6% on RDV; 34% on
Interpretation
anticoagulation tocilizumab; 3% on vasopressors
• The use of intermediate doses of anticoagulants
• Bleeding or high bleeding risk Primary Outcome improved the net clinical outcome by reducing the
Interventions • No difference between arms for hierarchical outcome number of thrombosis events.
of all-cause mortality or time to clinical improvement • There was no difference between the arms in the
• Therapeutic-dose anticoagulation: tinzaparin 175
by Day 28 occurrence of major bleeding events.
IU/kg once daily or enoxaparin 100 IU/kg twice
daily (n = 110) Secondary Outcomes
• Intermediate-dose anticoagulation: tinzaparin • Net clinical outcome by Day 28: 20.0% in therapeutic-
7,000 IU once daily or enoxaparin 4,000 IU twice dose arm vs. 16.4% in intermediate-dose arm vs.
daily (n = 110) 29.8% in prophylactic-dose arm
• Prophylactic-dose anticoagulation: tinzaparin • Venous or arterial thrombosis: 5% in therapeutic-dose
3,500 IU once daily or enoxaparin 4,000 IU once arm vs. 5% in intermediate-dose arm vs. 20% in
daily (n = 114) prophylactic-dose arm
Primary Endpoint • Major bleeding events: 4% in therapeutic-dose arm vs.
4% in intermediate-dose arm vs. 3% in prophylactic-
• Hierarchical outcome of all-cause mortality or
dose arm
time to clinical improvement of 2 points on a
WHO scale by Day 28

ACTIV-4B: Double-Blind RCT of Anticoagulant and Antiplatelet Therapy in Symptomatic, Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in the United States10
• Aged 40–80 years • Listed characteristics are for all 657 randomized • Initial target sample size was 7,000 patients, but
• Symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection patients. trial was terminated after enrolling only 9% of
• Median age 54 years; 59% women; median BMI 30; target because of a low event rate.
• CrCl >30 mL/min
13% Black, 28% Hispanic Interpretation
• PLT >100,000 cells/µL
• 18% with DM; 20% with a history of smoking; 35% • Among symptomatic outpatients with COVID-19
Key Exclusion Criteria with HTN who were clinically stable, treatment with aspirin
• Previously hospitalized with COVID-19 Primary Outcome or a therapeutic or prophylactic dose of apixaban
• Acute leukemia, recent major bleeding events, or • Composite of all-cause mortality, symptomatic VTE, did not reduce the risk of death, symptomatic VTE
indication or contraindication for anticoagulant or or ATE, or hospitalization for cardiovascular or
ATE, MI, stroke, or hospitalization at 45 days: 1 (0.7%) pulmonary causes compared to placebo.
antiplatelet therapy in aspirin arm vs. 1 (0.7%) in apixaban 2.5 mg arm vs.
Interventions 2 (1.4%) in apixaban 5 mg arm vs. 1 (0.7%) in placebo
• 558 of 657 randomized patients received study arm
drugs. • Risk differences compared with placebo:
• Aspirin 81 mg PO once daily for 45 days (n = • 0.0% (95% CI, not calculable) in aspirin arm
144) • 0.7% (95% CI, -2.1% to 4.1%) in 2.5 mg apixaban
• Prophylactic-dose anticoagulation: apixaban 2.5 arm
mg PO twice daily for 45 days (n = 135) • 1.4% (95% CI, -1.5% to 5.0%) in 5 mg apixaban arm
• Therapeutic-dose anticoagulation: apixaban 5 • Cumulative incidence of primary outcomes did not
mg PO twice daily for 45 days (n = 143) significantly differ across treatment arms (log-rank P =
• Placebo (n = 136) 0.78).
Primary Endpoint Secondary Outcome
• Composite of all-cause mortality, symptomatic • No differences between all treatment arms and placebo
VTE, ATE, MI, stroke, or hospitalization for arm in occurrence of individual components of the
cardiovascular or pulmonary cause at 45 days primary endpoint
Key Secondary and Safety Endpoints Safety Outcome
• Component events of primary endpoint • No major bleeding events occurred.
• Major bleeding

OVID: Open-Label RCT of Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin for Thromboprophylaxis in Symptomatic, Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Germany and
Switzerland11
• Aged ≥50 years • Median age 57 years; 46% women; 96% White • Open-label study
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 test result within past 5 • Median of 3 days from COVID-19 diagnosis to • Trial terminated early due to a low probability that
days randomization enoxaparin would be superior to the standard of
• Respiratory symptoms or temperature ≥37.5 °C • 24% with HTN; 8% with DM; 5% with CVD care for the primary outcome.
Key Exclusion Criteria • 9.5% received ≥1 COVID-19 vaccine doses. Interpretation
• Severe renal or hepatic dysfunction Primary Outcome • Thromboprophylaxis with enoxaparin did not
reduce the risk of hospitalization or death among
• Severe anemia or recent major bleeding events • Composite of any untoward hospitalization or all- nonhospitalized, symptomatic patients with
• Receiving dual antiplatelet therapy cause death by Day 30: 8 (3%) in enoxaparin arm vs. 8 COVID-19.
(3%) in SOC arm (adjusted relative risk 0.98; 95% CI,
Interventions 0.37–2.56; P = 0.96)
• Enoxaparin 40 mg SUBQ once daily for 14 days Secondary Outcomes
(n = 234)
• Composite of major arterial and venous cardiovascular
• SOC (n = 238) events by Day 30: 2 (1%) in enoxaparin arm vs. 4 (2%)
Primary Endpoint in SOC arm (relative risk 0.51; 95% CI, 0.09–2.74)
• Composite of any untoward hospitalization or • No major or clinically relevant, nonmajor bleeding
all-cause death by Day 30 events occurred.
• Composite of major arterial and venous
cardiovascular events by Day 30
• Bleeding events

ETHIC: Open-Label RCT of Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin for Thromboprophylaxis in Symptomatic Outpatients With COVID-19 in Belgium, Brazil, India,
South Africa, Spain, and the United Kingdom12
• Aged ≥30 years • Median age 59 years; 56% men • Open-label study
• RT-PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, with • Median of 5 days from first symptom to randomization • Study terminated early because of low event rate
symptoms for ≤9 days and lack of efficacy.
Primary Outcomes
• ≥1 risk factors for severe disease Interpretation
• Composite of all-cause hospitalization or all-cause
Key Exclusion Criteria mortality by Day 21: 12 (11%) in enoxaparin arm vs. 12 • This study demonstrated no benefit of prophylaxis
• Receipt of a COVID-19 vaccine (11%) in SOC arm (HR 1.09; 95% CI, 0.49–2.43; P = with LMWH in outpatients with COVID-19 who
0.83) were at risk of progressing to severe disease.
• eGFR <30 mL/min
• Patients who required hospitalization: 12 in enoxaparin
• Receiving anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapy, arm vs. 12 in SOC arm
except low-dose aspirin
• Hospitalized patients who required acute medical
Interventions care or ICU admission: 4 in enoxaparin arm vs. 0 in
• Enoxaparin 40 mg SUBQ once daily (for patients SOC arm
weighing <100 kg) or enoxaparin 40 mg SUBQ Secondary Outcomes
twice daily (for patients weighing ≥100 kg), self-
administered for 21 days (n = 105) • VTE by Day 90: 1 (1%) in enoxaparin arm vs. 2 (2%) in
SOC arm
• SOC (n = 114)
• Bleeding events by Day 50: 2 (2%) in enoxaparin arm
Primary Endpoint vs. 2 (2%) in SOC arm
• Composite of all-cause hospitalization or all-
cause mortality by Day 21
• VTE by Day 90
• Bleeding events by Day 50

ACTIV-4C: Double-Blind RCT of 30 Days of Apixaban After Hospital Discharge in Patients With COVID-19 in the United States13
• Hospitalized >48 hours with confirmed SARS- • Median age 54 years; 50% men; 27% Black, 17% • Trial was terminated early due to a low event
CoV-2 infection within 2 weeks of admission Hispanic rate and because the decreasing number of
• PLT >50,000 cells/µL and Hgb >8 g/dL • 15% on antiplatelet therapy hospitalizations for people with COVID-19 made
recruitment difficult.
Key Exclusion Criteria • At hospital discharge, 16% were prescribed antiplatelet
therapy; 93% received aspirin. Interpretation
• Need for therapeutic or prophylactic
anticoagulation at hospital discharge Primary Outcome • Incidence of death or thromboembolism was low
in this cohort of patients.
• Ischemic stroke, intracranial bleed, or • Composite of death, ATE, or VTE by Day 30: 13 (2.1%)
neurosurgery within 3 months in apixaban arm vs. 14 (2.3%) in placebo arm (relative • Because the trial was terminated early, the results
risk 0.92; 95% CI, 0.44–1.95; P = 0.85) were imprecise, and the study was inconclusive.
• Bleeding events within past 30 days
• Major surgery within 14 days Safety Outcomes
• Inherited or active acquired bleeding disorder • Major bleeding events: 2 (0.4%) in apixaban arm vs.
1 (0.2%) in placebo arm (relative risk 2.00; 95% CI,
Interventions 0.18–22.03)
• Apixaban 2.5 mg PO twice daily for 30 days, • Clinically relevant, nonmajor bleeding events: 3 (0.6%)
starting at hospital discharge (n = 610) in apixaban arm vs. 6 (1.1%) in placebo arm (relative
• Placebo (n = 607) risk 0.50; 95% CI, 0.13–1.99)
Primary Endpoint
• Composite of death, ATE, or VTE by Day 30
Key Safety Endpoint
• Bleeding events

MICHELLE: Open-Label RCT of Using Rivaroxaban After Hospital Discharge in Patients With COVID-19 Who Were at High Risk of Venous Thromboembolism
in Brazil14
• Hospitalized for ≥3 days with confirmed SARS- • Median age 57 years; 60% men • Open-label study with no placebo
CoV-2 infection • While hospitalized, 86% received thromboprophylaxis • Not all patients had the protocol-specified CTPA
• Increased risk of VTE, defined as an IMPROVE with enoxaparin, 14% received unfractionated heparin, or Doppler ultrasound during the study. However,
VTE score at hospital discharge of >4 or 2–3 and 5% received antiplatelet therapy. a higher number of imaging evaluations occurred
with D-dimer >500 ng/mL among the patients in the rivaroxaban arm.
Primary Outcome
Key Exclusion Criterion • Primary composite outcome by Day 35: 5 (3%) in Interpretation
• Suspicion or confirmation of a thrombotic event rivaroxaban arm vs. 15 (9%) in no anticoagulation arm • In patients who were at high risk of VTE, the use
(relative risk 0.33; 95% CI, 0.12–0.90; P = 0.03) of thromboprophylaxis with rivaroxaban 10 mg PO
Interventions
• Difference driven mainly by incidence of PE (2 in once daily for 35 days improved clinical outcomes
• Rivaroxaban 10 mg PO once daily for 35 days, when compared with no anticoagulation.
rivaroxaban arm vs. 10 in no anticoagulation arm).
starting at hospital discharge (n = 159)
• No anticoagulation (n = 159) Secondary Outcomes
• Symptomatic or fatal VTE: 1 (0.6%) in rivaroxaban arm
Primary Endpoint
vs. 8 (5.0%) in no anticoagulation arm (relative risk
• Composite of symptomatic or fatal VTE, 0.13; 95% CI, 0.02–0.99; P = 0.049)
asymptomatic VTE on bilateral lower-limb venous
• Composite of symptomatic VTE, MI, non-hemorrhagic
ultrasound and CTPA, symptomatic ATE, or
stroke, or cardiovascular death: 1 (0.6%) in rivaroxaban
cardiovascular death by Day 35
arm vs. 9 (5.7%) in no anticoagulation arm (relative risk
Key Secondary Endpoints 0.11; 95% CI, 0.01–0.87; P = 0.036)
• Symptomatic or fatal VTE Safety Outcome
• Composite of symptomatic VTE, MI, non- • No major bleeding events occurred.
hemorrhagic stroke, or cardiovascular death
Key Safety Endpoint
• Bleeding events
Key: ATE = arterial thromboembolism; BARC = Bleeding Academic Research Consortium; BMI = body mass index; CAD = coronary artery disease; CrCl = creatinine
clearance; CTPA = computed tomography pulmonary angiogram; CVD = cardiovascular disease; DEX = dexamethasone; DM = diabetes mellitus; DVT = deep vein
thrombosis; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula; Hgb = hemoglobin; HIT =
heparin-induced thrombocytopenia; HTN = hypertension; ICU = intensive care unit; IMPROVE = International Medical Prevention Registry on Venous Thromboembolism;
ISTH = International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis; LMWH = low-molecular-weight heparin; LOS = length of stay; MI = myocardial infarction; MV = mechanical
ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; OS = ordinal scale; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PE = pulmonary embolism; PLT = platelet count; PO =
oral; RCT = randomized controlled trial; RDV = remdesivir; RT-PCR = reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; SOC = standard of care; SpO2 = oxygen saturation;
SUBQ = subcutaneous; UFH = unfractionated heparin; ULN = upper limit of normal; VTE = venous thromboembolism; WHO = World Health Organization

References
1. ATTACC, ACTIV-4a, and REMAP-CAP Investigators. Therapeutic anticoagulation with heparin in noncritically ill patients with COVID-19. N Engl J
2. Sholzberg M, Tang GH, Rahhal H, et al. Effectiveness of therapeutic heparin versus prophylactic heparin on death, mechanical ventilation, or intensive
care unit admission in moderately ill patients with COVID-19 admitted to hospital: RAPID randomised clinical trial. BMJ. 2021;375:n2400. Available
3. Spyropoulos AC, Goldin M, Giannis D, et al. Efficacy and safety of therapeutic-dose heparin vs standard prophylactic or intermediate-dose
heparins for thromboprophylaxis in high-risk hospitalized patients with COVID-19: the HEP-COVID randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med.
4. Lopes RD, de Barros E Silva PGM, Furtado RHM, et al. Therapeutic versus prophylactic anticoagulation for patients admitted to hospital with
COVID-19 and elevated D-dimer concentration (ACTION): an open-label, multicentre, randomised, controlled trial. Lancet. 2021;397(10291):2253-
5. Stone GW, Farkouh ME, Lala A, et al. Randomized trial of anticoagulation strategies for noncritically ill patients hospitalized with COVID-19. J Am
Coll Cardiol. 2023;81(18):1747-1762. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36889611.
6. Bohula EA, Berg DD, Lopes MS, et al. Anticoagulation and antiplatelet therapy for prevention of venous and arterial thrombotic events in critically ill
patients with COVID-19: COVID-PACT. Circulation. 2022;146(18):1344-1356. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36036760.
7. REMAP-CAP, ACTIV-4a, and ATTACC Investigators. Therapeutic anticoagulation with heparin in critically ill patients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med.
8. INSPIRATION Investigators. Effect of intermediate-dose vs standard-dose prophylactic anticoagulation on thrombotic events, extracorporeal membrane
oxygenation treatment, or mortality among patients with COVID-19 admitted to the intensive care unit: the INSPIRATION randomized clinical trial.
9. Labbé V, Contou D, Heming N, et al. Effects of standard-dose prophylactic, high-dose prophylactic, and therapeutic anticoagulation in patients with
hypoxemic COVID-19 pneumonia: the ANTICOVID randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2023;183(6):520-531. Available at:
10. Connors JM, Brooks MM, Sciurba FC, et al. Effect of antithrombotic therapy on clinical outcomes in outpatients with clinically stable symptomatic
COVID-19: the ACTIV-4B randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021;326(17):1703-1712. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34633405.
11. Barco S, Voci D, Held U, et al. Enoxaparin for primary thromboprophylaxis in symptomatic outpatients with COVID-19 (OVID): a randomised, open-label,
parallel-group, multicentre, Phase 3 trial. Lancet Haematol. 2022;9(8):e585-e593. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35779558.
12. Cools F, Virdone S, Sawhney J, et al. Thromboprophylactic low-molecular-weight heparin versus standard of care in unvaccinated, at-risk outpatients
with COVID-19 (ETHIC): an open-label, multicentre, randomised, controlled, Phase 3b trial. Lancet Haematol. 2022;9(8):e594-e604. Available at:
13. Wang TY, Wahed AS, Morris A, et al. Effect of thromboprophylaxis on clinical outcomes after COVID-19 hospitalization. Ann Intern Med.
14. Ramacciotti E, Barile Agati L, Calderaro D, et al. Rivaroxaban versus no anticoagulation for post-discharge thromboprophylaxis after hospitalisation for
COVID-19 (MICHELLE): an open-label, multicentre, randomised, controlled trial. Lancet. 2022;399(10319):50-59. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.

Table 6b. Antiplatelet Therapy: Selected Clinical Trial Data
antiplatelet therapy. The studies summarized below are those that have had the greatest impact on the Panel’s recommendations.

ACTIV-4a: Open-Label, Adaptive RCT of Adding a P2Y12 Inhibitor to Anticoagulant Therapy in Noncritically Ill Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Brazil,
Italy, Spain, and the United States1
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • Mean age 53 years; 42% women; 62% White • Open-label study
• Any 1 of the following: • HTN: 43% in P2Y12 inhibitor arm vs. 55% in usual • Study was stopped early for futility.
• D-dimer level ≥2 times ULN care arm • Different P2Y12 inhibitors were used.
• Aged 60–84 years • 65% received glucocorticoids; 52% received RDV; • Median duration of P2Y12 inhibitor treatment was
3% received IL-6 inhibitors; 14% received aspirin. 6 days, which may not be sufficient to observe
• Aged <60 years with oxygen requirement >2 L/
min, HTN, DM, eGFR <60 mL/min, CVD, or BMI • Median duration of P2Y12 inhibitor treatment was effects.
≥35 6 days.
Interpretation
• 63% received ticagrelor; 37% received
Key Exclusion Criteria • Among hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who
clopidogrel.
• Required HFNC oxygen ≥20 L/min, NIV, MV, ECMO, were not critically ill, adding a P2Y12 inhibitor to
vasopressors, or inotropes Primary Outcomes a therapeutic dose of heparin did not increase the
• Median number of organ support-free days by Day number of organ support-free days.
• ≥72 hours since hospital admission
21: 21 in both arms (aOR 0.83; 95% CrI, 0.55–1.25; • Major bleeding events occurred infrequently
Interventions posterior probability of futility 96%) during the study. The number of patients who
• Therapeutic dose of heparin plus P2Y12 inhibitor for • Major bleeding events by Day 28: 2.0% in P2Y12 experienced a major bleeding event was not
14 days or until hospital discharge, whichever came inhibitor arm vs. 0.7% in usual care arm (aOR 3.31; significantly different between the arms.
first (n = 293) 95% CI, 0.64–17.2; P = 0.15)
• Therapeutic dose of heparin (usual care arm; n = 269) Secondary Outcome
Primary Endpoints • Composite of major thrombotic events or death by
• Number of organ support-free days by Day 21 Day 28: 6.1% in P2Y12 inhibitor arm vs. 4.5% in
• Major bleeding events by Day 28 usual care arm (aOR 1.42; 95% CI, 0.64–3.13)

• Composite of major thrombotic events or death by
Day 28

RECOVERY: Open-Label RCT of Aspirin in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Indonesia, Nepal, and the United Kingdom2
• Clinically suspected or laboratory-confirmed • Mean age 59 years; 62% men; 75% White • Because of the open-label design, reporting of
SARS-CoV-2 infection • 97% had laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection major bleeding and thrombotic events may have
been influenced by the treatment allocation.
Key Exclusion Criteria • At baseline:
• Hypersensitivity to aspirin • 5% on MV Interpretation
• Recent history of major bleeding events • 28% on NIV • In hospitalized patients with COVID-19, the use
of aspirin was not associated with reductions in
• Currently receiving aspirin or another antiplatelet • 34% received intermediate- or therapeutic-dose 28-day mortality or the risk of progressing to MV
treatment LMWH. or death.
Interventions • 60% received standard-dose LMWH.
• Aspirin 150 mg once daily until hospital • 7% received no thromboprophylaxis.
discharge (n = 7,351) • 94% received corticosteroids; 26% received RDV; 13%
• SOC alone (n = 7,541) received tocilizumab; 6% received baricitinib.
Primary Endpoint Primary Outcome
• All-cause mortality at 28 days • All-cause mortality at 28 days: 17% in both arms (rate
ratio 0.96; 95% CI, 0.89–1.04; P = 0.35)
• Composite of progression to MV or death at 28 Secondary Outcomes
days • Composite of progression to MV or death at 28 days:
• Major bleeding events at 28 days 21% in aspirin arm vs. 22% in SOC arm (risk ratio 0.96;
95% CI, 0.90–1.03)
• Thrombotic events at 28 days
• Major bleeding events at 28 days: 1.6% in aspirin arm
vs. 1.0% in SOC arm (P = 0.0028)
• Thrombotic events at 28 days: 4.6% in aspirin arm vs.
5.3% in SOC arm (P = 0.07)

REMAP-CAP: Open-Label, Adaptive RCT of Antiplatelet Therapy in Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 in 8 Countries in Europe and Asia3
• Clinically suspected or laboratory-confirmed • Mean age 57 years; 34% women; 77% White • Open-label study
SARS-CoV-2 infection • At baseline, 98% were receiving LMWH: • Different P2Y12 inhibitors were used.
• Within 48 hours of ICU admission • 19% received low-dose LMWH. • Trial was stopped for futility. Because
Key Exclusion Criteria • 59% received intermediate-dose LMWH. equivalence for aspirin and P2Y12 inhibitor
arms was reached, these arms were pooled for
• Bleeding risk sufficient to contraindicate • 12% received therapeutic-dose LMWH. analyses.
antiplatelet therapy • 98% received steroids; 21% received RDV; 44% received
• CrCl <30 mL/min tocilizumab; 11% received sarilumab. Interpretation
• Receiving antiplatelet therapy or NSAIDs • In P2Y12 inhibitor arm, 88.5% received clopidogrel, 1.3% • In critically ill patients with COVID-19, the use
received ticagrelor, 1.3% received prasugrel, and 8.8% of aspirin or a P2Y12 inhibitor did not reduce
Interventions the number of organ support-free days or in-
received an unknown P2Y12 inhibitor.
• 1 of the following plus anticoagulation for 14 hospital mortality.
days or until hospital discharge, whichever came Primary Outcome • Patients in the pooled antiplatelet arm had
first: • Data from aspirin and P2Y12 inhibitor arms were pooled more major bleeding events than those in the
• Aspirin 75–100 mg once daily (n = 565) and reported as “pooled antiplatelet arm” in final analysis: control arm, but they had improved survival
• P2Y12 inhibitor (n = 455) • Median number of organ support-free days by Day 21: over 90 days.
7 in pooled antiplatelet arm vs. 7 in control arm (aOR
• No antiplatelet therapy (control arm; n = 529)
1.02; 95% CrI, 0.86–1.23; posterior probability of futility
Primary Endpoint 96%)
• Number of organ support-free days by Day 21 Secondary Outcomes
Key Secondary Endpoints • Survival to hospital discharge: 71.5% in pooled antiplatelet
• Survival to hospital discharge arm vs. 67.9% in control arm (median-adjusted OR 1.27;
95% CrI, 0.99–1.62; adjusted absolute difference 5%;
• Survival to Day 90 95% CrI, -0.2% to 9.5%; 97% posterior probability of
• Major bleeding events by Day 14 efficacy)
• Survival to Day 90: 72% in pooled antiplatelet arm vs.
68% in control arm (HR with pooled antiplatelets 1.22;
95% CrI, 1.06–1.40; 99.7% posterior probability of
efficacy)
• Major bleeding events by Day 14: 2.1% in pooled
antiplatelet arm vs. 0.4% in control arm (aOR 2.97; 95%
CrI, 1.23–8.28; posterior probability of harm 99.4%)

COVID-PACT: Open-Label RCT of Clopidogrel in Adults With COVID-19 Who Were Receiving Intensive Care Unit-Level Care in the United States4
• Aged ≥18 years • Median age 58 years; 41% women; 71% White • Open-label study (adjudication committee
• Acute SARS-CoV-2 infection • At baseline, 99% on HFNC oxygen, NIV, or MV; 15% on members were blinded to the study arms).
• Required ICU-level care for ≤96 hours prior to MV • Trial was stopped early because the
randomization • 37% required MV during the study. decreasing number of ICU admissions for
patients with COVID-19 made recruitment
Key Exclusion Criteria Primary Outcome difficult.
• Ongoing or planned use of a therapeutic dose of • Composite of VTE or ATE events by hospital discharge • 31% discontinued clopidogrel.
anticoagulation or dual antiplatelet therapy or Day 28: 10% in both arms (win ratio 1.04; 95% CI,
0.54–2.01; P = 0.90) Interpretation
• High risk of bleeding
• In patients with COVID-19 who required
• History of HIT Secondary Outcome
ICU-level care, clopidogrel did not reduce the
• Ischemic stroke within 2 weeks • Composite of clinically evident VTE or ATE events by incidence of thrombotic complications.
hospital discharge or Day 28: 7% in clopidogrel arm
Interventions vs. 9% in no clopidogrel arm (win ratio 0.79; 95% CI,
• Clopidogrel 300 mg at randomization, then 0.38–1.65; P = 0.53)
clopidogrel 75 mg once daily until hospital discharge
or Day 28, whichever came first (n = 152) Safety Outcomes
• No clopidogrel therapy (n = 140) • Fatal or life-threatening bleeding events: 1.3% in
clopidogrel arm vs. 1.4% in no clopidogrel arm (P =
• Some patients were also randomized to receive a 1.00)
therapeutic or prophylactic dose of anticoagulation (n
= 290) • Moderate or severe bleeding events: 4.0% in
clopidogrel arm vs. 6.4% in no clopidogrel arm (P =
Primary Endpoint 0.83)
• Composite of VTE or ATE events by hospital discharge
or Day 28. Events included death due to VTE or
ATE, PE, clinically evident DVT, MI, ischemic stroke,
systemic embolic events or acute limb ischemia, and
clinically silent DVT.
Secondary Endpoint
• Composite of clinically evident VTE or ATE events by
hospital discharge or Day 28
Safety Endpoints
• Fatal or life-threatening bleeding events
• Moderate or severe bleeding events

Key: ATE = arterial thromboembolism; BMI = body mass index; CrCl = creatinine clearance; CVD = cardiovascular disease; DM = diabetes mellitus; DVT = deep
vein thrombosis; ECMO = extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; HFNC = high-flow nasal cannula; HIT = heparin-
induced thrombocytopenia; HTN = hypertension; ICU = intensive care unit; IL = interleukin; LMWH = low-molecular-weight heparin; MI = myocardial infarction; MV
= mechanical ventilation; NIV = noninvasive ventilation; NSAID = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PE =
pulmonary embolism; RCT = randomized controlled trial; RDV = remdesivir; SOC = standard of care; ULN = upper limit of normal; VTE = venous thromboembolism
References
1. Berger JS, Kornblith LZ, Gong MN, et al. Effect of P2Y12 inhibitors on survival free of organ support among non-critically ill hospitalized patients
with COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2022;327(3):227-236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35040887.
2. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Aspirin in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): a randomised, controlled, open-label,
platform trial. Lancet. 2022;399(10320):143-151. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34800427.
3. REMAP-CAP Writing Committee for the REMAP-CAP Investigators. Effect of antiplatelet therapy on survival and organ support-free days in
critically ill patients with COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2022;327(13):1247-1259. Available at:
4. Bohula EA, Berg DD, Lopes MS, et al. Anticoagulation and antiplatelet therapy for prevention of venous and arterial thrombotic events in critically ill
patients with COVID-19: COVID-PACT. Circulation. 2022;146(18):1344-1356. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36036760.

Miscellaneous Drugs
Fluvoxamine
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends against the use of fluvoxamine for the treatment
of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients (AIIa).
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of the combination of inhaled
budesonide plus fluvoxamine for the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients.
• Patients with COVID-19 who are receiving fluvoxamine for an underlying condition should continue this therapy as
directed by their health care provider (AIII).
Intravenous Immunoglobulin
• The Panel recommends against the use of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) for the treatment of acute COVID-19
in adults and children, except in a clinical trial (AIII). This recommendation should not preclude the use of IVIG when
it is otherwise indicated for the treatment of underlying conditions or complications that arise during the course of
COVID-19.
• For the Panel’s recommendations on the use of IVIG in people with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children
(MIS-C) or multisystem inflammatory syndrome in adults (MIS-A) and a discussion of the clinical data that support those
recommendations, see Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A.
Ivermectin
• The Panel recommends against the use of ivermectin for the treatment of COVID-19 (AIIa).
Metformin
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of metformin for the treatment of
COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients.
• The Panel recommends against the use of metformin for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized patients, except
in a clinical trial (BIII).
• Patients with COVID-19 who are receiving metformin for an underlying condition should continue this therapy as
directed by their health care provider (AIII).
The Panel reviewed clinical trials that evaluated the use of the anti-inflammatory drug colchicine for the treatment of
COVID-19; however, these trials failed to show a benefit of using colchicine in patients with COVID-19.

Fluvoxamine
Fluvoxamine is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) that is approved by the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder and is used for other
conditions, including depression. Fluvoxamine is not approved by the FDA for the treatment of any
infection.
In a murine sepsis model, fluvoxamine was found to bind to the sigma-1 receptor on immune cells,
resulting in reduced production of inflammatory cytokines.1 In an in vitro study of human endothelial
cells and macrophages, fluvoxamine reduced the expression of inflammatory genes.2
Recommendations
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends against the use of
fluvoxamine for the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients (AIIa).
the combination of inhaled budesonide plus fluvoxamine for the treatment of COVID-19 in
• Patients with COVID-19 who are receiving fluvoxamine for an underlying condition should
continue this therapy as directed by their health care provider (AIII).
Rationale
Six randomized trials have studied the use of fluvoxamine for the treatment of nonhospitalized patients
with COVID-19.3-8 The TOGETHER and STOP COVID 2 trials enrolled unvaccinated patients with
COVID-19 who had at least 1 risk factor for disease progression.3,5 These studies did not identify
a consistent benefit of using fluvoxamine in these patients, although STOP COVID 2 was stopped
early due to low primary outcome rates. Other outpatient therapies (i.e., ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir
[Paxlovid], remdesivir) have been shown to be effective in preventing hospitalization or death in
unvaccinated patients who are at high risk of disease progression. In subsequent trials where the
majority of enrolled patients were vaccinated against COVID-19, fluvoxamine did not significantly
reduce the risk of hospitalization or death, the time to recovery, or health care utilization.6-8 In several of
these studies, fluvoxamine was associated with decreased adherence and/or an increase in the occurrence
of nonserious adverse effects, primarily gastrointestinal symptoms.3,5,6
The TOGETHER trial was a large, double-blind, placebo-controlled, adaptive randomized trial in Brazil
that evaluated the use of inhaled budesonide plus oral fluvoxamine in patients with COVID-19.9 Over
90% of the patients had received at least 2 doses of a COVID-19 vaccine. Treatment with this combination
significantly reduced the incidence of the primary outcome, which was a composite of hospitalization or
retention in an emergency setting for >6 hours. The proportion of patients who were hospitalized was the
same in the treatment and placebo arms (0.9% vs. 1.1%), and the treatment did not significantly impact
secondary outcomes such as health care attendance or the need for an emergency setting visit. It is unclear
how the >6-hour emergency setting outcome translates to other settings. In addition, treatment with
budesonide plus fluvoxamine was associated with significantly more adverse events.
Summaries of the studies that informed the Panel’s recommendations can be found in Table 7a.

When fluvoxamine is used to treat psychiatric conditions, the most common adverse effect is nausea, but
adverse effects can include other gastrointestinal effects (e.g., diarrhea, indigestion), neurologic effects
(e.g., asthenia, insomnia, somnolence, anxiety, headache), and, rarely, suicidal ideation.
Fluvoxamine is a cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 substrate, a potent inhibitor of CYP1A2 and CYP2C19,
and a moderate inhibitor of CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4.10 Fluvoxamine can enhance the
serotonergic effects of other SSRIs or monoamine oxidase inhibitors, resulting in serotonin syndrome;
therefore, it should not be used within 2 weeks of receiving other SSRIs or monoamine oxidase
inhibitors. Fluvoxamine may enhance the anticoagulant effects of antiplatelets and anticoagulants.
Patients who are receiving these drugs should be closely monitored.

Fluvoxamine is not thought to increase the risk of congenital abnormalities; however, the data on its
use in pregnant individuals are limited.11,12 An association between SSRI use in the late third trimester
and a small increase in the risk of primary persistent pulmonary hypertension in newborns has not been
excluded, although the absolute risk is likely low.13
Fluvoxamine is approved by the FDA for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder in children
aged ≥8 years.14 The adverse effects of SSRI use seen in children are similar to those seen in adults,
although children and adolescents appear to have higher rates of activation and vomiting than adults.15
There are no data on the use of fluvoxamine for the prevention or treatment of COVID-19 in children.
References
1. Rosen DA, Seki SM, Fernández-Castañeda A, et al. Modulation of the sigma-1 receptor-IRE1 pathway
is beneficial in preclinical models of inflammation and sepsis. Sci Transl Med. 2019;11(478):eaau5266.
2. Rafiee L, Hajhashemi V, Javanmard SH. Fluvoxamine inhibits some inflammatory genes expression in LPS/
stimulated human endothelial cells, U937 macrophages, and carrageenan-induced paw edema in rat. Iran J
Basic Med Sci. 2016;19(9):977-984. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27803785.
3. Reis G, Dos Santos Moreira-Silva EA, Medeiros Silva DC, et al. Effect of early treatment with fluvoxamine
on risk of emergency care and hospitalisation among patients with COVID-19: the TOGETHER randomised,
platform clinical trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2022;10(1):e42-e51. Available at:
4. Lenze EJ, Mattar C, Zorumski CF, et al. Fluvoxamine vs placebo and clinical deterioration in outpatients with
symptomatic COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020;324(22):2292-2300. Available at:
5. Reiersen AM, Mattar C, Bender Ignacio RA, et al. The STOP COVID 2 study: fluvoxamine vs placebo for
outpatients with symptomatic COVID-19, a fully remote randomized controlled trial. Open Forum Infect Dis.
2023;10(8):ofad419. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37622035.
6. Stewart TG, Rebolledo PA, Mourad A, et al. Higher-dose fluvoxamine and time to sustained recovery in
outpatients with COVID-19: the ACTIV-6 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;Published online ahead of
print. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37976072.
7. McCarthy MW, Naggie S, Boulware DR, et al. Effect of fluvoxamine vs placebo on time to sustained recovery
in outpatients with mild to moderate COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;329(4):296-305.

8. Bramante CT, Huling JD, Tignanelli CJ, et al. Randomized trial of metformin, ivermectin, and fluvoxamine
for COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(7):599-610. Available at:
9. Reis G, Dos Santos Moreira Silva EA, Medeiros Silva DC, et al. Oral fluvoxamine with inhaled budesonide
for treatment of early-onset COVID-19: a randomized platform trial. Ann Intern Med. 2023;176(5):667-675.
10. Hemeryck A, Belpaire FM. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and cytochrome P-450 mediated drug-drug
interactions: an update. Curr Drug Metab. 2002;3(1):13-37. Available at:
11. Einarson A, Choi J, Einarson TR, Koren G. Incidence of major malformations in infants following
antidepressant exposure in pregnancy: results of a large prospective cohort study. Can J Psychiatry.
12. Furu K, Kieler H, Haglund B, et al. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and venlafaxine in early pregnancy
and risk of birth defects: population based cohort study and sibling design. BMJ. 2015;350:h1798. Available
13. Huybrechts KF, Bateman BT, Palmsten K, et al. Antidepressant use late in pregnancy and risk of persistent
pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. JAMA. 2015;313(21):2142-2151. Available at:
14. Fluvoxamine maleate tablets [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2019. Available at:
15. Safer DJ, Zito JM. Treatment-emergent adverse events from selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors by age
group: children versus adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2006;16(1-2):159-169. Available at:

Table 7a. Fluvoxamine: Selected Clinical Trial Data
The clinical trials described in this table do not represent all the trials thatResults
Methods the Panel reviewed while developing the recommendations
Limitations and Interpretation
for fluvoxamine. The studies summarized below are the randomized clinical trials that have had the greatest impact on the Panel’s1
ACTIV-6: Decentralized, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Platform Trial of Low-Dose Fluvoxamine in Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-19
recommendations.
• Aged ≥30 years • Mean age 47 years; 57% women; 81% White • Low number of some clinical events, such as
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 nasopharyngeal RT-PCR result or • 36% with BMI ≥30; 24% with HTN hospitalization
antigen test result • 67% received ≥2 doses of a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. Interpretation
• ≥2 COVID-19 symptoms for ≤7 days • Median of 5 days from symptom onset to receipt of • In outpatients with mild to moderate
Key Exclusion Criterion study drug COVID-19, fluvoxamine 50 mg twice daily for
10 days did not reduce the time to recovery
• Receipt of fluvoxamine in past 14 days Primary Outcome or the incidence of clinical events such as
Interventions • Median time to recovery: 12 days in fluvoxamine hospitalization, urgent care visits, or ED
arm vs. 13 days in placebo arm (HR 0.96; 95% CrI, visits.
• Fluvoxamine 50 mg PO twice daily for 10 days (n = 674)
0.86–1.06)
• Placebo (n = 614; 326 received matching placebo, 288
received placebo from another study arm) Secondary Outcomes
• Hospitalization or death by Day 28: 0.2% in
Primary Endpoint
fluvoxamine arm vs. 0.3% in placebo arm (3 events
• Time to recovery, defined as time to third day of 3 total)
consecutive days without symptoms
• Urgent care visit, ED visit, or hospitalization by Day
Key Secondary Endpoints 28: 3.9% in fluvoxamine arm vs. 3.8% in placebo
• Hospitalization or death by Day 28 arm (HR 1.1; 95% CrI, 0.5–1.8)

ACTIV-6: Decentralized, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Platform Trial of High-Dose Fluvoxamine in Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-192
• Aged ≥30 years • Median age 50 years; 66% women; 73% White • Low number of some clinical events, such as
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 nasopharyngeal RT-PCR result or • 36% with BMI ≥30; 26% with HTN hospitalization
antigen test result • 77% received ≥2 doses of a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. Interpretation
• ≥2 COVID-19 symptoms for ≤7 days • Median of 5 days from symptom onset to receipt of • In outpatients with mild to moderate
Key Exclusion Criterion study drug COVID-19, fluvoxamine 100 mg twice daily
did not reduce the time to symptom recovery
• Receipt of fluvoxamine or other selective serotonin or Primary Outcome or the incidence of clinical events such as
norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors in past 14 days • Median time to recovery: 10 days in fluvoxamine hospitalization, urgent care visits, or ED
Interventions arm vs. 10 days in placebo arm (HR 0.99; 95% CrI, visits.
0.89–1.09)
• Fluvoxamine 50 mg PO twice daily for 1 day, then
fluvoxamine 100 mg PO twice daily for 12 days (n = 589) Secondary Outcomes
• Placebo (n = 586) • Hospitalization or death by Day 28: 0.2% in
fluvoxamine arm vs. 0.3% in placebo arm (3 events
Primary Endpoint
total)
• Time to recovery, defined as time to third day of 3
• Urgent care visit, ED visit, or hospitalization by Day
consecutive days without symptoms
28: 2.4% in fluvoxamine arm vs. 3.6% in placebo
Key Secondary Endpoints arm (HR 0.69; 95% CrI, 0.27–1.21)

COVID-OUT: Randomized Trial of Metformin, Ivermectin, and Fluvoxamine in Patients With COVID-193
• Aged 30–85 years • Median age 43–46 years; 54% women; 82% • In this trial, the study arms that did not include
• BMI ≥25 or ≥23 if Asian or Latinx White metformin were underpowered to detect differences
• 27% with CVD; 47% with BMI ≥30 in the primary endpoint.
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection within 3
days of randomization • 56% received primary vaccination series. Interpretation
• <7 days of symptoms • Mean of 5 days from symptom onset to • Fluvoxamine did not impact the incidence
randomization of COVID-19–related complications such as
Key Exclusion Criteria hospitalization.
• Immunocompromised Primary Outcome
• Fluvoxamine did not impact symptom severity.
• Hepatic impairment, severe kidney disease • Composite of hypoxemia, ED visit,
hospitalization, or death by Day 14: 24% in
Interventions fluvoxamine arm vs. 25% in control arm (aOR
• Fluvoxamine 50 mg PO twice daily for 14 days (n = 334) 0.94; 95% CI, 0.66–1.36)
• Control (n = 327) Secondary Outcomes
Primary Endpoint • Hospitalization by Day 14: 1.8% in
• Composite of hypoxemia (as measured by a home pulse fluvoxamine arm vs. 1.5% in control arm (aOR
oximeter), ED visit, hospitalization, or death by Day 14 1.11; 95% CI, 0.33–3.76).
• Composite of ED visit, hospitalization, or
Key Secondary Endpoints death: 5.5% in fluvoxamine arm vs. 4.6% in
• Individual components of the composite endpoint control arm (aOR 1.17; 95% CI, 0.57–2.40)
• Total symptom severity score • No deaths occurred in either arm.
• Drug interruption or discontinuation • No difference between arms in total symptom
severity score over 14 days
• Drug interruption or discontinuation: 30% in
those who only received fluvoxamine vs. 25%
in those who only received placebo

TOGETHER: Double-Blind, Adaptive RCT of Fluvoxamine in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Brazil4
• Aged ≥50 years or aged ≥18 years with comorbidities • Median age 50 years; 58% women; 95% self- • The >6-hour ED observation endpoint has not
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection identified as mixed race been used in other studies of interventions for
• 13% with uncontrolled HTN; 13% with type 2 nonhospitalized patients who are at high risk of
• ≤7 days of symptoms hospitalization and death.
DM; 50% with BMI ≥30
Key Exclusion Criteria • Hospitalization or ED observation for >24 hours
• Mean of 3.8 days from symptom onset to
• Use of an SSRI randomization was analyzed in a post hoc analysis.
• Severe mental illness • As this was an adaptive platform trial where
Primary Outcome
• Cirrhosis, recent seizures, severe ventricular cardiac multiple investigational treatments or placebos
• Composite of ED observation >6 hours or were being evaluated simultaneously, not all
arrhythmia hospitalization by Day 28: 11% in fluvoxamine patients in the placebo arm received a placebo
Interventions arm vs. 16% in placebo arm (relative risk 0.68; that was matched to fluvoxamine by route of
• Fluvoxamine 100 mg PO twice daily for 10 days (n = 741) 95% CrI, 0.52–0.88) administration, dosing frequency, or duration of
therapy.
• Placebo (n = 756; route, dosing frequency, and duration Secondary Outcomes
of placebo may have differed from fluvoxamine for some • 87% of clinical events were hospitalizations. • PP analyses are not randomized comparisons, and
patients) they introduce bias when adherence is associated
• No difference between arms in COVID-19– with factors that influence the outcome.
Primary Endpoint related hospitalizations: 10% in fluvoxamine
• Composite of ED observation >6 hours or hospitalization arm vs. 13% in placebo arm (OR 0.77; 95% CI, • Adherence was self-reported and not verified.
for COVID-19 by Day 28 0.55–1.05) Interpretation
• Lower risk of hospitalization or ED observation • Fluvoxamine reduced the proportion of patients
Key Secondary Endpoints >24 hours in fluvoxamine arm than in placebo who met the composite endpoint of COVID-19–
• COVID-19–related hospitalization by Day 28 arm (relative risk 0.74; 95% CI, 0.56–0.98)5 related hospitalization or retention in an ED for >6
• Composite of hospitalization or ED observation >24 hours • No difference between arms in time to hours.
• Time to symptom resolution symptom resolution • The use of fluvoxamine did not impact the
• Adherence to study drugs, defined as receiving >80% of • Adherence: 74% in fluvoxamine arm vs. 82% incidence of COVID-19-related hospitalizations
possible doses in placebo arm (OR 0.62; 95% CI, 0.48–0.81) but did reduce the need for hospitalization or ED
• 11% in fluvoxamine arm vs. 8% in observations >24 hours.
• Mortality in both the primary ITT population and a PP
population that included patients who took >80% of the placebo arm stopped drug due to issues of • It is difficult to define the clinical relevance of the
study medication doses tolerability. >6-hour ED observation endpoint and apply it to
• Mortality (ITT): 2% in fluvoxamine arm vs. 3% practice settings in different countries.
in placebo arm (OR 0.68; 95% CI, 0.36–1.27) • Fluvoxamine did not have a consistent impact on
• Mortality (PP): <1% in fluvoxamine arm vs. 2% mortality.
in placebo arm (OR 0.09; 95% CI, 0.01–0.47) • Fluvoxamine did not impact the time to symptom
resolution.

STOP COVID 2: Fully Remote RCT of Fluvoxamine Versus Placebo in Outpatients With Symptomatic COVID-196
• Aged ≥30 years • Median age 47 years; 62% women; 27% • Small sample size compared to other trials
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 PCR result per patient self-report non-White • Short follow-up period
• ≤7 days of symptoms • 44% with obesity; 21% with HTN
Interpretation
• ≥1 risk factor for clinical deterioration • Median of 5 days from symptom onset to
• Fluvoxamine did not reduce the proportion of patients
randomization
Key Exclusion Criteria who experienced clinical deterioration by Day 15.
Primary Outcome
• Unstable medical comorbidities
• Clinical deterioration: 4.8% in
• Significant interacting medications fluvoxamine arm vs. 5.5% in placebo arm
Interventions (absolute difference 0.68%; 95% CI, -3.0
• Fluvoxamine 50 mg PO for 1 dose, then fluvoxamine 100 to 4.4)
mg PO twice daily through Day 15 (n = 272) Secondary Outcomes
• Placebo (n = 275) • GI AEs were significantly more common
Primary Endpoint in fluvoxamine arm
• Clinical deterioration within 15 days of randomization.
Clinical deterioration was defined as:
• Having dyspnea or being hospitalized for dyspnea or
pneumonia; and
• Having SpO2 <92% on room air or requiring
supplemental oxygen to attain SpO2 ≥92%

STOP COVID: Double-Blind RCT of Fluvoxamine in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in the United States7
• Aged ≥18 years • Mean age 46 years; 72% women; 25% • Small sample size
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 PCR result Black • Short follow-up period
• ≤7 days of symptoms • 56% with obesity; 20% with HTN; 17% • Ascertaining clinical deterioration was challenging
with asthma because all assessments were done remotely.
• Median of 4 days from symptom onset to • 24% of patients stopped responding to follow-up prior
• Immunocompromised randomization to Day 15 but were included in the final analysis.
• Unstable medical comorbidities Primary Outcome Interpretation
Interventions • Clinical deterioration: 0% in fluvoxamine • Fluvoxamine reduced the proportion of patients who
• Fluvoxamine 50 mg PO for 1 dose, then fluvoxamine 100 arm vs. 8.3% in placebo arm (absolute experienced clinical deterioration.
mg PO twice daily, then fluvoxamine 100 mg PO 3 times difference 8.7%; 95% CI, 1.8% to 16.4%)
• Due to significant limitations, it is difficult to draw
daily through Day 15 (n = 80) Secondary Outcome definitive conclusions about the efficacy of using
• Placebo (n = 72) • No patients in fluvoxamine arm fluvoxamine to treat COVID-19.
Primary Endpoint and 4 patients in placebo arm were
• Clinical deterioration within 15 days of randomization. hospitalized.
Clinical deterioration was defined as:
• Having dyspnea or being hospitalized for dyspnea or
pneumonia; and
• Having SpO2 <92% on room air or requiring
supplemental oxygen to attain SpO2 ≥92%
• Hospitalization by Day 15

TOGETHER: Randomized Platform Trial of Oral Fluvoxamine Plus Inhaled Budesonide for the Treatment of Early Onset COVID-198
• Aged ≥50 years or aged ≥18 years with comorbidities • Median age 51 years; 61% women • Multiple investigational treatments or placebos
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • 42% with BMI >30; 44% with HTN; 68% with were evaluated simultaneously. Not all patients in
multiple comorbidities the placebo arm received a matched placebo.
• ≤7 days of symptoms
• 94% received ≥2 doses of a COVID-19 vaccine. Interpretation
Primary Outcome • In adult outpatients with mild COVID-19,
• Use of an SSRI fluvoxamine plus inhaled budesonide reduced
• Severe mental illness • Composite of ED observation >6 hours or the need for ED observations >6 hours or
hospitalization by Day 28: 1.8% in fluvoxamine hospitalization when compared with placebo.
• Cirrhosis, recent seizures, severe ventricular cardiac plus inhaled budesonide arm vs. 3.7% in
arrhythmia placebo arm (relative risk 0.50; 95% CrI, • The use of fluvoxamine plus inhaled budesonide did
Interventions 0.25–0.92) not reduce hospitalization, health care attendance,
or the occurrence of any ED visit.
• Fluvoxamine 100 mg PO twice daily plus budesonide Secondary Outcomes
800 µg inhaled twice daily for 10 days (n = 738) • It is difficult to define the clinical relevance of the
• Hospitalization by Day 28: 0.9% in fluvoxamine >6-hour ED observation endpoint and apply it to
• Placebo (n = 738; route, dosing frequency, and duration plus inhaled budesonide arm vs. 1.1% in practice settings in different countries.
for some patients may have differed from treatment placebo arm
group) • The use of fluvoxamine plus inhaled budesonide
• Health care attendance by Day 28: 2.6% in resulted in more AEs than placebo.
Primary Endpoint fluvoxamine plus inhaled budesonide arm vs.
• Composite of ED observation >6 hours or hospitalization 4.1% in placebo arm (relative risk 0.64; 95%
for COVID-19 by Day 28 CrI, 0.36–1.11)
• Any ED visit by Day 28: 12.2% in fluvoxamine
Key Secondary Endpoints plus inhaled budesonide arm vs. 13.0% in
• Hospitalization by Day 28 placebo arm
• Health care attendance by Day 28 • Treatment-emergent AEs: 17.6% in fluvoxamine
• Any ED visit by Day 28 plus inhaled budesonide arm vs. 12.9% in
placebo arm (relative risk 1.37; 95% CrI,
1.07–1.75)
• Most AEs were grade 2.
Key: AE = adverse event; BMI = body mass index; CVD = cardiovascular disease; DM = diabetes mellitus; ED = emergency department; GI = gastrointestinal; HTN =
hypertension; ITT = intention-to-treat; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PCR = polymerase chain reaction; PO = oral; PP = per protocol; RCT =
randomized controlled trial; RT-PCR = reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; SpO2 = oxygen saturation; SSRI = selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

References
1. McCarthy MW, Naggie S, Boulware DR, et al. Effect of fluvoxamine vs placebo on time to sustained recovery in outpatients with mild to moderate
2. Stewart TG, Rebolledo PA, Mourad A, et al. Higher-dose fluvoxamine and time to sustained recovery in outpatients with COVID-19: the ACTIV-6
randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;330(24):2354-2363. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37976072.
3. Bramante CT, Huling JD, Tignanelli CJ, et al. Randomized trial of metformin, ivermectin, and fluvoxamine for COVID-19. N Engl J Med.
4. Reis G, Dos Santos Moreira-Silva EA, Medeiros Silva DC, et al. Effect of early treatment with fluvoxamine on risk of emergency care and
hospitalisation among patients with COVID-19: the TOGETHER randomised, platform clinical trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2022;10(1):e42-e51.
5. Reis G, Mills E. Fluvoxamine for the treatment of COVID-19 - Author's reply. Lancet Glob Health. 2022;10(3):e333. Available at:
6. Reiersen AM, Mattar C, Bender Ignacio RA, et al. The STOP COVID 2 study: fluvoxamine vs placebo for outpatients with symptomatic COVID-19, a
fully remote randomized controlled trial. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023;10(8):ofad419. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37622035.
7. Lenze EJ, Mattar C, Zorumski CF, et al. Fluvoxamine vs placebo and clinical deterioration in outpatients with symptomatic COVID-19: a randomized
8. Reis G, Dos Santos Moreira Silva EA, Medeiros Silva DC, et al. Oral fluvoxamine with inhaled budesonide for treatment of early-onset COVID-19: a
randomized platform trial. Ann Intern Med. 2023;176(5):667-675. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37068273.

Recommendations
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends against the use of
intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) for the treatment of acute COVID-19 in adults and
children, except in a clinical trial (AIII). This recommendation should not preclude the use of
IVIG when it is otherwise indicated for the treatment of underlying conditions or complications
that arise during the course of COVID-19.
• For the Panel’s recommendations on the use of IVIG in people with multisystem inflammatory
syndrome in children (MIS-C) or multisystem inflammatory syndrome in adults (MIS-A) and a
discussion of the clinical data that support those recommendations, see Therapeutic Management
of Hospitalized Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A.
Rationale
It is unknown whether IVIG products derived from pooled donor plasma contain high titers of antibodies
that neutralize SARS-CoV-2. Information on SARS-CoV-2 antibody titer was not reported in the
clinical trials that evaluated the use of IVIG for the treatment of COVID-19. The levels of SARS-CoV-2
antibodies in IVIG products likely vary depending on which SARS-CoV-2 variant was dominant when
the plasma products were collected, and different lots of IVIG may have different titers of antibodies.
Although IVIG preparations may have general immunomodulatory effects, these theoretical effects do
not appear to benefit patients with COVID-19.1

IVIG is commonly used during pregnancy for indications such as alloimmune thrombocytopenia.2
However, because there is no clear evidence that IVIG is an effective treatment for acute COVID-19
in nonpregnant adults, the Panel recommends against the use of IVIG for the treatment of acute
COVID-19 in pregnant individuals, except in a clinical trial (AIII). This recommendation should not
preclude the use of IVIG when it is otherwise indicated for the treatment of underlying conditions or
complications that arise during the course of COVID-19.
No comparative studies have evaluated the use of IVIG in pediatric patients with acute COVID-19.
IVIG is used in combination with glucocorticoids to treat MIS-C in pediatric patients.3-6 However,
because there is no clear evidence that IVIG is an effective treatment for acute COVID-19 in adults, the
Panel recommends against the use of IVIG for the treatment of acute COVID-19 in children, except
in a clinical trial (AIII). This recommendation should not preclude the use of IVIG when it is otherwise
indicated.
For the Panel’s recommendations for children with MIS-C, see Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized
Children With MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A.
Clinical Data
In a meta-analysis of 6 randomized controlled trials that enrolled hospitalized patients with COVID-19,
the use of non-SARS-CoV-2–specific IVIG was not associated with a survival benefit.1 All of the

included trials were conducted in 2020, when the presence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in blood donors
was likely uncommon. None of the studies measured the titers of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. Blood
supplies collected since that time likely have a higher level of these antibodies, and the IVIG derived
from those supplies could be expected to have a higher level of SARS-specific antibodies. A British
study performed in 2022 evaluated serum anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike antibody titers before and after IVIG
infusion in 35 patients with primary immunodeficiencies who were receiving regular immunoglobulin
replacement therapy.7 The study found that anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike antibody titers and the neutralization
capacity of serum increased after IVIG infusion in most patients.
Different brands of commercially available IVIG products exhibit different levels of neutralizing
activity against SARS-CoV-2 variants (e.g., BA.1, BA.4, BA.5, BQ.1.1, XBB). A study compared the
anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels in U.S. IVIG products that had expiration dates from 2020 to 2025.8
The study found that products with expiration dates in 2023 and 2024 were more likely to have higher
levels of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies than those with earlier expiration dates. In addition, the study
reported an association between later expiration dates and increased inhibition of angiotensin-converting
enzyme 2 binding activity. Preparations that were intended for intravenous administration had higher
titers than those intended for subcutaneous administration. However, the neutralizing activity against the
Omicron variant was lower than the activity against prior variants, and the efficacy of using IVIG for the
treatment of COVID-19 remains uncertain.
These data do not provide clear evidence for a clinical benefit of administering IVIG to people with
COVID-19. Randomized controlled trials are needed to further define the role of IVIG in the treatment
of COVID-19. The use of non-SARS-CoV-2–specific IVIG for the treatment of COVID-19 should be
limited to clinical trials.
Concentrated antibody preparations derived from pooled plasma collected from individuals who have
recovered from COVID-19 can be manufactured as SARS-CoV-2 hyperimmunoglobulin (hIVIG).
Treatment with SARS-CoV-2 hIVIG did not alter patient outcomes in a large randomized controlled
trial of hospitalized patients with COVID-19, and hIVIG is not currently available for clinical use in the
United States.9
References
1. Lai CC, Chen WC, Chen CY, Wei YF. The effect of intravenous immunoglobulins on the outcomes of patients
with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Expert Rev Anti Infect
Ther. 2022;20(10):1333-1340. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35786174.
2. Lakkaraja M, Berkowitz RL, Vinograd CA, et al. Omission of fetal sampling in treatment of subsequent
pregnancies in fetal-neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016;215(4):471.e1-471.
e9. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27131591.
3. Belhadjer Z, Auriau J, Méot M, et al. Addition of corticosteroids to immunoglobulins is associated with
recovery of cardiac function in multi-inflammatory syndrome in children. Circulation. 2020;142(23):2282-
4. Ouldali N, Toubiana J, Antona D, et al. Association of intravenous immunoglobulins plus methylprednisolone
vs immunoglobulins alone with course of fever in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children. JAMA.
5. Son MBF, Murray N, Friedman K, et al. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children—initial therapy and
outcomes. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(1):23-34. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34133855.
6. McArdle AJ, Vito O, Patel H, et al. Treatment of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children. N Engl J
7. Upasani V, Townsend K, Wu MY, et al. Commercial immunoglobulin products contain neutralising antibodies

against SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;77(7):950-960. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.
8. Cousins K, Sano K, Lam B, et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in immunoglobulin products. J Allergy
Clin Immunol Pract. 2023;11(8):2534-2541.e2. Available at:
9. ITAC Study Group. Hyperimmune immunoglobulin for hospitalised patients with COVID-19 (ITAC): a
double-blind, placebo-controlled, Phase 3, randomised trial. Lancet. 2022;399(10324):530-540. Available at:

Ivermectin
Ivermectin is a Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved antiparasitic drug used to treat several
neglected tropical diseases, including onchocerciasis, helminthiases, and scabies.1 For these indications,
ivermectin has been widely used and is generally well tolerated.1,2 Ivermectin is not approved by the
FDA for the treatment of any viral infection, including COVID-19. See the FDA webpage Why You
Should Not Use Ivermectin to Treat or Prevent COVID-19 for more information.
Ivermectin has been shown to inhibit the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in cell cultures.3 However,
pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies suggest that achieving the plasma concentrations
necessary for the antiviral efficacy detected in vitro would require administration of doses up to 100-fold
higher than those approved for use in humans.4,5
The safety and efficacy of ivermectin for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 have been
evaluated in clinical trials and observational cohorts. Summaries of the studies that informed the
COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel’s (the Panel) recommendation can be found in Table 7b. The
Panel reviewed additional studies, but these studies are not summarized in Table 7b because they have
study design limitations or results that make them less definitive and informative.
Recommendation
• The Panel recommends against the use of ivermectin for the treatment of COVID-19 (AIIa).
Rationale
The Panel’s recommendation is primarily informed by adequately powered, randomized trials of
ivermectin that reported clinical outcomes. Studies that randomized participants to receive ivermectin or
a matched placebo had the greatest impact on the Panel’s recommendation.6-13
Trials have failed to find a clinical benefit of using ivermectin to treat COVID-19 in outpatients. In
TOGETHER, an adaptive platform trial conducted in Brazil, there was no apparent difference between
the ivermectin and placebo arms for the primary outcome of risk of emergency department visits
or hospitalization (14.7% vs. 16.4%).14 In addition, there was no statistically significant difference
between the ivermectin and placebo arms in mortality (3.1% vs. 3.5%). In COVID-OUT, a randomized
factorial trial, the use of ivermectin did not reduce the occurrence of a composite outcome of emergency
department visits, hospitalization, or death when compared with a matched control (5.7% vs. 4.1%).6
The ACTIV-6 trial was an adaptive platform trial conducted in outpatients with mild to moderate
COVID-19 in the United States.15,16 Participants were randomized to receive an ivermectin regimen
(either 400 μg/kg for 3 days or 600 μg/kg for 6 days) or a matching placebo. In the 400 μg/kg phase of
the study, the median time to sustained recovery was 12 days for the ivermectin arm and 13 days for the
placebo arm. In the 600 μg/kg phase of the study, the median time to sustained recovery was 11 days for
both arms.
I-TECH, an open-label trial conducted in Malaysia, found no difference between the ivermectin
and standard of care arms in the occurrence of the primary outcome of risk of progression to severe
COVID-19 (21.6% vs. 17.3%).17 Patients in the ivermectin arm had a lower risk of mortality than those
in the standard of care arm (relative risk 0.31; 95% CI, 0.09–1.11; P = 0.09), but this difference was not
statistically significant.

The study populations in most of the reviewed trials were patients with mild to moderate COVID-19
who had a relatively low risk of disease progression, and the number of deaths was low (as expected). In
these randomized trials, completely excluding an effect of ivermectin on COVID-19 disease progression
is difficult because the trials were not powered to detect differences in secondary outcomes, such as
death. However, data from these trials do not provide evidence that the use of ivermectin is effective
for the treatment of COVID-19. For this reason, and because other medications now have demonstrated
clear clinical benefits for the treatment of COVID-19, the Panel recommends against the use of
ivermectin for the treatment of COVID-19 (AIIa).
See Table 7b for summaries of key studies that informed the Panel’s recommendation.
References
1. Omura S, Crump A. Ivermectin: panacea for resource-poor communities? Trends Parasitol. 2014;30(9):445-
2. Kircik LH, Del Rosso JQ, Layton AM, Schauber J. Over 25 years of clinical experience with ivermectin: an
overview of safety for an increasing number of indications. J Drugs Dermatol. 2016;15(3):325-332. Available
3. Caly L, Druce JD, Catton MG, Jans DA, Wagstaff KM. The FDA-approved drug ivermectin inhibits the
replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Antiviral Res. 2020;178:104787. Available at:
4. Chaccour C, Hammann F, Ramón-García S, Rabinovich NR. Ivermectin and COVID-19: keeping rigor in
times of urgency. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2020;102(6):1156-1157. Available at:
5. Guzzo CA, Furtek CI, Porras AG, et al. Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of escalating high doses of
ivermectin in healthy adult subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2002;42(10):1122-1133. Available at:
7. Vallejos J, Zoni R, Bangher M, et al. Ivermectin to prevent hospitalizations in patients with COVID-19
(IVERCOR-COVID19) a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. BMC Infect Dis.
8. López-Medina E, López P, Hurtado IC, et al. Effect of ivermectin on time to resolution of symptoms among
adults with mild COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021;325(14):1426-1435. Available at:
9. Buonfrate D, Chesini F, Martini D, et al. High-dose ivermectin for early treatment of COVID-19 (COVER
study): a randomised, double-blind, multicentre, phase II, dose-finding, proof-of-concept clinical trial. Int J
Antimicrob Agents. 2022;59(2):106516. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34999239.
10. Abd-Elsalam S, Noor RA, Badawi R, et al. Clinical study evaluating the efficacy of ivermectin in COVID-19
treatment: a randomized controlled study. J Med Virol. 2021;93(10):5833-5838. Available at:
11. Ravikirti, Roy R, Pattadar C, et al. Evaluation of ivermectin as a potential treatment for mild to moderate
COVID-19: a double-blind randomized placebo controlled trial in Eastern India. J Pharm Pharm Sci.
12. Mohan A, Tiwari P, Suri TM, et al. Single-dose oral ivermectin in mild and moderate COVID-19 (RIVET-
COV): a single-centre randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Infect Chemother. 2021;27(12):1743-1749.
13. Bermejo Galan LE, Dos Santos NM, Asato MS, et al. Phase 2 randomized study on chloroquine,

hydroxychloroquine or ivermectin in hospitalized patients with severe manifestations of SARS-CoV-2
infection. Pathog Glob Health. 2021;115(4):235-242. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/33682640.
14. TOGETHER Investigators. Effect of early treatment with ivermectin among patients with COVID-19. N Engl
15. Naggie S, Boulware DR, Lindsell CJ, et al. Effect of ivermectin vs placebo on time to sustained recovery in
outpatients with mild to moderate COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2022;328(16):1595-1603.
16. Naggie S, Boulware DR, Lindsell CJ, et al. Effect of higher-dose ivermectin for 6 days vs placebo on time to
sustained recovery in outpatients with COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;329(11):888-897.
17. Lim SCL, Hor CP, Tay KH, et al. Efficacy of ivermectin treatment on disease progression among adults with
mild to moderate COVID-19 and comorbidities: the I-TECH randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med.

Table 7b. Ivermectin: Selected Clinical Trial Data
The clinical trials described in this table are the RCTs that had the greatest impact on the Panel’s recommendation. The Panel reviewed other
clinical studies that evaluated the use of IVM for the treatment of COVID-19.1-26 However, those studies have limitations that make them less
definitive and informative than the studies summarized in this table.
ACTIV-6: Double-Blind RCT of Ivermectin 600 μg/kg in Outpatients With Mild to Moderate COVID-19 in the United States27
• Aged ≥30 years • Median age 48 years; 59.1% women • The low number of events limited
• Not hospitalized • 38.1% with BMI >30; 9.2% with DM; 26.8% with HTN the power to determine an effect on
hospitalization and death.
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 test result within past 10 days • 83.6% received ≥2 COVID-19 vaccine doses.
• ≥2 COVID-19 symptoms for ≤7 days • Median of 5 days from symptom onset to receipt of Interpretation
study drug • Among outpatients with COVID-19, IVM
Key Exclusion Criteria 600 μg/kg PO once daily for 6 days did
• End-stage kidney disease Primary Outcome not shorten time to sustained recovery
• Liver failure or decompensated cirrhosis • Median time to sustained recovery: 11 days in IVM arm or reduce incidence of hospitalization or
vs. 11 days in placebo arm (HR 1.02; 95% CrI, 0.92– death.
Interventions 1.13)
• IVM 600 μg/kg PO once daily for 6 days (n = 602) Secondary Outcome
• Placebo (n = 604) • Hospitalization or death by Day 28: 5 (0.8%) in IVM arm
Primary Endpoint vs. 2 (0.3%) in placebo arm
• Time to sustained recovery (i.e., ≥3 consecutive days Safety Outcomes
without symptoms) • Occurrence of AEs: 52 of 566 patients (9.2%) in IVM arm
Key Secondary Endpoint vs. 41 of 576 patients (7.1%) in placebo arm
• Hospitalization or death by Day 28 • Occurrence of SAEs: 5 of 566 patients (0.9%) in IVM arm
vs. 3 of 576 patients (0.5%) in placebo arm
Safety Endpoint
• Occurrence of AEs and SAEs

ACTIV-6: Double-Blind RCT of Ivermectin 400 μg/kg Once Daily in Outpatients With Mild to Moderate COVID-19 in the United States28
• Aged ≥30 years • Mean age 48 years; 59% women • The low number of events limited
• Not hospitalized • 41% with BMI >30; 11.5% with DM; 26% with HTN the power to determine an effect on
hospitalization and death.
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 test result within past 10 days • 47% received ≥2 COVID-19 vaccine doses.
• ≥2 COVID-19 symptoms for ≤7 days • Median of 6 days from symptom onset to receipt of study Interpretation
drug • Among outpatients with COVID-19, IVM
Key Exclusion Criteria 400 μg/kg PO once daily for 3 days did
• End-stage kidney disease Primary Outcome not shorten time to sustained recovery
• Liver failure or decompensated cirrhosis • Median time to sustained recovery: 12 days in IVM arm or reduce incidence of hospitalization or
vs. 13 days in placebo arm (HR 1.07; 95% CrI, 0.96– death.
Interventions 1.17)
• IVM 400 μg/kg PO once daily for 3 days (n = 817) Secondary Outcome
• Placebo (n = 774) • Hospitalization or death by Day 28: 10 (1.2%) in IVM arm
Primary Endpoint vs. 9 (1.2%) in placebo arm
• Time to sustained recovery (i.e., ≥3 consecutive days Safety Outcomes
without symptoms) • Occurrence of AEs: 24 of 766 patients (3.1%) in IVM arm
Key Secondary Endpoint vs. 27 of 724 patients (3.7%) in placebo arm
• Hospitalization or death by Day 28 • Occurrence of SAEs: 9 of 766 patients (1.2%) in IVM arm
vs. 9 of 724 patients (1.2%) in placebo arm
Safety Endpoint
• Occurrence of AEs and SAEs

TOGETHER: Double-Blind, Adaptive RCT of Ivermectin in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Brazil29
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 antigen test result • Median age 49 years; 46% aged ≥50 years; 58% • Health care facility capacity may have
• Within 7 days of symptom onset women; 95% self-identified as mixed race influenced the number and duration of
• Most prevalent risk factor: 50% with obesity ED visits and hospitalizations.
• ≥1 high-risk factor for disease progression (e.g., aged
>50 years, comorbidities, immunosuppression) • 44% within 3 days of symptom onset at enrollment • No details on safety outcomes (e.g., type
of treatment-emergent AEs) other than
Interventions Primary Outcome grading were reported.
• IVM 400 μg/kg PO once daily for 3 days (n = 679) • Composite of ED observation >6 hours or hospitalization Interpretation
• Placebo (n = 679; not all patients received IVM placebo) for COVID-19 by Day 28 (ITT): 100 (14.7%) in IVM arm vs.
111 (16.4%) in placebo arm (relative risk 0.90; 95% CrI, • In outpatients with recent SARS-CoV-2
Primary Endpoint 0.70–1.16) infection, IVM did not reduce the need
• Composite of ED observation >6 hours or hospitalization for ED visits or hospitalization when
• 171 (81%) of events were hospitalizations (ITT) compared with placebo.
for COVID-19 by Day 28
Secondary Outcomes
• No difference between IVM arm and placebo arm in:
• Viral clearance at Day 7
• Viral clearance at Day 7 (relative risk 1.00; 95% CrI,
• All-cause mortality 0.68–1.46)
• Occurrence of AEs • All-cause mortality: 21 (3.1%) vs. 24 (3.5%) (relative
risk 0.88; CrI, 0.49–1.55)

COVID-OUT: RCT of Metformin, Ivermectin, and Fluvoxamine in Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in the United States30
• Aged 30–85 years • Median age 46 years; 56% women; 82% White • Study included SpO2 measurements
• BMI ≥25 or ≥23 if Asian or Latinx • Median BMI 30 using home pulse oximeters as 1 of
the composite measures of the primary
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection within 3 days • 27% with CVD endpoint. However, the FDA has issued
of randomization • 52% received primary COVID-19 vaccination series. a statement concerning the accuracy
• ≤7 days of COVID-19 symptoms • Mean of 4.8 days of symptoms of these home pulse oximeters, making
Key Exclusion Criteria this study endpoint less reliable.
• Approximately 68% enrolled while Delta was the
• Immunocompromised dominant variant; approximately 29% enrolled while • SpO2 data were incomplete or missing
Omicron was dominant. for 30% of the patients.
• Hepatic impairment
Primary Outcomes • The low number of events limited
• Stage 4–5 chronic kidney disease or eGFR <45 mL/ the power to determine the effect on
min/1.73 m² • Composite of hypoxemia, ED visit, hospitalization, or hospitalization and death.
death by Day 14: 105 (25.8%) in IVM arm vs. 96 (24.6%)
Interventions Interpretations
in control arm (aOR 1.05; 95% CI, 0.76–1.45, P = 0.78)
• IVM 390–470 ug/kg PO once daily for 3 days (n = 410) in • IVM did not prevent the composite
• No difference between IVM alone arm and placebo alone
the following arms: endpoint of hypoxemia, ED visit,
arm in occurrence of primary endpoint (aOR 1.06; 95%
• IVM alone (n = 206) CI, 0.67–1.67) hospitalization, or death.
• Metformin plus IVM (n = 204) • ED visit, hospitalization, or death by Day 14 in a • No primary, secondary, or subgroup
• IVM control (n = 398), which included the following arms: prespecified secondary analysis: 23 (5.7%) in IVM arm analysis demonstrated a benefit for the
vs. 16 (4.1%) in control arm (aOR 1.39; 95% CI, 0.72– use of IVM over placebo.
• Placebo alone (n = 203)
2.69)
• Metformin alone (n = 195)
• Hospitalization or death by Day 14 in a prespecified
Primary Endpoints secondary analysis: 4 (1.0%) in IVM arm vs. 5 (1.3%) in
• Composite of hypoxemia (SpO2 ≤93%, as measured by a control arm (aOR 0.73; 95% CI, 0.19–2.77); 1 death in
home pulse oximeter), ED visit, hospitalization, or death IVM arm vs. 0 deaths in control arm
by Day 14 Secondary Outcomes
• A prespecified secondary analysis evaluated the • No difference between arms in total symptom severity
occurrence of ED visits, hospitalization, or death by Day score by Day 14
14.
• Drug discontinuation or interruption: 20% in IVM arm vs.
Key Secondary Endpoints 25% in placebo alone arm
• Total symptom severity score by Day 14, as measured by
a symptom severity scale
• Drug discontinuation or interruption

IVERCOR-COVID19: Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Ivermectin in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Argentina31
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result within 48 hours of • Mean age 42 years; 8% aged ≥65 years; 47% women • Study enrolled a young population with
screening • 24% with HTN; 10% with DM; 58% with ≥1 comorbidity few of the comorbidities that predict
disease progression.
Key Exclusion Criteria • Median of 4 days from symptom onset
• Required supplemental oxygen or hospitalization Interpretation
Primary Outcome
• Concomitant use of CQ or HCQ • Among patients who had recently
• Hospitalization for any reason: 5.6% in IVM arm vs. 8.3% acquired SARS-CoV-2 infection, there
Interventions in placebo arm (OR 0.65; 95% CI, 0.32–1.31; P = 0.23) was no evidence that IVM provided any
• Weight-based dose of IVM PO at enrollment and 24 Secondary Outcomes clinical benefit.
hours later for a maximum total dose of 48 mg (n = • Need for MV: 2% in IVM arm vs. 1% in placebo arm (P =
250) 0.7)
• Placebo (n = 251) • All-cause mortality: 2% in IVM arm vs. 1% in placebo
Primary Endpoint arm (P = 0.7)
• Hospitalization for any reason • Occurrence of AEs: 18% in IVM arm vs. 21% in placebo
arm (P = 0.6)
• Need for MV
• All-cause mortality

Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Ivermectin in Patients With Mild COVID-19 in Colombia32
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR or antigen test result • Median age 37 years; 4% aged ≥65 years in IVM arm, 8% • Due to low event rates, the primary
• ≤7 days of COVID-19 symptoms in placebo arm; 39% men in IVM arm, 45% in placebo endpoint changed from the proportion of
arm patients with clinical deterioration to the
• Mild disease time to symptom resolution during the
• 79% with no known comorbidities
Key Exclusion Criteria trial.
• Median of 5 days from symptom onset to randomization
• Asymptomatic disease • The study enrolled younger, healthier
Primary Outcome patients, a population that does not
• Severe pneumonia
• Median time to symptom resolution: 10 days in IVM arm typically develop severe COVID-19.
• Hepatic dysfunction vs. 12 days in placebo arm (HR 1.07; P = 0.53) Interpretation
Interventions • Symptoms resolved by Day 21: 82% in IVM arm vs. • In patients with mild COVID-19, IVM
• IVM 300 μg/kg PO once daily for 5 days (n = 200) 79% in placebo arm 300 μg/kg once daily for 5 days did not
• Placebo PO (n = 198) Secondary Outcomes improve the time to symptom resolution.
Primary Endpoint • No difference between arms in proportion of patients who
• Time to symptom resolution within 21 days showed clinical deterioration or required escalation of
care
Key Secondary Endpoints • Occurrence of AEs:
• Clinical deterioration • Discontinued treatment due to AEs: 8% in IVM arm vs.
• Escalation of care 3% in placebo arm
• Occurrence of AEs • No SAEs related to intervention

I-TECH: Open-Label RCT of Ivermectin in Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-19 in Malaysia33
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR or antigen test result • Mean age 63 years; 55% women • Open-label study
within 7 days of symptom onset • 68% received ≥1 COVID-19 vaccine dose; 52% received Interpretation
• Aged ≥50 years 2 doses.
• In patients with mild to moderate
• ≥1 comorbidities • Most common comorbidities: 75% with HTN; 54% with COVID-19, there was no evidence
DM; 24% with dyslipidemia that IVM provided any clinical benefit,
• Mean of 5 days symptom duration including no evidence that IVM reduced
• Required supplemental oxygen the risk of progression to severe disease.
• Severe hepatic impairment (ALT >10 times the ULN) Primary Outcome
• Progression to severe COVID-19 (mITT): 52 (21.6%)
Interventions
in IVM plus SOC arm vs. 43 (17.3%) in SOC alone arm
• IVM 400 μg/kg PO once daily for 5 days plus SOC (n = (relative risk 1.25; 95% CI, 0.87–1.80; P = 0.25)
241)
Secondary Outcomes
• SOC (n = 249)
• No difference between IVM plus SOC arm and SOC alone
Primary Endpoint arm in:
• Progression to severe COVID-19 (i.e., hypoxemia • In-hospital, all-cause mortality by Day 28: 3 (1.2%) vs.
requiring supplemental oxygen to maintain SpO2 ≥95%) 10 (4.0%) (relative risk 0.31; 95% CI, 0.09–1.11; P =
Key Secondary Endpoints 0.09)
• In-hospital, all-cause mortality by Day 28 • MV: 4 (1.7%) vs. 10 (4.0%) (relative risk 0.41; 95% CI,
0.13–1.30; P = 0.17)
• MV or ICU admission
• ICU admission: 6 (2.5%) vs. 8 (3.2%) (relative risk 0.78;
• Occurrence of AEs 95% CI, 0.27–2.20; P = 0.79)
• Occurrence of AEs: 33 (13.7%) in IVM plus SOC arm vs.
11 (4.4%) in SOC alone arm; most with diarrhea (14 vs. 4)

COVER: Phase 2, Double-Blind RCT of Ivermectin in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Italy34
• Asymptomatic or oligosymptomatic disease • Median age 47 years; 58% men • Small, Phase 2 study
• SARS-CoV-2 infection confirmed by RT-PCR result • 86% with COVID-19 symptoms • 90% of subjects screened were not
• Not hospitalized or receiving supplemental oxygen • 2.2% received a COVID-19 vaccine. enrolled for various reasons.
• Recruitment stopped early because of a
Key Exclusion Criteria Primary Outcomes
decline in the number of COVID-19 cases.
• CNS disease • No SAEs related to intervention
Interpretations
• Receiving dialysis • Mean log10 reduction in VL at Day 7: 2.9 in IVM 1,200 μg/
kg arm vs. 2.5 in IVM 600 μg/kg arm vs. 2.0 in placebo • A high dose of IVM (1,200 μg/kg) appears
• Severe medical condition with <6 months survival to be safe but not well tolerated; 34% of
prognosis arm (IVM 1,200 μg/kg vs. placebo, P = 0.099; IVM 600
μg/kg vs. placebo, P = 0.122) patients discontinued therapy due to AEs.
• Use of warfarin, antiviral agents, CQ, or HCQ • There was no significant difference in
Other Outcomes
Interventions reduction of VL between IVM and placebo
• 14 (15.1%) discontinued treatment: 11 (34.4%) in IVM arms.
• IVM 1,200 μg/kg PO once daily for 5 days (n = 32) 1,200 μg/kg arm vs. 2 (6.9%) in IVM 600 μg/kg arm vs. 1
• IVM 600 μg/kg plus placebo PO once daily for 5 days (n (3.1%) in placebo arm
= 29) • All discontinuations in IVM 1,200 μg/kg arm were due to
• Placebo PO (n = 32) tolerability
Primary Endpoints
• Number of SAEs
• Change in VL at Day 7
Other Endpoint

Open-Label RCT of Ivermectin in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Egypt35

• RT-PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection by pharyngeal • Mean age 42 years for IVM arm, 39 years for SOC arm; • Small, open-label study
swab 50% men
Interpretation
• Hospitalized with mild to moderate COVID-19 • 49% with ≥1 comorbidities
• The use of IVM did not reduce all-cause
Key Exclusion Criterion Primary Outcome mortality, hospital LOS, or the need
• Cardiac problems • All-cause mortality by 28 days: 3 (3.7%) in IVM arm vs. 4 for MV among patients with mild to
(4.9%) in SOC arm (P = 1.00) moderate COVID-19.
Interventions
• IVM 12 mg PO once daily for 3 days (n = 82) Secondary Outcomes
• SOC (n = 82) • Mean hospital LOS: 9 days in IVM arm vs. 11 days in SOC
arm (P = 0.085)
Primary Endpoint
• Need for MV: 3 (3.7%) in each arm (P = 1.00)
• All-cause mortality by 28 days
• Hospital LOS
• Need for MV

Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Ivermectin in Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-19 in India36
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR or antigen test result • Mean age 53 years; 28% women • Although the primary endpoint was a
• Hospitalized with mild to moderate COVID-19 • 35% with HTN; 36% with DM negative SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result
on Day 6, no RT-PCR result or an
Interventions • 79% with mild COVID-19 inconclusive RT-PCR result was reported
• IVM 12 mg PO once daily for 2 days (n = 55) • Mean of 6.9 days from symptom onset for 42% of patients in the IVM arm and
• Placebo PO (n = 57) • 100% received HCQ, steroids, and antibiotics; 21% 23% in the placebo arm.
received RDV; 6% received tocilizumab. • The time to discharge was not reported,
Primary Endpoint and outcomes after discharge were not
Primary Outcome
• Negative SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result on Day 6 evaluated.
• Negative SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result on Day 6: 24% in
Key Secondary Endpoints IVM arm vs. 32% in placebo arm (rate ratio 0.8; P = Interpretation
• Symptom resolution by Day 6 0.348) • IVM provided no significant virologic or
• Discharge by Day 10 Secondary Outcomes clinical benefit for patients with mild to
moderate COVID-19.
• Need for ICU admission or MV • Symptom resolution by Day 6: 84% in IVM arm vs. 90% in
• In-hospital mortality placebo arm (rate ratio 0.9; P = 0.36)
• Discharge by Day 10: 80% in IVM arm vs. 74% in placebo
arm (rate ratio 1.1; P = 0.43)
• No difference between arms in need for ICU admission or
MV
• In-hospital mortality: 0 in IVM arm (0%) vs. 4 in placebo
arm (7%)

RIVET-COV: Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Ivermectin in Patients With Mild to Moderate COVID-19 in India37
• Positive SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR or antigen test result • Mean age 35 years; 89% men • Small sample size
• Nonsevere COVID-19 • 60% to 68% with mild COVID-19 (including asymptomatic Interpretation
patients); 33% to 40% with moderate COVID-19
Key Exclusion Criteria • The use of IVM did not affect the
• Median of 4–5 days symptom duration; similar across proportion of patients with negative
• CrCl <30 mL/min
arms SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR results at Day 5 or
• Transaminases >5 times ULN the clinical outcomes.
• 10% in each arm received concurrent antivirals (RDV,
• MI, heart failure, QTc interval prolongation favipiravir, or HCQ).
• Severe comorbidity Primary Outcomes
Interventions • Negative SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result at Day 5: 48% in
• Single dose of IVM 24 mg PO (n = 51) IVM 24 mg arm vs. 35% in IVM 12 mg arm vs. 31% in
• Single dose of IVM 12 mg PO (n = 49) placebo arm (P = 0.30)
• Placebo (n = 52) • No significant difference between arms in decline of VL at
Day 5
Primary Endpoints
Secondary Outcomes
• Negative SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR result at Day 5
• No difference between arms in time to symptom
• Decline of VL at Day 5 resolution
Key Secondary Endpoints • Clinical worsening at Day 14: 8% in IVM 24 mg arm vs.
• Time to symptom resolution 5% in IVM 12 mg arm vs. 11% in placebo arm (P = 0.65)
• Clinical worsening at Day 14 • No difference between arms in number of hospital-free
days at Day 28
• Number of hospital-free days at Day 28
• No difference between arms in frequency of AEs; no SAEs
• Frequency of AEs
were reported

Double-Blind RCT of Ivermectin, Chloroquine, or Hydroxychloroquine in Hospitalized Adults With Severe COVID-19 in Brazil38
• Hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 • Mean age 53 years; 58% men • Small sample size
infection • Most common comorbidities: 43% with HTN; 28% with • No clearly defined primary endpoint
• ≥1 of the following severity criteria: DM; 38% with BMI >30
Interpretation
• Dyspnea • 76% with respiratory failure on admission
• Compared to CQ or HCQ, IVM did not
• Tachypnea (>30 breaths/min) Outcomes reduce the proportion of hospitalized
• SpO2 <93% • No difference between IVM, CQ, and HCQ arms in: patients with severe COVID-19 who died
• PaO2/FiO2 <300 mm Hg or who required supplemental oxygen,
• Need for supplemental oxygen: 88% vs. 89% vs. 90% ICU admission, or MV
• Involvement of >50% of lungs confirmed by CXR or • Need for MV: 24% vs. 21% vs. 21%
CT scan
• ICU admission: 28% vs. 22% vs. 21%
Key Exclusion Criterion • Mortality: 23% vs. 21% vs. 22%
• Cardiac arrhythmia • Mean number of days of supplemental oxygen: 8 days
Interventions in each arm
• IVM 14 mg once daily for 3 days (n = 53) • No difference between arms in occurrence of AEs
• CQ 450 mg twice daily on Day 0, then once daily for 4 • Baseline characteristics significantly associated with
days (n = 61) mortality:
• HCQ 400 mg twice daily on Day 0, then once daily for 4 • Aged >60 years (HR 2.4)
days (n = 54) • DM (HR 1.9)
Endpoints • BMI >33 (HR 2.0)
• Need for supplemental oxygen, MV, or ICU admission • SpO2 <90% (HR 5.8)
• Mortality
Key: AE = adverse event; ALT = alanine transaminase; BMI = body mass index; CNS = central nervous system; CQ = chloroquine; CrCl = creatinine clearance; CT =
computed tomography; CVD = cardiovascular disease; CXR = chest X-ray; DM = diabetes mellitus; ED = emergency department; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration
rate; FDA = Food and Drug Administration; HCQ = hydroxychloroquine; HTN = hypertension; ICU = intensive care unit; ITT = intention-to-treat; IVM = ivermectin; LOS
= length of stay; MI = myocardial infarction; mITT = modified intention-to-treat; MV = mechanical ventilation; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel;
PaO2/FiO2 = ratio of arterial partial pressure of oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen; PO = oral; RCT = randomized controlled trial; RDV = remdesivir; RT-PCR = reverse
transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE = severe adverse event; SOC = standard of care; SpO2 = oxygen saturation; ULN = upper limit of normal; VL = viral load

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3. Bhattacharya R, Ray I, Mukherjee R, et al. Observational study on clinical features, treatment and outcome of COVID-19 in a tertiary
care centre in India—a retrospective case series. Int J Sci Res. 2020;9(10):69-71. Available at: https://www.worldwidejournals.com/
international-journal-of-scientific-research-(IJSR)/article/observational-study-on-clinical-features-treatment-and-outcome-of-covid-19-in-a-tertiary-
care-centre-in-india-andndash-a-retrospective-case-series/MzI0NTg=/?is=1&b1=141&k=36.
4. Morgenstern J, Redondo JN, De León A, et al. The use of compassionate ivermectin in the management of symptomatic outpatients and hospitalized
patients with clinical diagnosis of COVID-19 at the Medical Center Bournigal and the Medical Center Punta Cana, Rescue Group, Dominican
Republic, from May 1 to August 10, 2020. medRxiv. 2020;Preprint. Available at: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.10.29.20222505v1.
5. Cadegiani FA, Goren A, Wambier CG, McCoy J. Early COVID-19 therapy with azithromycin plus nitazoxanide, ivermectin or hydroxychloroquine
in outpatient settings significantly improved COVID-19 outcomes compared to known outcomes in untreated patients. New Microbes New Infect.
6. Carvallo H, Roberto H, Eugenia FM. Safety and efficacy of the combined use of ivermectin, dexamethasone, enoxaparin and aspirin against COVID
19. medRxiv. 2020;Preprint. Available at: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.09.10.20191619v1.
7. Bukhari KHS, Asghar A, Perveen N, et al. Efficacy of ivermectin in COVID-19 patients with mild to moderate disease. medRxiv. 2021;Preprint.
Available at: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.02.02.21250840v1.
8. Elalfy H, Besheer T, El-Mesery A, et al. Effect of a combination of nitazoxanide, ribavirin, and ivermectin plus zinc supplement (MANS.NRIZ study)
on the clearance of mild COVID-19. J Med Virol. 2021;93(5):3176-3183. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33590901.
9. Chahla RE, Ruiz LM, Mena T, et al. Cluster randomised trials—ivermectin repurposing for COVID-19 treatment of outpatients with mild disease in
primary health care centers. Research Square. 2021;Preprint. Available at: https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-495945/v1.
10. Tanioka H, Tanioka S, Kaga K. Why COVID-19 is not so spread in Africa: how does ivermectin affect it? medRxiv. 2021;Preprint. Available at:
11. Roy S, Samajdar SS, Tripathi SK, Mukherjee S, Bhattacharjee K. Outcome of different therapeutic interventions in mild COVID-19 patients in a single
OPD clinic of West Bengal: a retrospective study. medRxiv. 2021;Preprint. Available at:
12. Shahbaznejad L, Davoudi A, Eslami G, et al. Effects of ivermectin in patients with COVID-19: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, controlled
clinical trial. Clin Ther. 2021;43(6):1007-1019. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34052007.
13. Roman YM, Burela PA, Pasupuleti V, et al. Ivermectin for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019: a systematic review and meta-analysis of
randomized controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2022;74(6):1022-1029. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34181716.
14. Ahmed S, Karim MM, Ross AG, et al. A five-day course of ivermectin for the treatment of COVID-19 may reduce the duration of illness. Int J Infect
Dis. 2021;103:214-216. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33278625.

15. Chaccour C, Casellas A, Blanco-Di Matteo A, et al. The effect of early treatment with ivermectin on viral load, symptoms and humoral response
in patients with non-severe COVID-19: a pilot, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. EClinicalMedicine. 2021;32:100720.
16. Chachar AZK, Khan KA, Asif M, et al. Effectiveness of ivermectin in SARS-COV-2/COVID-19 patients. Int J Sci. 2020;9:31-35. Available at:
https://www.ijsciences.com/pub/article/2378.
17. Gonzalez JLB, Gámez MG, Enciso EAM, et al. Efficacy and safety of ivermectin and hydroxychloroquine in patients with severe COVID-19: a
randomized controlled trial. Infect Dis Rep. 2022;14(2):160-168. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2036-7449/14/2/20.
18. Hashim HA, Maulood MF, Ali CL, et al. Controlled randomized clinical trial on using ivermectin with doxycycline for treating COVID-19 patients in
Baghdad, Iraq. Iraqi J Med Sci. 2021;29(1):107-115. Available at: https://www.iraqijms.net/index.php?do=view&type=article&id=779.
19. Khan MSI, Debnath CR, Nath PN, et al. Ivermectin treatment may improve the prognosis of patients with COVID-19. Arch Bronconeumol (Engl Ed).
20. Krolewiecki A, Lifschitz A, Moragas M, et al. Antiviral effect of high-dose ivermectin in adults with COVID-19: a proof-of-concept randomized trial.
EClinicalMedicine. 2021;37:100959. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34189446.
21. Okumuş N, Demirtürk N, Çetinkaya RA, et al. Evaluation of the effectiveness and safety of adding ivermectin to treatment in severe COVID-19
patients. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):411. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33947344.
22. Podder CS, Chowdhury N, Sina MI, Mohosin Ul Haque WM. Outcome of ivermectin treated mild to moderate COVID-19 cases: a single-centre,
open-label, randomised controlled study. IMC J Med Sci. 2021;14(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.3329/imcjms.v14i2.52826.
23. Soto-Becerra P, Culquichicón C, Hurtado-Roca Y, Araujo-Castillo RV. Real-world effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, and ivermectin
among hospitalized COVID-19 patients: results of a target trial emulation using observational data from a nationwide healthcare system in Peru.
24. Rajter JC, Sherman MS, Fatteh N, et al. Use of ivermectin is associated with lower mortality in hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019: the
ivermectin in COVID nineteen study. Chest. 2021;159(1):85-92. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33065103.
25. Chowdhury ATMM, Shahbaz M, Karim MR, et al. A comparative study on ivermectin-doxycycline and hydroxychloroquine-azithromycin therapy on
COVID-19 patients. EJMO. 2021;5(1):63-70. Available at: https://www.ejmo.org/10.14744/ejmo.2021.16263/.
26. Niaee MS, Namdar P, Allami A, et al. Ivermectin as an adjunct treatment for hospitalized adult COVID-19 patients: a randomized multi-center clinical
trial. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2021;14(6):266-273. Available at:
https://journals.lww.com/aptm/Fulltext/2021/14060/Ivermectin_as_an_adjunct_treatment_for.3.aspx.
27. Naggie S, Boulware DR, Lindsell CJ, et al. Effect of higher-dose ivermectin for 6 days vs placebo on time to sustained recovery in outpatients with
COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;329(11):888-897. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36807465.
28. Naggie S, Boulware DR, Lindsell CJ, et al. Effect of ivermectin vs placebo on time to sustained recovery in outpatients with mild to moderate
COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2022;328(16):1595-1603. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36269852.
29. TOGETHER Investigators. Effect of early treatment with ivermectin among patients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(18):1721-1731.

31. Vallejos J, Zoni R, Bangher M, et al. Ivermectin to prevent hospitalizations in patients with COVID-19 (IVERCOR-COVID19) a randomized, double-
blind, placebo-controlled trial. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):635. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34215210.
32. López-Medina E, López P, Hurtado IC, et al. Effect of ivermectin on time to resolution of symptoms among adults with mild COVID-19: a randomized
33. Lim SCL, Hor CP, Tay KH, et al. Efficacy of ivermectin treatment on disease progression among adults with mild to moderate COVID-19 and
comorbidities: the I-TECH randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2022;182(4):426-435. Available at:
34. Buonfrate D, Chesini F, Martini D, et al. High-dose ivermectin for early treatment of COVID-19 (COVER study): a randomised, double-blind,
multicentre, phase II, dose-finding, proof-of-concept clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2022;59(2):106516. Available at:
35. Abd-Elsalam S, Noor RA, Badawi R, et al. Clinical study evaluating the efficacy of ivermectin in COVID-19 treatment: a randomized controlled study.
J Med Virol. 2021;93(10):5833-5838. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34076901.
36. Ravikirti, Roy R, Pattadar C, et al. Evaluation of ivermectin as a potential treatment for mild to moderate COVID-19: a double-blind randomized
placebo controlled trial in Eastern India. J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2021;24:343-350. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34265236.
37. Mohan A, Tiwari P, Suri TM, et al. Single-dose oral ivermectin in mild and moderate COVID-19 (RIVET-COV): a single-centre randomized, placebo-
controlled trial. J Infect Chemother. 2021;27(12):1743-1749. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34483029.
38. Bermejo Galan LE, Dos Santos NM, Asato MS, et al. Phase 2 randomized study on chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine or ivermectin in hospitalized
patients with severe manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Pathog Glob Health. 2021;115(4):235-242. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/33682640.

Metformin
Metformin has been identified as a potential COVID-19 therapeutic agent because of its possible
action against the proteins that are involved in translation, its antiviral activity in vitro, and its anti-
inflammatory and antithrombotic activities.1-4 Data from observational studies have suggested that
patients who were receiving metformin as treatment for diabetes at the time of their COVID-19
diagnosis had a lower risk of progressing to severe COVID-19.5-7 Randomized controlled trials have
provided insight into the role of metformin in treating nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19. These
trials are described below and in Table 7c.
Recommendations
• There is insufficient evidence for the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel)
to recommend either for or against the use of metformin for the treatment of COVID-19 in
• The Panel recommends against the use of metformin for the treatment of COVID-19 in
hospitalized patients, except in a clinical trial (BIII).
• Patients with COVID-19 who are receiving metformin for an underlying condition should
continue this therapy as directed by their health care provider (AIII).
Rationale
Two randomized controlled trials (the TOGETHER and COVID-OUT trials) assessed the efficacy of
using metformin in nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19. In these trials, the use of metformin did
not reduce the risk of hospitalization or death in these patients. The Panel’s recommendations are based
on the results of these trials.
Other outpatient therapies (i.e., ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir [Paxlovid], remdesivir, molnupiravir) have
been shown to be effective in preventing hospitalization or death in unvaccinated patients who are at
high risk of disease progression.

The most common adverse effects of metformin are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and headache. In rare
cases, lactic acidosis may occur. The risk factors associated with lactic acidosis include older age,
impaired renal or hepatic function, the use of iodinated contrast dye, cardiac dysfunction, metabolic
disturbances, and excessive alcohol consumption. Metformin is not recommended for patients with an
estimated glomerular filtration rate of <30 mL/min/1.73m2.
Metformin is a substrate of the human organic cation transporters OCT1 and OCT2. Drugs that inhibit
these transporters may increase the systemic exposure of metformin and increase the risk of metformin-
related adverse effects.

Metformin is commonly used in pregnant people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, because
clinical trials have not demonstrated a clear clinical benefit of using metformin in nonpregnant adults
with COVID-19, there is no justification for administering it to pregnant people to treat COVID-19

outside of a clinical trial.
Although metformin is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of type 2
diabetes mellitus in children aged >10 years, clinical trials that have evaluated its use for the treatment
of COVID-19 have not included people aged <18 years. Given the lack of clear evidence of efficacy in
adults, the Panel recommends against the use of metformin for the treatment of COVID-19 in pediatric
patients, except in a clinical trial (AIII).
Clinical Data
TOGETHER Trial
The TOGETHER trial was a placebo-controlled platform clinical trial that was conducted in Brazil.8 The
study enrolled nonhospitalized patients who had symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection for ≤7 days, no
history of COVID-19 vaccination, and an increased risk of progressing to severe disease. Patients were
randomized to receive extended-release metformin 750 mg (n = 215) or placebo (n = 203) twice daily
for 10 days.
The primary endpoint was a composite of retention in an emergency setting for >6 hours or
hospitalization within 28 days of randomization. Secondary endpoints included viral clearance at Days
3 and 7, clinical improvement at Day 28, time to hospitalization or death, and the occurrence of adverse
events. The study was stopped by the data and safety monitoring board for futility, as there was a low
probability of demonstrating a difference between the study arms. Overall, there was no difference
between the arms in the number of adverse events; however, the proportion of patients who experienced
grade 3 events was higher in the metformin arm (9.8%) than in the placebo arm (4.4%).
COVID-OUT Trial
The COVID-OUT trial was a Phase 3, double-blind, placebo-controlled 2 x 3 factorial trial that
evaluated the effectiveness of metformin, ivermectin, or fluvoxamine in patients with COVID-19.9
Patients were randomized to receive metformin or placebo in 1 factor and ivermectin, fluvoxamine,
or placebo in the other factor. The study enrolled nonhospitalized adults within 3 days of a confirmed
diagnosis of COVID-19 and ≤7 days from symptom onset. Patients were aged 30 to 85 years and
overweight. Those with stage 4 or 5 chronic kidney disease or an estimated glomerular filtration rate of
<45 mL/min/1.73 m2 were excluded. The metformin arm included those assigned to receive immediate-
release oral metformin (titrated over several days to a final daily dose of 1,500 mg) alone or in
combination with ivermectin or fluvoxamine. The control arm included those who received placebo with
or without ivermectin or fluvoxamine.
The primary endpoint was a composite of development of hypoxemia (defined as oxygen saturation
≤93%, as measured by a home pulse oximeter), emergency department visit, hospitalization, or death by
Day 14. While this study was underway, the Food and Drug Administration raised concerns about the
accuracy of home pulse oximeters. Approximately 50% of the patients received a primary COVID-19
vaccine series. The analyses showed no benefit for any of the 3 investigational agents in preventing the
primary endpoint. In addition, the use of these agents did not lower the severity of COVID-19 symptoms
over 14 days. A prespecified secondary analysis determined that, over 14 days of follow-up, those who
received metformin had a lower risk of an emergency department visit, hospitalization, or death than
those who did not receive metformin (adjusted OR 0.58; 95% CI, 0.35–0.94). A key secondary endpoint
in the analysis was a composite of hospitalization or death by Day 28. Eight of 596 patients (1.3%) who
received metformin met this endpoint compared with 19 of 601 patients (3.2%) who did not receive

metformin.
A secondary endpoint in the COVID-OUT trial assessed the impact of metformin on the development
of long COVID. Since there is no standardized definition for long COVID, the endpoint was based
on whether the patient had been given this diagnosis by a health care provider during the 10 months
of follow-up. The study reported lower rates of long COVID in the metformin arm than in the control
arm.10
Although a secondary analysis of the COVID-OUT trial data demonstrated a benefit of metformin
in patients with COVID-19, the results of the TOGETHER and COVID-OUT trials did not show a
consistent benefit of metformin in these patients. Therefore, the Panel believes there is insufficient
evidence to recommend either for or against the use of metformin for the treatment of COVID-19 in
nonhospitalized patients. For more information on these trials, see Table 7c.
References
1. Karam BS, Morris RS, Bramante CT, et al. mTOR inhibition in COVID-19: a commentary and review of
efficacy in RNA viruses. J Med Virol. 2021;93(4):1843-1846. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/33314219.
2. Del Campo JA, García-Valdecasas M, Gil-Gómez A, et al. Simvastatin and metformin inhibit cell growth in
hepatitis C virus infected cells via mTOR increasing PTEN and autophagy. PLoS One. 2018;13(1):e0191805.
3. Postler TS, Peng V, Bhatt DM, Ghosh S. Metformin selectively dampens the acute inflammatory response
through an AMPK-dependent mechanism. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):18721. Available at:
4. Xin G, Wei Z, Ji C, et al. Metformin uniquely prevents thrombosis by inhibiting platelet activation and
mtDNA release. Sci Rep. 2016;6:36222. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27805009.
5. Li Y, Yang X, Yan P, Sun T, Zeng Z, Li S. Metformin in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and
meta-analysis. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021;8:704666. Available at:
6. Bramante CT, Buse J, Tamaritz L, et al. Outpatient metformin use is associated with reduced severity of
COVID-19 disease in adults with overweight or obesity. J Med Virol. 2021;93(7):4273-4279. Available at:
7. Luo P, Qiu L, Liu Y, et al. Metformin treatment was associated with decreased mortality in COVID-19 patients
with diabetes in a retrospective analysis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2020;103(1):69-72. Available at:
8. Reis G, Dos Santos Moreira Silva EA, Medeiros Silva DC, et al. Effect of early treatment with metformin
on risk of emergency care and hospitalization among patients with COVID-19: the TOGETHER randomized
platform clinical trial. Lancet Reg Health Am. 2022;6:100142. Available at:
10. Bramante CT, Buse JB, Liebovitz DM, et al. Outpatient treatment of COVID-19 and incidence of post-
COVID-19 condition over 10 months (COVID-OUT): a multicentre, randomised, quadruple-blind,
parallel-group, Phase 3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023;23(10):1119-1129. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.

Table 7c. Metformin: Selected Clinical Trial Data
The Panel’s recommendations for metformin are based on data from the clinical trials described in this table.

TOGETHER: RCT of Metformin in Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19 in Brazil1
• Aged ≥50 years or aged ≥18 years with ≥1 • Median age 52 years; 57% women; 91% self- • The >6-hour ED observation endpoint has not
comorbidities identified as mixed race been used in other studies of interventions for
• Positive rapid antigen test result for SARS-CoV-2 • 45% with BMI ≥30; 40% with HTN; 15% with DM nonhospitalized patients who are at high risk of
infection hospitalization and death.
• 44% had COVID-19 symptoms for 0–3 days at
• ≤7 days of COVID-19 symptoms enrollment • Study was stopped early for futility.
• Vaccinated individuals were excluded from trial.
Key Exclusion Criteria Primary Outcome
• Acute respiratory symptoms that required • Study was stopped early by DSMB for futility. At Interpretation
hospitalization the time the study was stopped, primary endpoint • This trial demonstrated no clinical benefit of
• Receipt of a COVID-19 vaccine had occurred in 16% in metformin arm vs. 14% in metformin in nonhospitalized patients with
placebo arm (relative risk 1.14; 95% CI, 0.73–1.81; COVID-19.
Interventions probability of superiority 28%). • The use of metformin was associated with more
• Extended-release metformin 750 mg PO twice daily Secondary Outcomes grade 3 AEs than placebo.
for 10 days (n = 215)
• No difference between arms in:
• Placebo PO twice daily for 10 days (n = 203)
• Clinical improvement by Day 28 (OR 1.05; 95% CI,
Primary Endpoint 0.71–1.56)
• Composite of ED observation >6 hours or • Viral clearance by Day 7 (OR 0.99; 95% CI,
hospitalization for COVID-19 by Day 28 0.88–1.11)
Key Secondary Endpoints • Time to hospitalization or death (P = 0.53)
• Clinical improvement by Day 28 • Occurrence of treatment-emergent, grade 3 AEs:
• Viral clearance by Day 7 9.8% in metformin arm vs. 4.4% in placebo arm
(relative risk 2.11; 95% CI, 1.05–4.61)
• Time to hospitalization or death
• Did not complete all phases of the study: 22% in
• Occurrence of AEs metformin arm vs. 12% in placebo arm
• Study adherence

COVID-OUT: RCT of Metformin, Ivermectin, and Fluvoxamine in Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in the United States2
• Aged 30–85 years • Median age 46 years; 56% women; 82% White • Analyses of secondary endpoints were not
• BMI ≥25 or ≥23 if Asian or Latinx • Median BMI 30 adjusted for multiple comparisons.
• Laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection • 27% with CVD • Study included SpO² measurements using home
within 3 days of randomization pulse oximeters as 1 of the composite measures
• 52% received primary COVID-19 vaccination series of the primary endpoint. However, the FDA has
• ≤7 days of COVID-19 symptoms • Mean duration of symptoms was 4.8 days issued a statement concerning the accuracy of
Key Exclusion Criteria • Approximately 66% enrolled while Delta was the these home pulse oximeters, making this study
• Immunocompromised dominant variant; approximately 22% enrolled while endpoint less reliable.
Omicron was dominant Interpretation
• Hepatic impairment
• Stage 4–5 chronic kidney disease or eGFR of <45 Primary Outcomes • The use of metformin did not prevent the
mL/min/1.73m 2
• Composite of hypoxemia, ED visit, hospitalization, or occurrence of the primary composite endpoint of
death by Day 14: 154 (24%) in metformin arm vs. 179 hypoxemia, ED visit, hospitalization, or death by
Interventions Day 14.
(27%) in control arm (aOR 0.84; 95% CI, 0.66–1.09; P =
• Immediate-release metformin 500 mg PO on Day 0.19) • Although the results of the prespecified
1, 500 mg twice daily on Days 2–5, and 500 mg
• No difference between metformin alone arm and placebo secondary analyses of ED visits, hospitalization,
in morning and 1,000 mg in evening on Days or death by Day 14 and the secondary endpoint
alone arm in occurrence of primary endpoint (aOR 0.91;
6–14 (n = 663) in the following arms: of hospitalization or death by Day 28 suggest a
95% CI, 0.62–1.33)
• Metformin alone (n = 284) potential benefit of metformin, these results are
• ED visit, hospitalization, or death by Day 14 in a
• Metformin plus IVM 390–470 µg/kg PO once not considered definitive.
prespecified secondary analysis: 27 (4.1%) in metformin
daily for 3 days (n = 204) arm vs. 48 (7.3%) in control arm (aOR 0.58; 95% CI,
• Metformin plus fluvoxamine 50 mg PO twice 0.35–0.94)
daily for 14 days (n = 175) • Hospitalization or death by Day 14 in a prespecified
• Control (n = 655), which included the following secondary analysis: 8 (1.2%) in metformin arm vs. 18
arms: (2.7%) in control arm (aOR 0.47; 95% CI, 0.20–1.11)
• Placebo alone (n = 293) Secondary Outcomes
• IVM or fluvoxamine alone (n = 362) • No difference between arms in total symptom severity
Primary Endpoints score by Day 14
• Composite of hypoxemia (SpO2 ≤93%, as • Drug discontinuation or interruption: 29% in metformin
measured by a home pulse oximeter), ED visit, arm vs. 25% in control arm
hospitalization, or death by Day 14 • Hospitalization or death by Day 28: 8 of 596 (1.3%) in
• A prespecified secondary analysis evaluated the metformin arm vs. 19 of 601 (3.2%) in control arm
occurrence of ED visits, hospitalization, or death
by Day 14.

COVID-OUT: RCT of Metformin, Ivermectin, and Fluvoxamine in Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 in the United States2, continued
• Total symptom severity score by Day 14, as
measured by a symptom severity scale
Key: AE = adverse event; BMI = body mass index; CVD = cardiovascular disease; DM = diabetes mellitus; DSMB = data and safety monitoring board; ED = emergency
department; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; FDA = Food and Drug Administration; HTN = hypertension; IVM = ivermectin; the Panel = the COVID-19
Treatment Guidelines Panel; PO = oral; RCT = randomized controlled trial; SpO2 = oxygen saturation
References
1. Reis G, Dos Santos Moreira Silva EA, Medeiros Silva DC, et al. Effect of early treatment with metformin on risk of emergency care and hospitalization
among patients with COVID-19: the TOGETHER randomized platform clinical trial. Lancet Reg Health Am. 2022;6:100142. Available at: https://

Table 7d. Characteristics of Miscellaneous Drugs
• The information in this table is derived from data on the use of these drugs for FDA-approved indications or in investigational trials. It
is supplemented with data on the use of these drugs in patients with COVID-19 or MIS-C, when available.
• For dose modifications for patients with organ failure or those who require extracorporeal devices, please refer to product labels, when
available.
• There are currently not enough data to determine whether certain medications can be safely coadministered with therapies for the
treatment of COVID-19. When using concomitant medications with similar toxicity profiles, consider performing additional safety
monitoring.
• The potential additive, antagonistic, or synergistic effects and the safety of using certain combination therapies for the treatment of
COVID-19 are unknown. Clinicians are encouraged to report AEs to the FDA MedWatch program.
• For drug-drug interaction information, please refer to product labels and visit the Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website.
Monitoring
Dosing Regimens Adverse Events Drug-Drug Interaction Potential Comments
Parameters
Fluvoxamine
Not recommended by the Panel for the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients.
Doses for COVID-19 in Clinical • Nausea • Hepatic function • CYP2D6 substrate • Fluvoxamine may enhance
Trials • Diarrhea • Drug-drug • Fluvoxamine inhibits several CYP the anticoagulant effects
• Fluvoxamine 50 mg PO twice daily interactions isoenzymes (CYP1A2, CYP2C9, of antiplatelets and
• Dyspepsia anticoagulants. Consider
• Fluvoxamine 100 mg PO twice daily • Withdrawal CYP3A4, CYP2C19, CYP2D6).
• Asthenia additional monitoring
• Fluvoxamine 100 mg PO 3 times symptoms • Coadministration of tizanidine, when these drugs are used
• Insomnia during dose thioridazine, alosetron, or
daily concomitantly with fluvoxamine.
• Somnolence tapering pimozide with fluvoxamine is
contraindicated. • The use of MAOIs concomitantly
• Sweating
with fluvoxamine or within
• Suicidal ideation (rare) 14 days of treatment
with fluvoxamine is
contraindicated.

Monitoring
Dosing Regimens Adverse Events Drug-Drug Interaction Potential Comments
Parameters
Primarily used for the treatment of MIS-C. Currently under investigation in clinical trials.
Dose for MIS-C • Allergic reactions, including • Transfusion-related • Not a CYP substrate; no drug- • Rapid infusion should be
• 1 dose of IVIG 2 g/kg IBW IV, up to anaphylaxis reactions drug interactions expected avoided in patients with renal
a maximum total dose of 100 g • Renal failure • Vital signs at dysfunction or those who are
baseline and during at risk of thromboembolic
• In the event of cardiac • Thromboembolic events events.
dysfunction or fluid overload, and after infusion
• Aseptic meningitis syndrome
consider administering IVIG in • Renal function;
divided doses (i.e., IVIG 1 g/ • Hemolysis discontinue
kg IBW IV, up to 50 g daily for 2 • TRALI treatment if
doses). • Transmission of infectious renal function
pathogens deteriorates.
• AEs may vary by formulation.
• Risk and severity of AEs may
increase with high dose or
rapid infusion.
Metformin
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of metformin in nonhospitalized patients. Not recommended by the Panel for
the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized patients, except in a clinical trial.
Doses for COVID-19 in Clinical • Diarrhea • Renal function • OCT1 and OCT2 substrate • Alcohol intake may increase
Trials • Nausea and vomiting • Hepatic function • Drugs that interfere with OCT the risk of lactic acidosis.
• Immediate-release metformin • Headache • Drug-drug systems (e.g., cimetidine,
500 mg PO on Day 1; 500 mg interactions dolutegravir, ranolazine,
twice daily on Days 2–5; and 500 • Lactic acidosis vandetanib) could increase
mg in morning and 1,000 mg in • Alcohol use disorder systemic exposure to metformin.
evening on Days 6–14 • Concomitant use with carbonic
• Extended-release metformin 750 anhydrase inhibitors (e.g.,
mg PO twice daily for 10 days acetazolamide, topiramate,
zonisamide) may increase the
risk of lactic acidosis.
Key: AE = adverse event; CYP = cytochrome P450; FDA = Food and Drug Administration; IBW = ideal body weight; IV = intravenous; IVIG = intravenous
immunoglobulin; MAOI = monoamine oxidase inhibitor; MIS-C = multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children; OCT = organic cation transporter; the Panel = the
COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; PO = oral; TRALI = transfusion-related acute lung injury

Supplements
Vitamin C
• There is insufficient evidence for the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) to recommend either for or
against the use of vitamin C for the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients.
• The Panel recommends against the use of vitamin C for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized patients (AIIa).
Vitamin D
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin D for the prevention or
treatment of COVID-19.
Zinc
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of zinc for the treatment of
COVID-19.
• The Panel recommends against using zinc supplementation above the recommended dietary allowance (i.e., zinc
11 mg daily for men, zinc 8 mg daily for nonpregnant women) for the prevention of COVID-19, except in a clinical trial
(BIII).

Vitamin C
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin that has been considered for potential beneficial
effects in patients with varying degrees of illness severity. It is an antioxidant and free radical scavenger
that has anti-inflammatory properties, influences cellular immunity and vascular integrity, serves as a
cofactor in endogenous catecholamine generation, and has been studied in many disease states, including
COVID-19.1,2
Recommendation for Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19

to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin C for the treatment of COVID-19 in
Rationale
Because patients who are not critically ill with COVID-19 are less likely to experience oxidative stress
or severe inflammation, the role of vitamin C in this setting is unknown.
Clinical Data for Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19

In an open-label trial conducted at 2 sites in the United States, outpatients with laboratory-confirmed
SARS-CoV-2 infection were randomized to receive either 10 days of oral ascorbic acid 8,000 mg,
zinc gluconate 50 mg, both agents, or standard of care.3 The primary endpoint was the number of days
required to reach a 50% reduction in the patient’s symptom severity score. The study was stopped early
by an operational and safety monitoring board due to futility after 214 of the planned 520 participants
were enrolled.
Patients who received standard of care achieved a 50% reduction in their symptom severity scores at
a mean of 6.7 days (SD 4.4 days) compared with 5.5 days (SD 3.7 days) in the ascorbic acid arm, 5.9
days (SD 4.9 days) in the zinc gluconate arm, and 5.5 days (SD 3.4 days) in the arm that received both
agents (overall P = 0.45).3 No serious adverse events related to the treatments were reported. Nonserious
adverse events were experienced by 39.5% of patients in the ascorbic acid arm, 18.5% in the zinc
gluconate arm, and 32.1% in the arm that received both agents, compared with 0% of patients in the
standard of care arm (overall P < 0.001). The most common nonserious adverse effects in this study
were gastrointestinal events.
The limitations of this study include the small sample size and the lack of a placebo control. In
outpatients with COVID-19, treatment with high-dose zinc gluconate, ascorbic acid, or a combination of
the 2 supplements, when compared with standard care, did not significantly decrease the number of days
required to reach a 50% reduction in a symptom severity score.
Recommendation for Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19

• The Panel recommends against the use of vitamin C for the treatment of COVID-19 in
hospitalized patients (AIIa).
Rationale
Randomized clinical trials have failed to demonstrate benefit from vitamin C as a therapeutic

intervention for hospitalized patients with COVID-19. The data from these trials are summarized below.
Clinical Data for Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19

Two harmonized, randomized trials (LOVIT-COVID and REMAP-CAP) evaluated intravenous (IV)
vitamin C versus a control in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 between July 2020 and July 2022.4
The studies enrolled patients from Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America, and data from the 2
studies were analyzed together. Patients in intensive care units who were critically ill and receiving
organ support (1,568 patients from 90 sites) and hospitalized patients who were not critically ill (1,022
patients from 40 sites) were randomized to a vitamin C arm or a control arm. Patients in the intervention
arm received IV vitamin C every 6 hours for 96 hours, for a maximum of 16 doses. Patients in the
control arm received either no vitamin C or placebo. The composite primary outcome was a measure
for days free of organ support up to 21 days and survival to hospital discharge. The study terminated
enrollment after meeting criteria for harm and futility.
Among patients who were critically ill, the vitamin C arm (n = 1,037) had a median of 7 days free
of organ support versus 10 days in the control arm (n = 531), with posterior probabilities of 8.6% for
vitamin C efficacy and 99.9% for futility.4 Among patients who were not critically ill, both the vitamin
C arm (n = 456) and the control arm (n = 566) had a median of 22 days free of organ support, with
posterior probabilities of 2.9% for vitamin C efficacy and >99.9% for futility.
This study was limited by its use of combined data from 2 trials. The majority of patients enrolled were
from an open-label study that used response-adaptive randomization.4 In addition, the precision of the
treatment effect estimate in critically ill patients was limited because enrollment was stopped for harm.
Data on individual vaccination status and the vitamin C product administered were unavailable. The
study authors concluded that, in hospitalized patients with COVID-19, the probability that the use of
vitamin C would increase the number of days free of organ support was low.
In a small, prospective, open-label randomized trial of hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 in
Pakistan, patients were randomized to receive vitamin C 50 mg/kg IV daily plus standard therapy (n
= 75) or standard therapy alone (n = 75).5 Standard therapy included antipyretics, dexamethasone, and
prophylactic antibiotics. Vitamin C recipients became symptom-free earlier (7.1 days vs. 9.6 days; P <
0.0001) and had a shorter duration of hospitalization (8.1 days vs. 10.7 days; P < 0.0001) than patients
who received standard therapy alone. There were no significant differences between the arms for the
outcomes of mortality and the need for mechanical ventilation. Limitations of this study include a small
sample size, enrollment from only 1 hospital, and no clear method for recording symptoms.
In a pilot trial in China, 56 adults with COVID-19 who were in the intensive care unit were randomized
to receive vitamin C 24 g IV daily for 7 days or placebo. The study was terminated early due to a
reduction of cases of COVID-19 in China.6 Overall, the study found no differences between the arms
for the outcomes of mortality, duration of mechanical ventilation, or change in median sequential organ
failure assessment (SOFA) scores. The study reported improvements in oxygenation (as measured by the
ratio of arterial partial pressure of oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen) from baseline to Day 7 in the
treatment arm that were statistically greater than those observed in the placebo arm (+20.0 vs. -51.9; P =
0.04).
In a randomized trial of 66 hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who required supplemental oxygen,
treatment with vitamin C at doses escalating from 0.3 to 0.9 g/kg IV over 6 days (n = 44) was compared
to standard of care (n = 22).7 The vitamin C did not improve the primary outcome of clinical status
(defined as a composite of a 50% reduction in oxygen use, a 50% reduction in bronchodilator use, or

hospital discharge) at 72 hours after randomization.
Other Consideration
High concentrations of circulating vitamin C may affect the accuracy of point-of-care glucometers.8,9
References
1. Fisher BJ, Seropian IM, Kraskauskas D, et al. Ascorbic acid attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung
injury. Crit Care Med. 2011;39(6):1454-1460. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21358394.
2. Wei XB, Wang ZH, Liao XL, et al. Efficacy of vitamin C in patients with sepsis: an updated meta-analysis.
Eur J Pharmacol. 2020;868:172889. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31870831.
3. Thomas S, Patel D, Bittel B, et al. Effect of high-dose zinc and ascorbic acid supplementation vs usual care
on symptom length and reduction among ambulatory patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: the COVID A to Z
randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(2):e210369. Available at:
4. LOVIT-COVID Investigators on behalf of the Canadian Critical Care Trials Group and the REMAP-CAP
Investigators. Intravenous vitamin C for patients hospitalized with COVID-19: two harmonized randomized
clinical trials. JAMA. 2023;330(18):1745-1759. Available at:
5. Kumari P, Dembra S, Dembra P, et al. The role of vitamin C as adjuvant therapy in COVID-19. Cureus.
6. Zhang J, Rao X, Li Y, et al. Pilot trial of high-dose vitamin C in critically ill COVID-19 patients. Ann
Intensive Care. 2021;11(1):5. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33420963.
7. Coppock D, Violet PC, Vasquez G, et al. Pharmacologic ascorbic acid as early therapy for hospitalized patients
with COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. Life (Basel). 2022;12(3):453. Available at:
8. Hager DN, Martin GS, Sevransky JE, Hooper MH. Glucometry when using vitamin C in sepsis: a note of
caution. Chest. 2018;154(1):228-229. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30044741.
9. Food and Drug Administration. Blood glucose monitoring devices. 2019. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/
medical-devices/in-vitro-diagnostics/blood-glucose-monitoring-devices. Accessed November 21, 2023.

Vitamin D
Vitamin D is critical for bone and mineral metabolism. Because the vitamin D receptor is present
on immune cells such as B cells, T cells, and antigen-presenting cells, and because these cells can
synthesize the active vitamin D metabolite, vitamin D also has the potential to modulate innate and
adaptive immune responses.1 It is postulated that these immunomodulatory effects of vitamin D could
potentially protect against SARS-CoV-2 infection or decrease the severity of COVID-19.
Vitamin D deficiency (defined as a serum concentration of 25-hydroxyvitamin D ≤20 ng/mL) is
common in the United States, particularly among people who identified as Hispanic or non-Hispanic
Black.2 These groups are overrepresented among cases of COVID-19 in the United States.3 Vitamin
D deficiency is also more common in older patients and patients with obesity and hypertension; these
factors have been associated with worse outcomes in patients with COVID-19.4 High levels of vitamin D
may cause hypercalcemia and nephrocalcinosis.5
Recommendation
to recommend either for or against the use of vitamin D for the prevention or treatment of
COVID-19.
Rationale
The results from several cohort studies, clinical trials, and meta-analyses on the use of vitamin D for
the prevention or treatment of COVID-19 have been published in peer-reviewed journals or have been
made available as manuscripts ahead of peer review. However, most of these studies had significant
limitations, such as small sample sizes or a lack of randomization and/or blinding. In addition, these
studies used varying doses and formulations of vitamin D, enrolled participants with a range of
COVID-19 severities, included different concomitant medications, and measured different study
outcomes. All these factors make it difficult to compare results across studies. The studies summarized
below are those that have had the greatest impact on the Panel's recommendations.
Although multiple observational cohort studies suggest that people with low vitamin D levels are
at increased risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection and worse clinical outcomes after infection (e.g., higher
mortality), clear evidence that vitamin D supplementation provides protection against infection or
improves outcomes in patients with COVID-19 is still lacking.6,7
Clinical Data on Vitamin D for Prevention

In a double-blind trial conducted at 4 hospitals in Mexico, frontline health care workers were
randomized to receive vitamin D3 4,000 IU or placebo for 30 days.8 Participants were enrolled before
COVID-19 vaccines became available. Over one-third of the enrolled participants dropped out before
study completion. Of the 192 participants who completed follow-up, 6.4% of participants in the
vitamin D3 arm and 24.5% in the placebo arm acquired SARS-CoV-2 infection (relative risk 0.22;
95% CI, 0.08–0.59). At baseline, approximately 67% of participants had vitamin D deficiency, but this
was not found to be an independent predictor of acquiring SARS-CoV-2 infection. The frequency of
SARS-CoV-2 infection was very high in the placebo group, and it is unclear how these results translate
to the use of vitamin D in vaccinated health care workers.

Clinical Data on Vitamin D for Treatment
In a double-blind trial conducted from June to October 2020 at 2 sites in Brazil, 240 hospitalized
patients with moderate to severe COVID-19 were randomized to receive a single dose of vitamin D3
200,000 IU or placebo.9 Patients were considered to have moderate to severe COVID-19 if they had a
positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) result for SARS-CoV-2 or compatible computed tomography
scan findings and a respiratory rate >24 breaths/min or oxygen saturation <93% on room air. The
primary outcome was length of hospital stay. The study found no significant difference in the median
length of stay between the vitamin D3 arm (7.0 days; IQR 4.0–10.0 days) and the placebo arm (7.0 days;
IQR 5.0–13.0 days; log-rank P = 0.59). No significant differences were observed between the arms in
the proportion of patients who were admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU), the need for mechanical
ventilation, or mortality. There were no significant safety concerns.
A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study conducted in Argentina included 218 adult
patients with COVID-19 who had been admitted to the hospital during the preceding 24 hours and
who had oxygen saturation ≥90% on room air and a risk factor for disease progression.10 Patients were
randomized to receive a single oral dose of vitamin D3 500,000 IU or placebo. The primary outcome was
the change in the respiratory sepsis-related organ failure assessment (rSOFA) score between baseline and
the highest value recorded up to Day 7. There was no significant difference between the arms for this
outcome, with a median change of 0 in both arms (P = 0.925). There were also no significant differences
between the arms in the median length of hospital stay, the number of patients admitted to the ICU, or
in-hospital mortality.
A randomized, open-label study conducted in France compared the effect of a high dose of vitamin
D3 (400,000 IU) to the standard dose of vitamin D3 (50,000 IU) on mortality in 254 patients who were
either hospitalized or living in nursing facilities near the study hospital sites.11 Patients were aged ≥65
years, had been diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 infection within the preceding 3 days, and had at least
1 risk factor for disease progression (i.e., aged ≥75 years, hypoxemia). Mortality was significantly
different between the arms at 14 days, with 7 deaths (6%) among patients in the high-dose arm and 14
deaths (11%) among patients in the standard-dose arm (adjusted HR 0.33; 95% CI, 0.12–0.86; P = 0.02).
However, mortality was not significantly different between the arms at 28 days (adjusted HR 0.70; 95%
CI, 0.36–1.36; P = 0.29).
In an open-label pilot study, 50 hospitalized adults in New York with PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2
infection were randomized to receive calcitriol 0.5 μg daily for 14 days or no treatment.12 Calcitriol is
the active metabolite of cholecalciferol or vitamin D3 and is more commonly used to treat parathyroid
disease. The study evaluated the change in oxygen saturation between patient admission and discharge.
Additional outcomes were the length of hospital stay; mortality; and the need for endotracheal
intubation, ICU admission, or hospital readmission within 30 days. Oxygen saturation was calculated
using the ratio of peripheral oxygen saturation (measured by pulse oximetry) to fraction of inspired
oxygen (SpO2/FiO2) as a surrogate for the ratio of arterial partial pressure of oxygen to fraction of
inspired oxygen (PaO2/FiO2). Between admission and discharge, the patients who received no treatment
had an average increase of 13.2 (SD 127.7) in the ratio, and those who received calcitriol had an
increase of 91.04 (SD 119.08; P = 0.0305), implying an improvement in oxygenation.12 There were no
differences between the arms in the length of hospital stay, mortality, or the need for ICU admission or
hospital readmission.
References
1. Aranow C. Vitamin D and the immune system. J Investig Med. 2011;59(6):881-886. Available at: https://www.

2. Liu X, Baylin A, Levy PD. Vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency among US adults: prevalence, predictors
and clinical implications. Br J Nutr. 2018;119(8):928-936. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/29644951.
3. Forrest KY, Stuhldreher WL. Prevalence and correlates of vitamin D deficiency in US adults. Nutr Res.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. People with certain medical conditions. 2023. Available at:
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-with-medical-conditions.html.
Accessed November 20, 2023.
5. Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium, Food and Nutrition Board.
Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. National Academies Press; 2011. Available at:
6. Chiodini I, Gatti D, Soranna D, et al. Vitamin D status and SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 clinical
outcomes. Front Public Health. 2021;9:736665. Available at:
7. Chen J, Mei K, Xie L, et al. Low vitamin D levels do not aggravate COVID-19 risk or death, and vitamin D
supplementation does not improve outcomes in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a meta-analysis and
GRADE assessment of cohort studies and RCTs. Nutr J. 2021;20(1):89. Available at:
8. Villasis-Keever MA, López-Alarcón MG, Miranda-Novales G, et al. Efficacy and safety of vitamin D
supplementation to prevent COVID-19 in frontline healthcare workers. A randomized clinical trial. Arch Med
Res. 2022;53(4):423-430. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35487792.
9. Murai IH, Fernandes AL, Sales LP, et al. Effect of a single high dose of vitamin D3 on hospital length of stay
in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021;325(11):1053-1060.
10. Mariani J, Antonietti L, Tajer C, et al. High-dose vitamin D versus placebo to prevent complications in
COVID-19 patients: multicentre randomized controlled clinical trial. PLoS One. 2022;17(5):e0267918.
11. Annweiler C, Beaudenon M, Gautier J, et al. High-dose versus standard-dose vitamin D supplementation in
older adults with COVID-19 (COVIT-TRIAL): a multicenter, open-label, randomized controlled superiority
trial. PLoS Med. 2022;19(5):e1003999. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35639792.
12. Elamir YM, Amir H, Lim S, et al. A randomized pilot study using calcitriol in hospitalized COVID-19
patients. Bone. 2022;154:116175. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34508882.

Zinc
Increased intracellular zinc concentrations efficiently impair the replication of a number of RNA
viruses.1 Zinc has been shown to enhance cytotoxicity and induce apoptosis when used in vitro with a
zinc ionophore (e.g., chloroquine). Chloroquine has also been shown to enhance intracellular zinc uptake
in vitro.2 Zinc levels are difficult to measure accurately, as zinc is distributed as a component of various
proteins and nucleic acids.3
The recommended dietary allowance for elemental zinc is 11 mg daily for men and 8 mg daily for
nonpregnant women.4 Long-term zinc supplementation can cause copper deficiency with subsequent
reversible hematologic defects (i.e., anemia, leukopenia) and potentially irreversible neurologic
manifestations (i.e., myelopathy, paresthesia, ataxia, spasticity).5-7 The use of zinc supplementation for
durations as short as 10 months has been associated with copper deficiency.3 In addition, oral zinc can
decrease the absorption of medications that bind with polyvalent cations (e.g., fluoroquinolones, HIV
integrase inhibitors, tetracyclines).4
Recommendations
recommend either for or against the use of zinc for the treatment of COVID-19.
• The Panel recommends against using zinc supplementation above the recommended dietary
allowance (i.e., zinc 11 mg daily for men, zinc 8 mg daily for nonpregnant women) for the
prevention of COVID-19, except in a clinical trial (BIII).
Rationale
The results from some cohort studies and clinical trials that evaluated the use of zinc in patients with
COVID-19 have been published in peer-reviewed journals or have been made available as manuscripts
ahead of peer review. However, most of these studies have significant limitations, such as small
sample sizes or a lack of randomization or blinding. In addition, these studies used varying doses and
formulations of zinc, enrolled participants with a range of COVID-19 severities, included different
concomitant medications, and measured different study outcomes. All of these factors make it difficult
to compare results across studies. Because zinc has not been shown to have a clinical benefit and may
be harmful, the Panel recommends against using zinc supplementation above the recommended dietary
allowance for the prevention of COVID-19, except in a clinical trial (BIII).
The studies summarized below are those that have had the greatest impact on the Panel’s
recommendations.
Clinical Data
In a double-blind, multicenter trial in Tunisia, nonhospitalized and hospitalized adults with COVID-19
were randomized within 7 days of symptom onset to receive elemental zinc 25 mg orally twice daily (n
= 231) or matching placebo (n = 239) for 15 days.8 Approximately 20% of these patients had received a
COVID-19 vaccine prior to enrollment. During the study, none of the patients received antiviral drugs,
and <40% received corticosteroids.
The primary outcome in the study was a composite of death due to COVID-19 or intensive care unit

admission within 30 days of randomization.8 This study has several limitations. The study enrolled
nonhospitalized and hospitalized patients, and comparing the results for these populations is difficult. In
addition, only some patients received standard of care treatments. The data presented in the published
paper had numerous and substantial inconsistencies.9,10 Together, these limitations make it difficult to
interpret the results of this study or apply these findings to the current U.S. population with COVID-19.
In an open-label trial conducted at 2 sites in the United States, outpatients with laboratory-confirmed
SARS-CoV-2 infection were randomized to receive either 10 days of zinc gluconate 50 mg, ascorbic
acid 8,000 mg, both agents, or standard of care.11 The primary endpoint was the number of days required
to reach a 50% reduction in the patient’s symptom severity score. The study was stopped early by an
operational and safety monitoring board due to futility after 214 of the planned 520 participants were
enrolled. Compared with standard of care, treatment with high-dose zinc gluconate, ascorbic acid, or a
combination of the 2 supplements did not significantly decrease the number of days required to reach
a 50% reduction in a symptom severity score. Patients who received standard of care achieved a 50%
reduction in their symptom severity scores at a mean of 6.7 days (SD 4.4 days) compared with 5.5 days
(SD 3.7 days) for the ascorbic acid arm, 5.9 days (SD 4.9 days) for the zinc gluconate arm, and 5.5 days
(SD 3.4 days) for the arm that received both agents (overall P = 0.45).
Nonserious adverse effects occurred more frequently in patients who received supplements than in those
who did not.11 Nonserious adverse effects were experienced by 39.5% of patients in the ascorbic acid
arm, 18.5% in the zinc gluconate arm, and 32.1% in the arm that received both agents, compared with
0% of patients in the standard of care arm (overall P < 0.001). The most common nonserious adverse
effects in this study were gastrointestinal events.
In a randomized clinical trial conducted at 3 academic medical centers in Egypt, 191 patients with
laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection were randomized to receive either zinc 220 mg twice daily
plus hydroxychloroquine or hydroxychloroquine alone for a 5-day course.12 The primary endpoints were
recovery within 28 days, the need for mechanical ventilation, and death. The 2 arms were matched for
age and gender. There were no significant differences between the arms in the percentages of patients
who recovered within 28 days (79.2% in the zinc plus hydroxychloroquine arm vs. 77.9% in the
hydroxychloroquine alone arm; P = 0.969), the number of patients who required mechanical ventilation
(4 in the zinc plus hydroxychloroquine arm vs. 6 in the hydroxychloroquine alone arm; P = 0.537), or
overall mortality (2 patients in each arm; P = 0.986). The only risk factors for mortality were age and the
need for mechanical ventilation.
References
1. te Velthuis AJW, van den Worm SHE, Sims AC, et al. Zn(2+) inhibits coronavirus and arterivirus RNA
polymerase activity in vitro and zinc ionophores block the replication of these viruses in cell culture. PLoS
Pathog. 2010;6(11):e1001176. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21079686.
2. Xue J, Moyer A, Peng B, et al. Chloroquine is a zinc ionophore. PLoS One. 2014;9(10):e109180. Available at:
3. Hambridge K. The management of lipohypertrophy in diabetes care. Br J Nurs. 2007;16(9):520-524. Available
4. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Zinc fact sheet for health professionals. 2022.
Available at: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Zinc-HealthProfessional. Accessed November 21, 2023.
5. Myint ZW, Oo TH, Thein KZ, Tun AM, Saeed H. Copper deficiency anemia: review article. Ann Hematol.
6. Kumar N. Copper deficiency myelopathy (human swayback). Mayo Clin Proc. 2006;81(10):1371-1384.

7. Francis Z, Book G, Litvin C, Kalivas B. The COVID-19 pandemic and zinc-induced copper deficiency:
an important link. Am J Med. 2022;135(8):e290-e291. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/35367442.
8. Abdallah SB, Mhalla Y, Trabelsi I, et al. Twice-daily oral zinc in the treatment of patients with coronavirus
disease 2019: a randomized double-blind controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76(2):185-191. Available at:
9. Swindells S, Eschenauer GA, Nason M, Daar ES. Zinc and coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis.
10. Bel Haj Ali K, Sekma A, Trabelsi I, et al. Reply to Swindells et al. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;77(4):662-663.
11. Thomas S, Patel D, Bittel B, et al. Effect of high-dose zinc and ascorbic acid supplementation vs usual care
on symptom length and reduction among ambulatory patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: the COVID A to Z
randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(2):e210369. Available at:
12. Abd-Elsalam S, Soliman S, Esmail ES, et al. Do zinc supplements enhance the clinical efficacy of
hydroxychloroquine? A randomized, multicenter trial. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2021;199(10):3642-3646.

Considerations for Using Concomitant
Medications in Patients With COVID-19
• Patients with COVID-19 who are receiving concomitant medications (e.g., angiotensin-converting enzyme [ACE]
inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers [ARBs], HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors [statins], systemic or inhaled
corticosteroids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, acid-suppressive therapy) for underlying medical conditions
should not discontinue ACE inhibitors and ARBs (AIIa) or other medications (AIII) unless discontinuation is otherwise
warranted by their clinical condition.
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel recommends against using medications off-label to treat COVID-19 if they
have not been shown to be safe and effective for this indication in a clinical trial (AIII).
Individuals with underlying medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease,
diabetes, and malignancy, and those who receive chronic immunosuppressive therapy are at higher risk
of severe illness with COVID-19. These patients are often prescribed medications to treat their
underlying medical conditions.
Early in the pandemic, some of these medications, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs),1 HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins),2,3 and
histamine-2 receptor antagonists,4 were hypothesized to offer potential as COVID-19 therapeutic agents.
Others, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, were postulated to have negative impacts.5
Currently, there is no evidence that discontinuing medication for underlying medical conditions offers
a clinical benefit for patients with COVID-19.6-8 For example, the Food and Drug Administration stated
that there is no evidence linking the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents with worsening of
COVID-19 and advised patients to use them as directed.9 Additionally, the American Heart Association,
the Heart Failure Society of America, and the American College of Cardiology issued a joint statement
that renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system antagonists, such as ACE inhibitors and ARBs, should be
continued as prescribed in those with COVID-19.10
Therefore, patients with COVID-19 who are treated with concomitant medications for an underlying
medical condition should not discontinue ACE inhibitors and ARBs (AIIa) or other medications
(AIII) unless discontinuation is otherwise warranted by their clinical condition. For patients with
COVID-19 who require nebulized medications, precautions should be taken to minimize the potential
for transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in the home and in health care settings.11,12
The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel recommends against using medications off-label to
treat COVID-19 if they have not been shown to be safe and effective for this indication in a clinical
trial (AIII). Clinicians should refer to the Therapies section of the Guidelines for information on the
medications that have been studied as potential therapeutic options for patients with COVID-19.
When prescribing medications to treat COVID-19, clinicians should always assess the patient’s
current medications for potential drug-drug interactions and additive adverse effects. The decision to
continue or change a patient’s medications should be individualized based on their specific clinical
condition. Clinicians can refer to product labels and visit the Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions
website for guidance on identifying and managing drug-drug interactions. It is also worth noting that

ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid), which is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for
the treatment of mild to moderate COVID-19 in adults who are at high risk of progressing to severe
COVID-19, has significant drug-drug interactions. See Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-
References
1. Patel AB, Verma A. COVID-19 and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor
blockers: what is the evidence? JAMA. 2020;323(18):1769-1770. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/32208485.
2. Lee KCH, Sewa DW, Phua GC. Potential role of statins in COVID-19. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;96:615-617.
3. Kashour T, Halwani R, Arabi YM, et al. Statins as an adjunctive therapy for COVID-19: the biological and
clinical plausibility. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 2021;43(1):37-50. Available at:
4. Mather JF, Seip RL, McKay RG. Impact of famotidine use on clinical outcomes of hospitalized patients with
COVID-19. Am J Gastroenterol. 2020;115(10):1617-1623. Available at:
5. Yousefifard M, Zali A, Zarghi A, Madani Neishaboori A, Hosseini M, Safari S. Non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs in management of COVID-19; a systematic review on current evidence. Int J Clin Pract.
6. Lopes RD, Macedo AVS, de Barros E Silva PGM, et al. Effect of discontinuing vs continuing angiotensin-
converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers on days alive and out of the hospital in
patients admitted with COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021;325(3):254-264. Available at:
7. Cohen JB, Hanff TC, William P, et al. Continuation versus discontinuation of renin-angiotensin system
inhibitors in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19: a prospective, randomised, open-label trial. Lancet
8. Bauer A, Schreinlechner M, Sappler N, et al. Discontinuation versus continuation of renin-angiotensin-system
inhibitors in COVID-19 (ACEI-COVID): a prospective, parallel group, randomised, controlled, open-label
trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9(8):863-872. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34126053.
9. Food and Drug Administration. FDA advises patients on use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) for COVID-19. 2020. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-
advises-patients-use-non-steroidal-anti-inflammatory-drugs-nsaids-covid-19. Accessed October 19, 2023.
10. Bozkurt B, Kovacs R, Harrington B. Joint HFSA/ACC/AHA statement addresses concerns re: using RAAS
antagonists in COVID-19. J Card Fail. 2020;26(5):370. Available at:
11. Cazzola M, Ora J, Bianco A, Rogliani P, Matera MG. Guidance on nebulization during the current COVID-19
pandemic. Respir Med. 2021;176:106236. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33248363.
12. Sethi S, Barjaktarevic IZ, Tashkin DP. The use of nebulized pharmacotherapies during the COVID-19
pandemic. Ther Adv Respir Dis. 2020;14:1753466620954366. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/33167796.

Special Considerations in People Who Are
Immunocompromised
Prevention of COVID-19
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends COVID-19 vaccination for everyone who is eligible,
including those who are immunocompromised, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Advisory
Committee on Immunization Practices (AI).
• Vaccine response rates may be lower in patients who are moderately or severely immunocompromised. Specific
guidance on administering vaccines to these individuals is provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
• Clinicians should strongly encourage all household members and close contacts of patients who are
immunocompromised to be vaccinated against COVID-19 (AI).
• Currently, antibody tests are not recommended for assessing SARS-CoV-2 immunity following COVID-19 vaccination or
for assessing the need for vaccination in a person who is unvaccinated.
Management of Patients With COVID-19 Who Are Immunocompromised
• Clinicians should consult with the appropriate specialists when making decisions about stopping or adjusting the doses
of immunosuppressive drugs in patients with COVID-19.
• When selecting treatments for COVID-19, clinicians should consider factors such as the underlying disease; the specific
immunosuppressants being used; the severity of COVID-19; and the potential for drug-drug interactions, overlapping
toxicities, and secondary infections.
• For nonhospitalized patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are immunocompromised, the Panel recommends
prompt treatment with antiviral drugs at the doses and durations recommended for the general population (AIII). For
more information, see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
• For most hospitalized patients with severe or critical COVID-19 who are immunocompromised, the Panel recommends
using antiviral drugs and immunomodulatory therapies at the doses and durations recommended for the general
population (AIII). For more information, see Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
• For patients who are immunocompromised and have prolonged COVID-19 symptoms and evidence of ongoing viral
replication, the optimal management is unknown. The data for these approaches are not definitive, but some Panel
members would use 1 or more of the following treatment options:
• Longer and/or additional courses of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid)
• High-titer COVID-19 convalescent plasma from a vaccinated donor who recently recovered from COVID-19 likely
caused by a SARS-CoV-2 variant similar to the variant causing the patient’s illness
Introduction
Approximately 3% of people in the United States have immunocompromising conditions.1 People who
are immunocompromised are a heterogeneous population, and the severity of COVID-19 can vary
significantly in this group. Some individuals who are immunocompromised may have a higher risk of
hospitalization, complications, or death, and some may have outcomes that are comparable to those in
the general population.
This section pertains to people who are moderately or severely immunocompromised, which includes
those who:

• Are receiving active treatment for solid tumor and hematologic malignancies.
• Have hematologic malignancies (e.g., chronic lymphocytic lymphoma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma,
multiple myeloma, acute leukemia) and are known to have poor responses to COVID-19 vaccines,
regardless of the treatment status for the hematologic malignancy.
• Received a solid-organ or islet transplant and are receiving immunosuppressive therapy.
• Received chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR T-cell) therapy or a hematopoietic cell transplant
(HCT) and are within 2 years of transplantation or are receiving immunosuppressive therapy.
• Have a moderate or severe primary immunodeficiency (e.g., severe combined immunodeficiency,
DiGeorge syndrome, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, common variable immunodeficiency disease).
• Have advanced or untreated HIV infection (defined as people with HIV and CD4 T lymphocyte
cell counts <200 cells/mm3, a history of an AIDS-defining illness without immune reconstitution,
or clinical manifestations of symptomatic HIV).
• Are receiving active treatment with high-dose corticosteroids (i.e., ≥20 mg prednisone
or equivalent per day for ≥2 weeks), alkylating agents, antimetabolites, transplant-
related immunosuppressive drugs, cancer chemotherapeutic agents classified as severely
immunosuppressive, or immunosuppressive or immunomodulatory biologic agents (e.g., B cell–
depleting agents).
Analyses have found a higher risk of hospitalization or death from COVID-19 in those with a variety
of immunocompromising conditions, including rheumatic diseases, hematological malignancies, solid
organ transplants, and HIV.2-7 Factors that increase the risk of severe COVID-19 in the general population,
such as older age, chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, and other comorbidities, are significant
drivers of risk in people who are immunocompromised. Moreover, some immunodeficiencies seem to
increase the risk above and beyond traditional risk factors. For example, there is evidence that individuals
who make autoantibodies to type I interferons (proteins that are critical to the protective immune
response against viral infections) have a higher risk of severe COVID-19.8 Similarly, certain classes
of medications, such as T cell–depleting or T cell–suppressing agents (e.g., antithymocyte globulin,
calcineurin inhibitors, mycophenolate mofetil, belatacept) and B cell–depleting agents (e.g., rituximab,
ocrelizumab, obinutuzumab), have been associated with more severe disease and death.7,9,10
Prolonged shedding of SARS-CoV-2 has been reported in patients who are immunocompromised. A
systematic review found that replication-competent virus could be detected for a median of 20 days in
these patients, compared to 11 days in the general population.11 Prolonged viral shedding may affect
SARS-CoV-2 testing strategies and isolation durations for this group of patients. Moreover, case reports
suggest that prolonged infections can create evolutionary pressure for the emergence of variants that
resist therapies or evade vaccine-induced immunity.12-14
For any person who is eligible, clinicians should prescribe therapies for the treatment of COVID-19
as recommended in these Guidelines. However, if logistical constraints limit the availability of
therapies, the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) suggests prioritizing the treatment
of patients with COVID-19 who are at the highest risk of clinical progression (see Prioritization of
Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Therapies for the Treatment of COVID-19 in Nonhospitalized Patients When There
Are Logistical Constraints). Providers should use their clinical judgment when prioritizing patients for
treatment and assess a patient’s immunocompromised status, age, comorbidities, and vaccination status.
The sections below outline the Panel’s rationale for the recommendations on preventing and managing
COVID-19 in people who are immunocompromised. Some of the special considerations for patients
who are immunocompromised include the timing of COVID-19 vaccination, the management of
immunosuppressive medications, and the strategies for treating COVID-19.

Vaccination
COVID-19 vaccination remains the most effective way to prevent serious outcomes and death from
SARS-CoV-2 infection. The Panel recommends COVID-19 vaccination for everyone who is eligible,
including those who are immunocompromised, according to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention’s (CDC) Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (AI).
Authorized or approved COVID-19 vaccines in the United States are not live-virus vaccines and
can be safely administered to patients who are immunocompromised. However, in people who
are immunocompromised, the immune response to vaccination may be blunted, and the timing of
vaccination requires special consideration. Nevertheless, vaccination is still recommended, as it
may confer partial protection, including the protection provided by vaccine-induced, cell-mediated
immunity.15
The Panel recommends following the CDC’s COVID-19 vaccination guidance for people who are
moderately or severely immunocompromised. This guidance includes information on the use of the
updated 2023–2024 mRNA vaccines, which target the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant lineage XBB.1.5.
Current CDC guidance allows for the use of additional vaccine doses in people who are moderately or
severely immunocompromised.16 Data on the optimal timing for repeat vaccination in people who are
immunocompromised are lacking; the CDC recommends an interval of at least 2 months after the last
dose. Other considerations include the patient’s current or expected level of immunosuppression, their
age, comorbidities, and the time since their last vaccine dose. Clinicians should also account for the
prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the community and whether the patient intends to travel.
A preprint of a large observational study from Israel suggests a potential benefit from administering
COVID-19 boosters every 6 months in groups with the highest risk of COVID-19–related
hospitalization or death.17 The CDC-funded VISION Network evaluated the effectiveness of bivalent
vaccines between September 13, 2022, and April 21, 2023, at 5 sites in 7 states.18 Among adults who
were immunocompromised, a lower vaccine effectiveness was observed for the bivalent booster, but
vaccine effectiveness was sustained against critical COVID-19–associated outcomes, including intensive
care unit admission and death. Vaccine effectiveness against hospitalization was 28% during the first
7 to 59 days after receipt of the bivalent dose and declined to 13% by 120 to 179 days; this indirectly
supports using a 6-month interval for repeat vaccination.
The pivotal clinical trials that evaluated the safety and efficacy of the COVID-19 vaccines excluded
people who were severely immunocompromised; therefore, the data for this population are less robust.19,20
Observational data suggest that serological responses to vaccines may be blunted in patients who are
immunocompromised.21,22 However, the MELODY trial reported detectable immunoglobulin G spike
protein antibodies in approximately 80% of a large cohort of individuals in the United Kingdom who
were immunocompromised and had received at least 3 doses of COVID-19 vaccines.23 Those who had
received anti-CD20 therapies within the past year were less likely than other groups in the study to have
detectable anti-spike protein antibodies. In another study conducted during the Omicron era, a fourth
dose of an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine reduced the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe COVID-19
among patients receiving treatment for systemic autoimmune rheumatic diseases.24
Vaccination of Close Contacts
Clinicians should strongly encourage all household members and close contacts of patients who are
immunocompromised to be vaccinated against COVID-19 (AI). Before Omicron became the dominant
circulating variant, a large cohort study of health care workers in Finland reported that COVID-19
vaccines were associated with a reduction in SARS-CoV-2 infections not only among vaccinated

individuals but also among unvaccinated adult household members.25 A 2022 systematic review and
meta-analysis of 96 studies reported that people who received a complete primary COVID-19 vaccine
series had reduced susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection and were less infectious if they become
infected.26
Vaccination Timing and Immunosuppressive Therapies
If possible, COVID-19 vaccines should be administered at least 2 weeks before initiating or resuming
immunosuppressive therapies. The timing of the vaccination should be determined based on the
patient’s current or planned immunosuppressive therapies, as well as the patient’s medical condition and
predicted response to the vaccine. Guidance about the timing of COVID-19 vaccination in solid organ
transplant, HCT, and cellular immunotherapy candidates can be found in Special Considerations in Solid
Organ Transplant, Hematopoietic Cell Transplant, and Cellular Immunotherapy Candidates, Donors,
and Recipients. The CDC’s guidance allows the use of additional vaccine doses in people who are
immunocompromised. Each additional dose should be administered at least 2 months after the last dose.
The CDC recommends that HCT and CAR T-cell recipients who received doses of COVID-19
vaccines before or during treatment with HCT or CAR T-cell therapy should be revaccinated with the
currently recommended primary vaccine series at least 3 months after the transplant or CAR T-cell
therapy.16 The American College of Rheumatology also provides guidance for temporarily stopping
immunosuppressive regimens during vaccination.27
Polyethylene Glycol Allergies
The BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) and mRNA-1273 (Moderna) mRNA vaccines contain polyethylene
glycol (PEG), whereas the NVX-CoV2373 (Novavax) vaccine contains polysorbate 80. PEG and
polysorbate are used in many products, including in agents used for cancer chemotherapy (e.g., PEG-
asparaginase). PEG and polysorbate are structurally related, and cross-reactive hypersensitivity between
these compounds might occur. The detection of PEG antibodies after vaccination was not associated
with increased adverse reactions (such as delayed-onset reactions, including injection site rashes, or
severe allergic reactions) to the mRNA COVID-19 vaccines.28 Therefore, testing for anti-PEG antibodies
should not be used as a screening tool to assess the risk of allergic reactions29 and should not replace
an assessment by a specialist in those rare individuals with a history of anaphylaxis.30 The CDC has
issued guidance on triaging people with a history of allergies or allergic reactions to the components of
COVID-19 vaccines.
Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis
As of February 2024, no biomedical intervention other than vaccines prevents COVID-19 disease.
Previously, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authorized the use of the anti-SARS-CoV-2
monoclonal antibodies tixagevimab plus cilgavimab (Evusheld) as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP)
of COVID-19 in certain people who were not expected to mount an adequate immune response to
COVID-19 vaccination and in people with COVID-19 vaccine contraindications. Because the current
Omicron subvariants are not susceptible to tixagevimab plus cilgavimab, this combination is not
currently authorized by the FDA for use as PrEP of COVID-19.31
Serologic Testing to Guide Vaccination Strategies

COVID-19 vaccination or for assessing the need for vaccination in a person who is unvaccinated. More
than 80 SARS-CoV-2 serologic tests, including quantitative, semiquantitative, neutralizing antibody,
and point-of-care tests, have been issued Emergency Use Authorizations by the FDA to aid in detecting
antibodies to SARS-CoV-2.32 However, these tests are not currently authorized for routine use in making

individual medical decisions, and their ability to assess a person’s level of immunity or protection
from SARS-CoV-2 infection has not been evaluated.33 Most of these tests have not been calibrated to a
reference standard, limiting the ability to compare and reproduce results from different tests.
Management of Patients With COVID-19 Who Are Immunocompromised

Adjusting Chronic Immunosuppressive Therapies
Clinicians should consult with the appropriate specialists when making decisions about stopping
or adjusting the doses of immunosuppressive drugs in patients with COVID-19. When selecting
treatments for COVID-19, clinicians should consider factors such as the underlying disease; the specific
immunosuppressants being used; the severity of COVID-19; and the potential for drug-drug interactions,
overlapping toxicities, and secondary infections.
Early in the clinical course of COVID-19, the disease is primarily driven by the replication of
SARS-CoV-2. Immunosuppressive medications can reduce the host immune responses that suppress
viral replication, increasing the risk of prolonged viral shedding and infection.34,35 Clinicians
should consider adjusting the doses of immunosuppressive medications or substituting certain
immunosuppressive medications, if possible, to improve the patient’s immune response to infection.
When making decisions about stopping or reducing the dose of immunosuppressive drugs, clinicians
should balance the potential benefit of enhancing the patient’s immune response to COVID-19 with the
risk of exacerbating the underlying condition. They should also consider the role of immunomodulation
in the treatment of COVID-19.
Clinicians should be aware that many immunosuppressive drugs, particularly biologic agents, have long
half-lives or prolonged periods of biologic activity. Patients may remain immunosuppressed long after
the drugs are stopped. Care should be taken to not stop glucocorticoids abruptly, since this may result
in adrenal insufficiency. For medications other than glucocorticoids, decisions about dose adjustments
should be made on a case-by-case basis. For example, for some autoimmune diseases, temporary
cessation of immunosuppression is often possible, and restarting medications 7 to 14 days after symptom
resolution may be appropriate.27,36 Observational data suggest that patients receiving tumor necrosis
factor–alpha (TNF-alpha) inhibitors may be at lower risk of progressing to severe COVID-19 than those
receiving treatment with other immunomodulators.37,38 Therefore, some patients with mild COVID-19
may safely continue receiving treatment with TNF-alpha inhibitors.
For solid organ transplant recipients, adjustments to immunosuppressive regimens should be
individualized based on disease severity, the risk of graft rejection, the specific immunosuppressants
being used, the type of transplant, the time since transplantation, the concentration of
immunosuppressants, and the potential for drug-drug interactions.39 See Special Considerations in Solid
Organ Transplant, Hematopoietic Cell Transplant, and Cellular Immunotherapy Candidates, Donors, and
Recipients for more information.
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Patients With COVID-19

For nonhospitalized patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are immunocompromised, the Panel
recommends prompt treatment with antiviral drugs at the doses and durations recommended for the
general population (AIII). See Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 to
review the Panel’s recommendations. Some special considerations for using these therapies in people
who are immunocompromised are outlined below.
In the EPIC-HR trial, the use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir reduced the risk of hospitalization

or death when compared with placebo in nonhospitalized, unvaccinated adults who had laboratory-
confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and a high risk of progressing to severe COVID-19.40 Because the
trial did not enroll many participants who were immunocompromised, the efficacy of ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir was not established for this population. In subsequent retrospective studies, some potential
benefits of using ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir in people with various immunocompromising conditions
have been observed.41,42
A retrospective study investigated the use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir for the treatment of
COVID-19 in patients who were moderately or severely immunocompromised.43 Among 3,188 patients,
the use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir reduced the risk of death or hospitalization in extremely
vulnerable patients, such as those with solid organ, bone marrow, or stem cell transplants; those with
severe primary immunodeficiencies; and those receiving B cell–depletion therapy or treatment for
hematologic malignancies.
Because ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is the only highly effective oral antiviral therapy for COVID-19,
it should be considered for patients who are immunocompromised if there are no potentially significant
drug-drug interactions or if the interactions can be safely managed. Clinicians should be aware of
drug-drug interactions that may be life- or organ-threatening (see Drug-Drug Interactions Between
Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir [Paxlovid] and Concomitant Medications).44 Notably, calcineurin
inhibitors (e.g., tacrolimus, cyclosporine A) and mammalian target of rapamycin drugs (e.g., sirolimus,
everolimus) have important drug-drug interactions with ritonavir. For this reason, the American Society
of Transplantation recommends preferentially using other therapies, such as remdesivir, over ritonavir-
boosted nirmatrelvir in people who are taking calcineurin inhibitors or mammalian target of rapamycin
inhibitors.39 Ritonavir can inhibit the metabolism of many cancer-directed therapies and should only
be given after consulting with specialty pharmacists and other appropriate specialists. Remdesivir
and molnupiravir are other antiviral options for individuals who cannot receive ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir because of drug-drug interactions.
with ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir or molnupiravir.45-49 However, viral rebound can also occur in
rebound and symptom recurrence than those who did not receive treatment.51,52
therapies have not been associated with progression to severe COVID-19.53,54 Therefore, concerns
about viral rebound or the recurrence of symptoms should not be a reason to avoid using antiviral
therapies when their use is indicated.49,55-57 A clinical trial that is evaluating the use of a second course of
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir to treat patients with viral rebound and symptom recurrence is underway
(ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT05567952). See Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) for more
information on rebound.
Remdesivir
Remdesivir was studied in nonhospitalized patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who were at
high risk of progressing to severe disease, and it was shown to be highly effective in reducing the risk
of hospitalization and death.58 However, this trial only included a small number of participants who
were immunocompromised. Because remdesivir treatment for nonhospitalized patients requires an
intravenous infusion for 3 consecutive days, there may be logistical constraints to administering this
drug in many settings. It can be considered for patients who are immunocompromised if other options,
such as ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, are not appropriate or available.

Molnupiravir
In the MOVe-OUT trial, molnupiravir reduced the rate of hospitalization or death when compared with
placebo in nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19.59 However, this trial only enrolled a small number
of participants who were immunocompromised. In a post hoc analysis of data from 55 patients who
were immunocompromised, 2 of 24 patients (8%) who received molnupiravir were hospitalized or died
through Day 29 compared with 7 of 31 patients (23%) who received placebo.60 The PANORAMIC
trial enrolled a larger population of people who were immunocompromised, but this population was
heterogeneous and the results of the study were inconclusive.61 Although the different treatment options
have not been directly compared in clinical trials, the available evidence suggests that molnupiravir has
a lower efficacy than ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir or remdesivir (see Molnupiravir). Other COVID-19
therapies should be prioritized over molnupiravir in patients who are immunocompromised.
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of high-titer
COVID-19 convalescent plasma (CCP) for the treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients who
are immunocompromised.
The FDA issued an Emergency Use Authorization that allows the use of high-titer CCP for the treatment
of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized or hospitalized patients who have immunosuppressive disease or are
receiving immunosuppressive treatment.62 However, the evidence generated from well-designed clinical
trials that evaluated the use of CCP for the treatment of nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19 is
conflicting; these trials only enrolled a small number of patients who were immunocompromised.63-66
For a discussion on the potential use of high-titer CCP in patients who are immunocompromised
and have prolonged viral replication, see the Therapeutic Management of Patients With COVID-19
Symptoms and Prolonged SARS-CoV-2 Replication section below.
The Panel recommends against the use of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) for the prevention or
treatment of acute COVID-19 in adults and children, except in a clinical trial (AIII).
Some individuals who are immunocompromised and have hypogammaglobulinemia are candidates
for receiving supplemental antibodies in the form of IVIG for the prevention of a variety of infections
and in the setting of acute infections, including COVID-19. IVIG can be administered as outpatient or
inpatient therapy. However, outside these specific circumstances, the Panel’s recommendation should
not preclude the use of IVIG when it is otherwise indicated for underlying conditions. See Intravenous
Immunoglobulin for more information.
Therapeutic Management of Patients Who Are Hospitalized for COVID-19

For most hospitalized patients with severe or critical COVID-19 who are immunocompromised, the
Panel recommends using antiviral drugs and immunomodulatory therapies at the doses and durations
recommended for the general population (AIII). See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized
Adults With COVID-19 for more information. The optimal management strategies and treatments for
COVID-19 in hospitalized patients who are immunocompromised are unknown since these individuals
were either excluded from or poorly represented in major clinical trials. Nevertheless, clinical
experience and retrospective data suggest that many patients who are immunocompromised have the
expected responses to standard therapies for COVID-19.
Remdesivir
Case reports suggest that remdesivir can suppress, but does not always eliminate, viral replication in this

population.67,68 In a large retrospective study of hospitalized patients who were immunocompromised,
including patients who did not require supplemental oxygen, patients who received remdesivir had
a lower risk of mortality at 14 days and 28 days than patients who did not receive remdesivir.69 The
optimal duration of treatment with remdesivir in patients who are immunocompromised is unknown.
Given the risk of prolonged viral replication in patients who are immunocompromised, some
clinicians may choose to extend the course of antiviral therapy past 5 to 10 days. For patients receiving
immunomodulatory therapy who have severe respiratory impairment due to COVID-19, clinicians
may consider adding remdesivir treatment, although remdesivir has not been adequately studied in
prospective clinical trials to determine whether there is a benefit in these patients.
Corticosteroids
The RECOVERY trial reported a survival benefit for dexamethasone in inpatients with COVID-19
who were receiving oxygen, high-flow nasal cannula oxygen, noninvasive ventilation, or mechanical
ventilation; however, specific data regarding the subgroup of patients who were immunocompromised
are not available.70 Corticosteroids should not be used for the treatment of COVID-19 in patients who
are not receiving oxygen. In the RECOVERY trial, no survival benefit was observed for dexamethasone
among the subset of patients with COVID-19 who did not require supplemental oxygen at enrollment.
In an observational cohort study of U.S. veterans, the use of dexamethasone was associated with higher
mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 who did not require supplemental oxygen.70,71
Patients who are immunocompromised may experience delayed development of favorable adaptive
responses and a prolonged period of viral replication, as discussed above. For patients who are
immunocompromised, are receiving minimal levels of conventional oxygen, and are earlier in the course
of COVID-19 (e.g., those with <10 days of symptoms), the preferred approach may be emphasizing
supportive care, using antiviral therapy, and avoiding corticosteroids. This strategy may reduce the
duration of viral replication and the risk of secondary infections. Dexamethasone should be added if the
patient has escalating oxygen requirements.
For patients who are immunocompromised and who were on chronic corticosteroids prior to
hospitalization, the optimal dose of dexamethasone for the treatment of COVID-19 is unknown. The
recommended dose of dexamethasone is 6 mg, which is equivalent to 40 mg of prednisone. This is
the minimum dose of a steroid that should be used. Maintenance doses of corticosteroids should be
discontinued while a patient is receiving dexamethasone, and the doses should be resumed as soon as
possible after the patient recovers from COVID-19 or completes the course of dexamethasone.
Other Immunomodulators
Several randomized trials have shown that adding baricitinib or tocilizumab as a second
immunomodulator to dexamethasone improves clinical outcomes in patients with severe or critical
COVID-19.72-74 Another randomized trial that examined the use of abatacept, cenicriviroc, or infliximab
in combination with dexamethasone in hospitalized adults with COVID-19 reported no differences
between the study arms in the primary endpoint of time to recovery.75 However, patients who received
infliximab or abatacept had a lower risk of mortality at 28 days. These trials generally excluded patients
who were immunocompromised or only included small numbers of these patients. For patients who
are immunocompromised, the use of these agents may provide a clinical benefit similar to the benefit
seen in the general population. However, it is not clear whether augmenting immunomodulation in this
population increases the risk of serious bacterial, invasive fungal, or parasitic infections.
The Panel currently recommends adding another immunomodulator to dexamethasone in hospitalized
patients with COVID-19 who are hypoxemic and experiencing clinical progression (see Therapeutic
Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19). This approach can also be used for most patients

with COVID-19 who are immunocompromised. However, clinicians should consult with specialists
to ensure that the risks of using additional immunosuppressive medications, including the risks of
serious infections, do not outweigh the benefits. The patient should be closely monitored for secondary
infections.
There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of high-titer CCP
for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized patients who are immunocompromised.
Three key randomized trials that evaluated the use of CCP for the treatment of COVID-19—
RECOVERY, CONCOR-1, and REMAP-CAP—reported no evidence of a benefit of CCP in
hospitalized patients with COVID-19. However, most of the patients enrolled in these trials were not
immunocompromised.76-78 Some of the subgroup analyses generated from clinical trials that enrolled
patients who were immunocompromised suggested a potential benefit of CCP in this population,78-80 but
subgroup analyses need to be interpreted with caution (see Table 4c). Other clinical data from case series,
retrospective case-control studies, and meta-analyses have been cited as support for the potential benefit
of CCP in patients who are immunocompromised.81-89 However, the patient populations differed across
studies, and the studies had design limitations, making the findings difficult to interpret.
The RECOVER trial was a small, randomized trial that evaluated the use of plasma from donors
who were vaccinated against COVID-19 or convalescent after SARS-CoV-2 infection as a treatment
for COVID-19 in hospitalized people with cancer, people with immunosuppression, people with
lymphopenia and D-dimer levels >1 µg/mL, and people aged >75 years.79 Only the subgroup of patients
with cancer who received plasma treatment experienced a shorter median time to improvement and lower
mortality when compared with the control arm.
For a discussion on the potential use of high-titer CCP in patients who are immunocompromised and
have prolonged viral replication, see Therapeutic Management of Patients With COVID-19 Symptoms
and Prolonged SARS-CoV-2 Replication below.
Therapeutic Management of Patients Who Are Hospitalized for Reasons Other Than
COVID-19
People who are immunocompromised and have COVID-19 but were hospitalized for conditions other
than COVID-19 should receive the same treatments as nonhospitalized patients (AIII). See Therapeutic
Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for more information.
Therapeutic Management of Patients With COVID-19 Symptoms and Prolonged SARS-CoV-2

Replication
receiving a course of antiviral therapy, the optimal management is unknown. Case reports and case series
have described the treatment of these patients with additional antiviral treatments, prolonged courses of
antiviral treatments, high-titer CCP, or combination therapy.90-96 The data for these approaches are not
definitive, but some Panel members would use 1 or more of the following treatment options:
• Longer and/or additional courses of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir
• High-titer CCP from a vaccinated donor who recently recovered from COVID-19 likely caused by

a SARS-CoV-2 variant similar to the variant causing the patient’s illness
Clinicians should be aware that the drug-drug interaction potential of ritonavir may change based on
the duration of treatment. Although the primary concern with the use of a 5-day course of ritonavir is
cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4 inhibition, the induction properties of ritonavir may become clinically
relevant when it is used for ≥10 days.97
After longer courses of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir are discontinued, drug-drug interactions caused by
CYP3A4 inhibition are expected to resolve within 2 to 3 days.98 Drug-drug interactions that are caused
by induction (e.g., CYP2C9, CYP2C19, uridine diphosphate-glucuronyltransferase) resolve gradually
and variably.
Clinicians should consult experts (e.g., pharmacists and physicians with HIV expertise) for guidance
on drug-drug interactions when using extended courses of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir. For more
information, see Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and
Concomitant Medications. The Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website provides guidance on
managing drug-drug interactions in patients who are receiving for extended courses (i.e., ≥10 days) of
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.

Multiple studies have found that pregnant individuals have an increased risk of severe COVID-19
compared to age-matched controls, with increased rates of intensive care unit admission, mechanical
ventilation, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and death.99-101 Although hormonally mediated
immunomodulation occurs during pregnancy, pregnancy is not a state of systemic immunosuppression.
Changes in the immune response to certain infectious pathogens during pregnancy may increase the
severity of respiratory illness in pregnant individuals. Physiologic changes, such as reduced pulmonary
residual capacity, may also contribute to respiratory disease severity.102-105 Pregnant people who have
underlying immunocompromising conditions or are receiving immunosuppressive medications likely
have an even higher risk of severe disease. This patient group should be prioritized for the prevention
and treatment of COVID-19.
Prevention
The Panel recommends COVID-19 vaccination for everyone who is eligible, including pregnant and
lactating individuals, according to the CDC’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (AI).
COVID-19 vaccination is strongly recommended for pregnant individuals due to their increased risk
for severe disease.106,107 Vaccination is especially important for pregnant people with concomitant
risk factors such as underlying immunocompromising conditions (including those who are receiving
immunosuppressive medications), as the risk for severe disease is likely additive.100
Treatment
Although pregnant patients have been excluded from the majority of the clinical trials that evaluated
the use of COVID-19 therapeutics, pregnant patients with COVID-19 can be treated the same as
nonpregnant patients, with a few exceptions. Pregnant patients who are immunocompromised or who
have other risk factors likely have an even higher risk of severe COVID-19 and should be prioritized
for treatment. Providers should refer to Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics for the
Panel’s guidance on treating COVID-19 in pregnant and lactating patients. Pregnant people who
are immunocompromised are a heterogeneous group of patients, ranging from those who are mildly
immunocompromised to those who are severely immunocompromised. Evaluating and managing
pregnant patients require collaboration from a multidisciplinary team. This team should include a

transplant or specialty provider, an obstetrician or maternal-fetal medicine specialist, a pediatrician or
neonatology specialist, and a pharmacist.
Although the overall risk of critical illness and death related to COVID-19 is lower in children than in
adults, severe disease does occur, particularly in children with risk factors such as moderate or severe
immunocompromising conditions. See Special Considerations in Children for a discussion of the
risk factors for severe COVID-19 in children, and see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized
Children With COVID-19 for the Panel’s framework for assessing a child’s risk of progression to severe
COVID-19 based on vaccination status, comorbidities, and age.
Prevention
The Panel recommends COVID-19 vaccination for everyone who is eligible, including children,
according to the CDC’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (AI).
Treatment
The majority of children with mild to moderate COVID-19 will not progress to more severe illness;
therefore, the Panel recommends managing these patients with supportive care alone (AIII). Few
children, if any, have been enrolled in clinical trials of treatments for COVID-19. Among the children
who were enrolled, very few were immunocompromised. Therefore, clinicians should be cautious when
applying recommendations based on adult data to children. Clinicians need to consider the potential
risks and benefits of therapy, the severity of the patient’s disease, and underlying risk factors. See
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19 and Therapeutic Management
of Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19 for the Panel’s treatment recommendations in these
scenarios.
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Special Considerations in Adults and Children
With Cancer
• COVID-19 vaccination remains the most effective way to prevent serious outcomes and death from SARS-CoV-2
infection. The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends COVID-19 vaccination for everyone who is
eligible, including patients with active cancer and patients receiving treatment for cancer, according to the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (AI).
• See the CDC webpage COVID-19 Vaccines for People Who Are Moderately or Severely Immunocompromised for the
current COVID-19 vaccination schedule.
• Vaccinating household members, close contacts, and health care providers who provide care to patients with cancer
is important to protect these patients from infection. Clinicians should strongly encourage all household members and
close contacts of patients with cancer to be vaccinated against COVID-19 (AI).
• The Panel defers to CDC recommendations for diagnostic molecular or antigen testing for SARS-CoV-2 infection in
patients with cancer who develop signs and symptoms that suggest acute COVID-19. The Panel also defers to CDC
recommendations for testing of asymptomatic patients before procedures and hospital admissions.
• For patients with cancer and COVID-19, clinicians should follow COVID-19 evaluation and management guidelines
for patients who do not have cancer. See Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 and
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for more information.
• Decisions about administering cancer-directed therapy to patients with acute COVID-19 and those who are recovering
from COVID-19 should be made on a case-by-case basis; clinicians should consider the indication for chemotherapy,
the goals of care, and the patient’s history of tolerance to the cancer treatment (BIII).
• Clinicians should consult with a hematologist or oncologist when making decisions about stopping or adjusting the
doses of cancer-directed medications in patients with cancer and COVID-19.
• Clinicians should pay careful attention to potential overlapping toxicities and drug-drug interactions between drugs
used to treat COVID-19 (e.g., ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir [Paxlovid], dexamethasone) and cancer-directed therapies,
prophylactic antimicrobials, and other medications (AIII).
People being treated for cancer may be at increased risk of severe COVID-19, and clinical outcomes of
COVID-19 are generally worse in people with cancer than in people without cancer.1-4 A meta-analysis of
46,499 patients with COVID-19 showed that all-cause mortality was higher in patients with cancer (risk
ratio 1.66; 95% CI, 1.33–2.07), and that patients with cancer were more likely to be admitted to intensive
care units (risk ratio 1.56; 95% CI, 1.31–1.87).5 A patient’s risk of immunosuppression and susceptibility
to SARS-CoV-2 infection depend on the type of cancer, the treatments administered, and the stage of
disease (e.g., patients actively being treated compared to those in remission). In a study that used data
from the COVID-19 and Cancer Consortium registry, patients with cancer who were in remission or who
had no evidence of disease had a lower risk of death from COVID-19 than those who were receiving
active treatment.6 Cancer survivors may also have an increased risk of severe COVID-19.7
This section of the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines focuses on testing for SARS-CoV-2 and managing
COVID-19 and cancer-directed therapies in people with cancer and COVID-19.

The clinical trials that evaluated the COVID-19 vaccines that received Emergency Use Authorizations
or approvals from the Food and Drug Administration excluded patients who were severely
immunocompromised. The COVID-19 vaccines authorized for use in the United States are not live
vaccines; therefore, they can be safely administered to people who are immunocompromised.
COVID-19 vaccination remains the most effective way to prevent serious outcomes and death
from SARS-CoV-2 infection. The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends
COVID-19 vaccination for everyone who is eligible, including patients with active cancer and patients
receiving treatment for cancer, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC)
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (AI). See the CDC webpage COVID-19 Vaccines for
People Who Are Moderately or Severely Immunocompromised for the current COVID-19 vaccination
schedule.
Observational data suggest that serological responses to vaccines may be blunted in patients who are
immunocompromised.8,9 However, vaccination is still recommended for these patients because it may
provide partial protection, including protection from vaccine-induced, cell-mediated immunity.
Vaccinating household members, close contacts, and health care providers who provide care to patients
with cancer is important to protect these patients from infection. Clinicians should strongly encourage
all household members and close contacts of patients with cancer to be vaccinated against COVID-19
(AI). There is evidence that vaccinated individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2 have lower viral loads
than unvaccinated individuals10,11 and that COVID-19 vaccines reduce the incidence of SARS-CoV-2
infections not only among vaccinated individuals but also among their household contacts.12-14
When determining the timing of COVID-19 vaccination in patients with cancer, clinicians should
consider the following factors:
• If possible, patients planning to receive chemotherapy should receive vaccinations for COVID-19
at least 2 weeks before starting chemotherapy.15,16
• COVID-19 vaccines can be offered as early as 3 months after a patient receives hematopoietic cell
or chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy.16
• Graft-versus-host disease symptoms may flare after COVID-19 vaccination.17 No immune-related
adverse events were reported after COVID-19 vaccination in 2 studies of patients with cancer who
received immune checkpoint inhibitors.18,19
Decreased immunologic responses to COVID-19 vaccination have been reported in patients receiving
treatment for solid tumors and hematologic malignancies.9,20 The type of therapy has been shown to
influence the patient’s response to vaccination. For example, people with chronic lymphocytic leukemia
who were treated with Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibitors or venetoclax with or without anti-CD20
antibodies had extremely low response rates (16.0% and 13.6%, respectively).20 In comparison,
approximately 80% to 95% of patients with solid tumors showed immunologic responses.9,21,22 Several
observational studies support the use of a third vaccine dose in patients with cancer, even though vaccine
failure may still occur.23-25 See the CDC website COVID-19 Vaccines for People Who Are Moderately or
Severely Immunocompromised for guidance on vaccine dosing.
Polyethylene Glycol Allergies

The BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) and mRNA-1273 (Moderna) mRNA vaccines contain polyethylene
glycol (PEG), whereas the NVX-CoV2373 (Novavax) vaccine contains polysorbate 80.26 PEG and
polysorbate are used in many products, including in agents used for cancer chemotherapy (e.g., PEG-

asparaginase). PEG and polysorbate are structurally related, and cross-reactive hypersensitivity between
these compounds might occur.27
The detection of PEG antibodies after vaccination was not associated with increased adverse reactions
(such as delayed-onset reactions, including injection site rashes, or severe allergic reactions) to the
mRNA vaccines.27 Therefore, testing for anti-PEG antibodies should not be used as a screening tool to
assess the risk of allergic reactions28 and should not replace an assessment by a specialist in those rare
individuals with a history of anaphylaxis.29 The CDC has issued guidance on triaging people with a
history of allergies or allergic reactions to the components of COVID-19 vaccines.
Testing for SARS-CoV-2

The Panel defers to CDC recommendations for diagnostic molecular or antigen testing for SARS-CoV-2
infection in patients with cancer who develop signs and symptoms that suggest acute COVID-19. The
Panel also defers to CDC recommendations for testing of asymptomatic patients before procedures and
hospital admissions.
Patients with cancer who are receiving chemotherapy are at risk of developing neutropenia. The
National Comprehensive Cancer Network Guidelines for Hematopoietic Growth Factors categorize
cancer treatment regimens based on the patient’s risk of developing neutropenia.30 A retrospective study
suggests that patients with cancer and neutropenia have an increased risk of mortality if they develop
COVID-19.31 Studies have reported an increased risk of poor clinical outcomes for patients with
COVID-19 in the setting of neutropenia and during the perioperative period.32,33
General Guidance for Patients With Cancer

Patients with cancer frequently engage with the health care system to receive treatment and supportive
care for cancer or treatment-related complications. Nosocomial transmission of SARS-CoV-2 to
patients and health care workers has been reported.34-36 Health care providers and patients should take
precautions to reduce the risk of SARS-CoV-2 exposure and infection, including wearing a mask and
practicing good hand hygiene.37 Telemedicine can minimize the need for in-person services and reduce
the risk of SARS-CoV-2 exposure. For people who have difficulty accessing health care, telemedicine
may improve access to providers, but it could worsen disparities if these populations have limited access
to technology.
Decisions about treatment regimens, surgery, and radiation therapy for the underlying malignancy should
be made on a case-by-case basis, and clinicians should consider the biology of the cancer, the need for
hospitalization, the number of clinic visits required, and the anticipated degree of immunosuppression.
Cancer treatment regimens that do not affect the outcomes of COVID-19 in patients with cancer may not
need to be altered. In a prospective observational study, receipt of immunotherapy, hormonal therapy, or
radiotherapy in the month prior to SARS-CoV-2 infection was not associated with an increased risk of
mortality among patients with cancer and COVID-19.38
Febrile Neutropenia
Patients with cancer and febrile neutropenia should undergo diagnostic molecular or antigen testing
for SARS-CoV-2 and evaluation for other infectious agents. They should also be given empiric
antimicrobial therapy per the standard of care.39
Treating COVID-19 and Managing Chemotherapy

Retrospective studies suggest that patients with cancer who were admitted to the hospital with

SARS-CoV-2 infection have a high case-fatality rate, with higher rates observed in patients with
hematologic malignancies than in those with solid tumors.40,41
For patients with cancer and COVID-19, clinicians should follow COVID-19 evaluation and
management guidelines for patients who do not have cancer. Patients with cancer are at high risk of
progressing to severe COVID-19 and are eligible to receive anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies in the outpatient
setting if they develop mild to moderate COVID-19. See Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized
Adults With COVID-19 for details.
The Panel also provides recommendations for treating COVID-19 in hospitalized patients. See
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for more information. In patients with
COVID-19 who required supplemental oxygen or mechanical ventilation, the use of dexamethasone has
been associated with lower mortality than standard of care treatment alone.42 In patients with cancer,
dexamethasone is commonly used to prevent chemotherapy-induced nausea, as a part of tumor-directed
therapy, and to treat inflammation associated with brain metastasis. The side effects of dexamethasone
are expected to be the same in patients with cancer as in those without cancer.
The immunomodulators baricitinib, tocilizumab, abatacept, or inflixamab used in combination with
dexamethasone are recommended for some patients with severe or critical COVID-19 who exhibit rapid
respiratory decompensation (see Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19).43-
46
The risks and benefits of using dexamethasone in combination with another immunomodulator in
patients with cancer who recently received chemotherapy is unknown. Because dexamethasone and the
other immunomodulators are immunosuppressive agents, patients who receive these medications should
be closely monitored for secondary infections.
Therapeutic anticoagulation for patients with cancer who are hospitalized for COVID-19 should be
managed similarly to anticoagulation for other hospitalized patients. Patients with platelet counts
<50,000 cells/µL should not receive therapeutic anticoagulation for COVID-19. Clinicians should follow
hospital protocols for managing anticoagulation in patients with thrombocytopenia.
Decisions about administering cancer-directed therapy to patients with acute COVID-19 and those who
are recovering from COVID-19 should be made on a case-by-case basis; clinicians should consider
the indication for chemotherapy, the goals of care, and the patient’s history of tolerance to the cancer
treatment (BIII). The optimal time to initiate or restart cancer-directed therapies after the infection has
resolved is unclear. If possible, clinicians should withhold treatment until COVID-19 symptoms have
resolved. Prolonged viral shedding may occur in patients with cancer,2 although it is unknown how this
relates to infectious virus or outcomes. The decision to restart cancer treatments in this setting should be
made on a case-by-case basis. Clinicians should consult with a hematologist or oncologist when making
decisions about stopping or adjusting the doses of cancer-directed medications in patients with cancer
and COVID-19.
The use of antiviral or immune-based therapies to treat COVID-19 can present additional challenges
in patients with cancer. Clinicians should pay careful attention to potential overlapping toxicities and
drug-drug interactions between drugs used to treat COVID-19 (e.g., ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir
[Paxlovid], dexamethasone) and cancer-directed therapies, prophylactic antimicrobials, and other
medications (AIII).
A 5-day course of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir is 1 of the preferred therapies for treating mild to
moderate COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients who are at risk for disease progression. However,
this regimen has the potential for significant and complex drug-drug interactions with concomitant

medications, primarily due to the ritonavir component of the combination. Boosting with ritonavir,
a strong cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A inhibitor, is required to increase the exposure of nirmatrelvir to
a concentration that is effective against SARS-CoV-2. Ritonavir may also increase concentrations of
certain concomitant medications, including some chemotherapeutic agents and immunotherapies used
to treat cancer. Significant increases in the concentrations of these drugs may lead to serious or life-
threatening drug toxicities. Additionally, ritonavir is an inhibitor, inducer, and substrate of various other
drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug transporters.
Before prescribing ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, clinicians should carefully review the patient’s
concomitant medications, including over-the-counter medications, herbal supplements, and recreational
drugs, to evaluate potential drug-drug interactions. Clinicians should refer to resources such as the
Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website, Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted
Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Concomitant Medications, and the Food and Drug Administration’s
prescribing information for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir for guidance on identifying and managing
potential drug-drug interactions. If significant interactions prohibit the concomitant use of ritonavir-
boosted nirmatrelvir, another antiviral treatment option should be used (see Therapeutic Management of
Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19).
Dexamethasone is commonly used as an antiemetic for patients with cancer and is recommended for the
treatment of certain patients with COVID-19 (see Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With
COVID-19). Dexamethasone is a weak to moderate CYP3A4 inducer; therefore, interactions with any
CYP3A4 substrates need to be considered.
Special Considerations in Children

Preliminary published reports suggest that pediatric patients with cancer may have milder manifestations
of COVID-19 than adult patients with cancer, although larger studies are needed.47-49 Guidance on
managing children with cancer and COVID-19 is available from an international group that received
input from the International Society of Paediatric Oncology, the Children’s Oncology Group, St.
Jude Global, and Childhood Cancer International.50 Guidance on managing specific malignancies
and supportive care and weblinks relevant to the care of children with cancer and COVID-19 are
available in 2 publications authored by groups of experts.50,51 Special considerations for the treatment
of children with COVID-19, including those who are immunocompromised, can be found in
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19 and Therapeutic Management of
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2. Shah V, Ko Ko T, Zuckerman M, et al. Poor outcome and prolonged persistence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in
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inoculation with the BNT162b2 vaccine. Nat Med. 2021;27(5):790-792. Available at:
11. Petter E, Mor O, Zuckerman N, et al. Initial real world evidence for lower viral load of individuals who have
been vaccinated by BNT162b2. medRxiv. 2021;Preprint. Available at:
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household contacts during dominance of Delta variant (B.1.617.2), the Netherlands, August to September
2021. Euro Surveill. 2021;26(44):2100977. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34738514.
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patients. 2022. Available at: https://www.hematology.org/covid-19/ash-astct-covid-19-and-vaccines. Accessed
February 9, 2024.
16. American Society of Hematology. ASH-ASTCT COVID-19 vaccination for HCT and CAR T cell recipients:
frequently asked questions. 2022. Available at: https://www.hematology.org/covid-19/ash-astct-covid-19-
vaccination-for-hct-and-car-t-cell-recipients. Accessed February 9, 2024.
17. Trunk AD, Shewan SK, Lee CJ, Parker CJ, Couriel DR. Chronic graft-versus-host disease exacerbation after
SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2022;57(3):502-503. Available at:
18. Chen YW, Tucker MD, Beckermann KE, et al. COVID-19 mRNA vaccines and immune-related adverse
events in cancer patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Eur J Cancer. 2021;155:291-293.
19. Waissengrin B, Agbarya A, Safadi E, Padova H, Wolf I. Short-term safety of the BNT162b2 mRNA
COVID-19 vaccine in patients with cancer treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Lancet Oncol.
20. Herishanu Y, Avivi I, Aharon A, et al. Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine in patients with
chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood. 2021;137(23):3165-3173. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/33861303.

21. Massarweh A, Eliakim-Raz N, Stemmer A, et al. Evaluation of seropositivity following BNT162b2 messenger
RNA vaccination for SARS-CoV-2 in patients undergoing treatment for cancer. JAMA Oncol. 2021;7(8):1133-
22. Shroff RT, Chalasani P, Wei R, et al. Immune responses to two and three doses of the BNT162b2 mRNA
vaccine in adults with solid tumors. Nat Med. 2021;27(11):2002-2011. Available at:
23. Mair MJ, Berger JM, Mitterer M, et al. Third dose of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in hemato-oncological patients
and health care workers: immune responses and adverse events—a retrospective cohort study. Eur J Cancer.
24. Abid MB, Rubin M, Ledeboer N, et al. Efficacy of a third SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine dose among
hematopoietic cell transplantation, CAR T cell, and BiTE recipients. Cancer Cell. 2022;40(4):340-342.
25. Re D, Seitz-Polski B, Brglez V, et al. Humoral and cellular responses after a third dose of SARS-CoV-2
BNT162b2 vaccine in patients with lymphoid malignancies. Nat Commun. 2022;13(1):864. Available at:
27. Carreño JM, Singh G, Tcheou J, et al. mRNA-1273 but not BNT162b2 induces antibodies against
polyethylene glycol (PEG) contained in mRNA-based vaccine formulations. Vaccine. 2022;40(42):6114-6124.
28. Bavli Y, Chen BM, Gross G, et al. Anti-PEG antibodies before and after a first dose of Comirnaty (mRNA-
LNP-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccine). J Control Release. 2023;354:316-322. Available at:
29. Brockow K, Mathes S, Fischer J, et al. Experience with polyethylene glycol allergy-guided risk management
for COVID-19 vaccine anaphylaxis. Allergy. 2022;77(7):2200-2210. Available at:
30. Becker PS, Griffiths EA, Alwan LM, et al. NCCN guidelines insights: hematopoietic growth factors, version
1.2020. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2020;18(1):12-22. Available at:
31. Yarza R, Bover M, Paredes D, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection in cancer patients undergoing active treatment:
analysis of clinical features and predictive factors for severe respiratory failure and death. Eur J Cancer.
32. American Society of Clinical Oncology. ASCO special report: a guide to cancer care delivery during the
COVID-19 pandemic. 2021. Available at: https://www.asco.org/sites/new-www.asco.org/files/content-
files/2020-ASCO-Guide-Cancer-COVID19.pdf.
33. American Society of Anesthesiologists. The ASA and APSF joint statement on perioperative testing for the
COVID-19 virus. 2020. Available at: https://www.asahq.org/about-asa/newsroom/news-releases/2020/06/asa-
and-apsf-joint-statement-on-perioperative-testing-for-the-covid-19-virus. Accessed February 9, 2024.
34. Wang X, Zhou Q, He Y, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of COVID-19 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. Eur Respir J.
35. Luong-Nguyen M, Hermand H, Abdalla S, et al. Nosocomial infection with SARS-CoV-2 within departments
of digestive surgery. J Visc Surg. 2020;157(3S1):S13-S18. Available at:
36. Rivett L, Sridhar S, Sparkes D, et al. Screening of healthcare workers for SARS-CoV-2 highlights the role of
asymptomatic carriage in COVID-19 transmission. Elife. 2020;9:e58728. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.

www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed February 9, 2024.
38. Lee LY, Cazier JB, Angelis V, et al. COVID-19 mortality in patients with cancer on chemotherapy or other
anticancer treatments: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10241):1919-1926. Available at:
39. Zimmer AJ, Freifeld AG. Optimal management of neutropenic fever in patients with cancer. J Oncol Pract.
40. Mehta V, Goel S, Kabarriti R, et al. Case fatality rate of cancer patients with COVID-19 in a New York hospital
system. Cancer Discov. 2020;10(7):935-941. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32357994.
41. Meng Y, Lu W, Guo E, et al. Cancer history is an independent risk factor for mortality in hospitalized
COVID-19 patients: a propensity score-matched analysis. J Hematol Oncol. 2020;13(1):75. Available at:
44. REMAP-CAP Investigators. Interleukin-6 receptor antagonists in critically ill patients with COVID-19. N Engl
hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023;330(4):328-339. Available at:
47. Hrusak O, Kalina T, Wolf J, et al. Flash survey on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 infections in
paediatric patients on anticancer treatment. Eur J Cancer. 2020;132:11-16. Available at:
48. André N, Rouger-Gaudichon J, Brethon B, et al. COVID-19 in pediatric oncology from French pediatric
oncology and hematology centers: high risk of severe forms? Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2020;67(7):e28392.
49. de Rojas T, Peréz-Martínez A, Cela E, et al. COVID-19 infection in children and adolescents with cancer in
Madrid. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2020;67(7):e28397. Available at:
50. Sullivan M, Bouffet E, Rodriguez-Galindo C, et al. The COVID-19 pandemic: a rapid global response for
children with cancer from SIOP, COG, SIOP-E, SIOP-PODC, IPSO, PROS, CCI, and St Jude Global. Pediatr
Blood Cancer. 2020;67(7):e28409. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32400924.
51. Bouffet E, Challinor J, Sullivan M, et al. Early advice on managing children with cancer during the COVID-19
pandemic and a call for sharing experiences. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2020;67(7):e28327. Available at: https://

Special Considerations in Solid Organ Transplant,
Hematopoietic Cell Transplant, and Cellular
Immunotherapy Candidates, Donors, and Recipients
• COVID-19 vaccination remains the most effective way to prevent serious outcomes and death from SARS-CoV-2
infection. The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends COVID-19 vaccination for everyone who
is eligible, including transplant and cellular immunotherapy candidates and recipients, according to the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (AI).
• See the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention webpage COVID-19 Vaccines for People Who Are Moderately
or Severely Immunocompromised for the current COVID-19 vaccination schedule for transplant and cellular
immunotherapy recipients.
• Clinicians should strongly encourage all household members, close contacts, and health care providers who provide
care to transplant and cellular immunotherapy candidates and recipients to be vaccinated against COVID-19 (AI).
• Clinicians should strongly encourage all potential organ and hematopoietic cell donors to get vaccinated against
COVID-19 (AI).
Potential Transplant and Cellular Immunotherapy Candidates
• The Panel recommends performing diagnostic molecular or antigen testing for SARS-CoV-2 in all potential solid organ
transplant, hematopoietic cell transplant, and cellular immunotherapy candidates with signs and symptoms that
suggest acute COVID-19 (AIII). Additional guidance is available from medical professional organizations. See the text
below for more information.
• If SARS-CoV-2 is detected or infection is strongly suspected in a potential transplant or cellular immunotherapy
candidate, transplantation or immunotherapy should be deferred, if possible (BIII).
• The optimal management and therapeutic approach to COVID-19 in these populations is unknown. At this time, the
procedures for evaluating and managing COVID-19 in transplant candidates are the same as those for nontransplant
patients (AIII).
Potential Transplant Donors
• The Panel recommends performing diagnostic molecular testing for SARS-CoV-2 and assessing for symptoms of
COVID-19 in all potential solid organ transplant and hematopoietic cell transplant donors prior to donation (AIII).
Additional guidance is available from medical professional organizations. See the text below for more information.
Transplant and Cellular Immunotherapy Recipients With COVID-19
• For transplant and cellular immunotherapy recipients with COVID-19, clinicians should follow COVID-19 evaluation and
management guidelines for nontransplant patients. See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19,
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19, and Special Considerations in People Who Are
Immunocompromised for more information.
• For nonhospitalized patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are transplant or cellular immunotherapy recipients,
the Panel recommends prompt treatment with antiviral drugs at the doses and durations recommended for the general
population (AIII).
• Clinicians should consult with a transplant specialist when making decisions about stopping or adjusting the doses of
immunosuppressive drugs in transplant or cellular immunotherapy recipients with COVID-19.
• Clinicians should pay special attention to the potential for drug-drug interactions and overlapping toxicities between
treatments for COVID-19 and concomitant medications, such as immunosuppressants used to prevent or treat allograft
rejection and antimicrobials used to prevent or treat opportunistic infections.

Introduction
Treating COVID-19 in solid organ transplant, hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT), and cellular
immunotherapy recipients can be challenging due to the presence of coexisting medical conditions,
the potential for transplant-related cytopenias, and the need for chronic immunosuppressive therapy
to prevent graft rejection and graft-versus-host disease. Transplant recipients may also have a higher
risk of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 given their frequent contact with the health care system. Since
immunosuppressive agents modulate several aspects of immune response, the severity of COVID-19
could potentially be affected by the type and intensity of the immunosuppressive effect of the agent, as
well as by specific combinations of immunosuppressive agents. Some transplant recipients have medical
comorbidities that have been associated with more severe cases of COVID-19 and a greater risk of
mortality, which makes the impact of transplantation on disease severity difficult to assess.
The International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation, the American Society of Transplantation,
the American Society for Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, and the European Society for Blood
and Marrow Transplantation provide guidance for clinicians who are caring for transplant recipients
with COVID-19 and guidance on screening potential donors and transplant or cellular immunotherapy
candidates. In addition, the American Society of Hematology offers guidance regarding COVID-19
vaccination for transplant and cellular immunotherapy recipients.
This section of the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines complements these sources and focuses on
considerations for managing COVID-19 in solid organ transplant, HCT, and cellular immunotherapy
recipients. The optimal management and therapeutic approach to COVID-19 in these populations is
unknown. At this time, the procedures for evaluating and managing COVID-19 in transplant recipients
are the same as those for nontransplant patients (AIII). See Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized
Adults With COVID-19 and Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 for
more information. The risks and benefits of each medication used to treat COVID-19 may be different
for transplant patients and nontransplant patients.
The clinical trials that evaluated the safety and efficacy of the COVID-19 vaccines excluded
patients who were severely immunocompromised.1,2 Authorized and approved COVID-19 vaccines
in the United States are not live-virus vaccines and can be safely administered to patients who are
immunocompromised. However, solid organ transplant recipients have reduced immunological antibody
responses following a primary 2-dose or 3-dose series of the mRNA COVID-19 vaccines.3-6
COVID-19 vaccination remains the most effective way to prevent serious outcomes and death
from SARS-CoV-2 infection. The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends
COVID-19 vaccination for everyone who is eligible, including transplant and cellular immunotherapy
candidates and recipients, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC)
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (AI). See the CDC webpage COVID-19 Vaccines for
People Who Are Moderately or Severely Immunocompromised for the current COVID-19 vaccination
schedule for transplant and cellular immunotherapy recipients.
When determining the timing of COVID-19 vaccination in solid organ transplant, HCT, and cellular
immunotherapy recipients, clinicians should consider the following factors:
• Ideally, solid organ transplant candidates should receive COVID-19 vaccines while they wait for
transplant.
• In general, vaccination should be completed at least 2 weeks before a solid organ transplant, or
vaccination should be started 1 month after a solid organ transplant.

• In certain situations, such as when T cell– or B cell–ablative therapy (with antithymocyte globulin
or rituximab) is used at the time of transplant, delaying vaccination until 3 months after a solid
organ transplant may be appropriate.7
• Reducing the dose of immunosuppressants and withholding immunosuppressants before
vaccination are not recommended.
• COVID-19 vaccines can be offered as early as 3 months after a patient receives HCT or chimeric
antigen receptor T cell therapy, although the vaccines may be less effective in these patients than
in the general population.8-10
• If possible, patients who are scheduled to receive cytotoxic or B cell–depleting therapies should
receive their COVID-19 vaccination before initiating these therapies or between cycles of these
therapies. The suggested interval before resuming vaccination is about 6 months after completion
of the B cell–depleting therapy.11
• Graft-versus-host disease symptoms may flare after COVID-19 vaccination.12
• After receiving a vaccination, people who are immunocompromised should be advised to continue
to exercise precautions to reduce their risk of SARS-CoV-2 exposure and infection (e.g., they
should wear a mask and avoid crowds and poorly ventilated spaces).8
COVID-19 vaccination or for assessing the need for vaccination in a person who is unvaccinated.
For people who received COVID-19 vaccines during treatment with immunosuppressive drugs, it is
currently unknown whether revaccination offers a clinical benefit.
Clinicians should strongly encourage all household members, close contacts, and health care providers
who provide care to transplant and cellular immunotherapy candidates and recipients to be vaccinated
against COVID-19 (AI). There is evidence that vaccinated individuals who are infected with
SARS-CoV-2 have lower viral loads than unvaccinated individuals13,14 and that COVID-19 vaccines
reduce the incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infections not only among vaccinated individuals but also among
their household contacts.15-17 Clinicians should strongly encourage all potential organ and hematopoietic
cell donors to get vaccinated against COVID-19 (AI).
Assessing SARS-CoV-2 Infection

The risk of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from donors to candidates is unknown. The probability that a
donor or candidate may have SARS-CoV-2 infection can be estimated by considering the epidemiologic
risk, obtaining a clinical history, and testing with molecular techniques. No current testing strategy is
sensitive enough or specific enough to totally exclude active infection.
Assessing Transplant and Cellular Immunotherapy Candidates

The Panel recommends performing diagnostic molecular or antigen testing for SARS-CoV-2 in all
potential solid organ transplant, HCT, and cellular immunotherapy candidates with signs and symptoms
that suggest acute COVID-19 (AIII). The CDC testing algorithm recommends performing additional
confirmatory testing with a laboratory-based nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT) when a person
who is strongly suspected of having SARS-CoV-2 infection (i.e., a person who is symptomatic)
receives a negative result on an antigen test.18 Shortly before solid organ transplant, HCT, or cellular
immunotherapy, all candidates should undergo diagnostic molecular testing for SARS-CoV-2 and
assessment for symptoms of COVID-19 (AIII).

Assessing Donors
The Panel recommends performing diagnostic molecular testing for SARS-CoV-2 and assessing for
symptoms of COVID-19 in all potential solid organ transplant and HCT donors prior to donation
(AIII). Additional guidance is available from medical professional organizations, such as the Organ
Procurement and Transplantation Network and the American Society of Transplantation.
Living donors should undergo a SARS-CoV-2 NAAT using a specimen collected from the respiratory
tract within 3 days of donation. Deceased donors should be tested for SARS-CoV-2 infection using a
NAAT with a specimen taken from the upper respiratory tract within 72 hours of death; ideally, the test
should be performed as close to organ recovery as possible. Lower respiratory sampling for COVID-19
testing is required for potential lung transplant donors by the United Network for Organ Sharing.19 The
Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network and American Society of Transplantation provide
information to help guide the decision-making process when managing solid organ transplant donors
with a history of COVID-19.
If SARS-CoV-2 Infection Is Detected or Strongly Suspected in Transplant and Cellular

Immunotherapy Candidates
If SARS-CoV-2 is detected or infection is strongly suspected in a potential transplant or cellular
immunotherapy candidate, transplantation or immunotherapy should be deferred, if possible (BIII). The
optimal disease-free interval before transplantation or immunotherapy is not known. In this situation,
decisions about the appropriate timing for transplantation or cellular immunotherapy should be made
on a case-by-case basis. Clinicians should consider both the risk of viral transmission and the risks of
delaying or altering therapy, which may include progression of the underlying disease or death.
Transplant Recipients With COVID-19

Solid organ transplant recipients receiving immunosuppressive therapy should be considered at
increased risk of severe COVID-19.20,21 Initial reports of transplant recipients hospitalized with
COVID-19 suggested mortality of up to 28%.22-26 However, COVID-19 vaccines and better treatments
have improved clinical outcomes.
Risk of Graft Rejection

There are concerns that COVID-19 itself may increase the risk of acute rejection. In solid organ
transplant recipients with or without COVID-19, acute cellular rejection should not be presumed without
biopsy confirmation.20 Similarly, in recipients with or without COVID-19 who have had rejection
confirmed by a biopsy, immunosuppressive therapy should be initiated.
Data on the incidence and clinical characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 infection in HCT27 and cellular
immunotherapy recipients are limited.28 Data from the Center for International Blood and Marrow
Transplant Research demonstrated that approximately 30% of a cohort of 318 HCT recipients died
within 30 days of COVID-19 diagnosis.27 This probability of mortality was observed in both allogeneic
and autologous recipients. Older age (≥50 years), male sex, and receipt of a COVID-19 diagnosis within
12 months of transplantation were associated with a higher risk of mortality among allogeneic recipients.
In autologous recipients, patients with lymphoma had a higher risk of mortality than patients who had
plasma cell disorder or myeloma.
A smaller study demonstrated slightly lower mortality among HCT and cellular immunotherapy
recipients than earlier reports. This study found that the number of comorbidities, the presence of
infiltrates on initial chest imaging, and neutropenia were predictors for increased disease severity.29
Additional factors that have been used to determine the clinical severity of other respiratory viral

infections include the degree of cytopenia, the intensity of the conditioning regimen, the graft source, the
degree of mismatch, and the need for further immunosuppression to manage graft-versus-host disease.
Prolonged viral shedding has been described in solid organ transplant and HCT recipients;30 this can
have implications for preventing infection and for the timing of therapeutic interventions.
Treating COVID-19 in Transplant Recipients

For transplant and cellular immunotherapy recipients with COVID-19, clinicians should follow
COVID-19 evaluation and management guidelines for nontransplant patients. See Therapeutic
Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19, Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized
Adults With COVID-19 and Special Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised for more
information.
For nonhospitalized patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 who are transplant or cellular
immunotherapy recipients, the Panel recommends prompt treatment with antiviral drugs at the doses and
durations recommended for the general population (AIII). In hospitalized people with severe COVID-19
who required supplemental oxygen or mechanical ventilation, data from a large randomized controlled
trial found that a short course of dexamethasone (6 mg once daily for up to 10 days) improved survival.31
A second immunomodulator (e.g., baricitinib, tocilizumab, abatacept, infliximab) used in combination
with dexamethasone is recommended for some patients with severe or critical COVID-19.31-34 Because
dexamethasone and the other immunomodulators are immunosuppressive agents, patients who receive
these medications should be closely monitored for secondary infections.
Therapeutic anticoagulation for transplant recipients who are hospitalized for COVID-19 should be
managed similarly to anticoagulation for other hospitalized patients. Patients with platelet counts
<50,000 cells/µL should not receive therapeutic anticoagulation for COVID-19. Clinicians should follow
hospital protocols for managing anticoagulation in patients with thrombocytopenia.
The Panel’s recommendations for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized patients with COVID-19
can be found in Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19.
Concomitant Medications
Clinicians should pay special attention to the potential for drug-drug interactions and overlapping
toxicities between treatments for COVID-19 and concomitant medications, such as immunosuppressants
used to prevent or treat allograft rejection and antimicrobials used to prevent or treat opportunistic
infections. Dose modifications may be necessary for drugs used to treat COVID-19 in transplant
recipients with pre-existing organ dysfunction. Adjustments to the immunosuppressive regimen
should be individualized based on disease severity, the specific immunosuppressants used, the type
of transplant, the time since transplantation, the drug concentration, and the risk of graft rejection.23
Clinicians should consult with a transplant specialist when making decisions about stopping or
adjusting the doses of immunosuppressive drugs in transplant or cellular immunotherapy recipients with
COVID-19.
Calcineurin inhibitors (e.g., cyclosporine, tacrolimus) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)
inhibitors (e.g., everolimus, sirolimus), which are commonly used to prevent allograft rejection, have
narrow therapeutic indices. Medications that inhibit or induce cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes or
P-glycoprotein may put patients who receive these drugs at risk of clinically significant drug-drug
interactions, increasing the need for therapeutic drug monitoring and the need to assess for signs of
toxicity or rejection.35

Some clinicians prefer to administer a 3-day course of intravenous remdesivir to nonhospitalized
transplant recipients who are receiving immunosuppressive therapy to avoid significant drug-drug
interactions. If remdesivir is not available or feasible to use, a 5-day course of ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) may be used with caution and only when close therapeutic drug monitoring of
the antirejection therapy is possible. Clinicians should consult with transplant specialists throughout
the treatment. Boosting with ritonavir, a strong CYP3A inhibitor, is required to increase the exposure
of nirmatrelvir to a concentration that is effective against SARS-CoV-2. Ritonavir may also increase
concentrations of certain concomitant medications, including calcineurin and mTOR inhibitors,
during the treatment course and for ≥3 days after ritonavir is discontinued. Significant increases in the
concentrations of these drugs may lead to serious or life-threatening drug toxicities.
General guidance for coadministering ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir with concomitant medications
includes temporarily withholding certain immunosuppressive agents (e.g., tacrolimus, everolimus,
sirolimus) or reducing the dosage of certain immunosuppressive agents (e.g., cyclosporine), monitoring
the patient closely for toxicities, and performing therapeutic drug monitoring during and after the 5-day
treatment course of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.36,37
Some small case series have reported success using these recommendations to manage patients.38,39
However, cases of significant toxicities due to supratherapeutic tacrolimus concentrations have also
been reported.40 Therapeutic drug monitoring should be used to guide the process of reintroducing or
modifying the doses of calcineurin and mTOR inhibitors in patients who have completed a course of
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir. Clinicians should also consult with a specialist who has experience with
dose management. Clinicians should take additional precautions when treating transplant recipients who
are also receiving other concomitant medications (e.g., certain triazole antifungals) that may interact
with ritonavir, the immunosuppressants, or both. The extent and significance of multiple drug-drug
interactions are much more complex and unpredictable.
Clinicians should refer to resources such as the Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website,
Medications, and the Food and Drug Administration prescribing information for ritonavir-boosted
nirmatrelvir for guidance on identifying and managing potential drug-drug interactions. If significant
interactions prohibit the concomitant use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, another COVID-19 treatment
option should be used (see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19).
Among the drugs commonly used to treat hospitalized patients with COVID-19, dexamethasone is
a moderate inducer of CYP3A4, and interleukin-6 inhibitors may lead to increased metabolism of
CYP substrates. Clinicians should closely monitor the serum concentrations of calcineurin and mTOR
inhibitors when these drugs are used.
Additional details about the adverse effects and drug-drug interactions of antiviral medications and
immune-based therapies for COVID-19 are noted in Tables 4e and 5e.
References
3. Boyarsky BJ, Werbel WA, Avery RK, et al. Antibody response to 2-dose SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine series
in solid organ transplant recipients. JAMA. 2021;325(21):2204-2206. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

4. Hallett AM, Greenberg RS, Boyarsky BJ, et al. SARS-CoV-2 messenger RNA vaccine antibody response
and reactogenicity in heart and lung transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2021;40(12):1579-1588.
5. Mazzola A, Todesco E, Drouin S, et al. Poor antibody response after two doses of severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccine in transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis. 2022;74(6):1093-
6. Kamar N, Abravanel F, Marion O, et al. Three doses of an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine in solid-organ transplant
recipients. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(7):661-662. Available at:
7. American Society of Transplantation. COVID-19 vaccine FAQ sheet. 2021. Available at: https://www.myast.
org/sites/default/files/2021_08_13%20COVID%20VACCINE%20FAQ-Prof8132021_FINAL.pdf.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Stay up to date with COVID-19 vaccines. 2024. Available at:
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/stay-up-to-date.html. Accessed February 14, 2024.
9. Ljungman P, Avetisyan G. Influenza vaccination in hematopoietic SCT recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant.
10. Ram R, Hagin D, Kikozashvilli N, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19
vaccine in patients after allogeneic HCT or CD19-based CART therapy—a single-center prospective cohort
study. Transplant Cell Ther. 2021;27(9):788-794. Available at:
12. Trunk AD, Shewan SK, Lee CJ, Parker CJ, Couriel DR. Chronic graft-versus-host disease exacerbation after
SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2022;57(3):502-503. Available at:
13. Levine-Tiefenbrun M, Yelin I, Katz R, et al. Initial report of decreased SARS-CoV-2 viral load after
inoculation with the BNT162b2 vaccine. Nat Med. 2021;27(5):790-792. Available at:
14. Petter E, Mor O, Zuckerman N, et al. Initial real world evidence for lower viral load of individuals who have
been vaccinated by BNT162b2. medRxiv. 2021;Preprint. Available at:
17. de Gier B, Andeweg S, Backer JA, et al. Vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 transmission to
household contacts during dominance of Delta variant (B.1.617.2), the Netherlands, August to September
2021. Euro Surveill. 2021;26(44):2100977. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34738514.
18. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Considerations for SARS-CoV-2 antigen testing for healthcare
providers testing individuals in the community. 2023. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-
ncov/lab/resources/antigen-tests-guidelines.html. Accessed February 4, 2024.
19. United Network for Organ Sharing. Lower respiratory testing of all potential lung donors for SARS-CoV-2
now required. 2021. Available at: https://unos.org/news/sars-cov-2-lower-respiratory-testing-potential-lung-
donors-may-27. Accessed February 4, 2024.
20. Fix OK, Hameed B, Fontana RJ, et al. Clinical best practice advice for hepatology and liver transplant

providers during the COVID-19 pandemic: AASLD expert panel consensus statement. Hepatology.
22. Akalin E, Azzi Y, Bartash R, et al. COVID-19 and kidney transplantation. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(25):2475-
23. Pereira MR, Mohan S, Cohen DJ, et al. COVID-19 in solid organ transplant recipients: initial report from the
US epicenter. Am J Transplant. 2020;20(7):1800-1808. Available at:
24. Alberici F, Delbarba E, Manenti C, et al. A single center observational study of the clinical characteristics
and short-term outcome of 20 kidney transplant patients admitted for SARS-CoV2 pneumonia. Kidney Int.
25. Montagud-Marrahi E, Cofan F, Torregrosa JV, et al. Preliminary data on outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection
in a Spanish single center cohort of kidney recipients. Am J Transplant. 2020;20(10):2958-2959. Available at:
26. Kates OS, Haydel BM, Florman SS, et al. Coronavirus disease 2019 in solid organ transplant: a multicenter
cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(11):e4090-e4099. Available at:
27. Sharma A, Bhatt NS, St Martin A, et al. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of COVID-19 in haematopoietic
stem-cell transplantation recipients: an observational cohort study. Lancet Haematol. 2021;8(3):e185-e193.
28. Gold JAW, Wong KK, Szablewski CM, et al. Characteristics and clinical outcomes of adult patients
hospitalized with COVID-19—Georgia, March 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(18):545-550.
29. Shah GL, DeWolf S, Lee YJ, et al. Favorable outcomes of COVID-19 in recipients of hematopoietic cell
transplantation. J Clin Invest. 2020;130(12):6656-6667. Available at:
30. Aydillo T, Gonzalez-Reiche AS, Aslam S, et al. Shedding of viable SARS-CoV-2 after immunosuppressive
therapy for cancer. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(26):2586-2588. Available at:
35. Elens L, Langman LJ, Hesselink DA, et al. Pharmacologic treatment of transplant recipients infected with
SARS-CoV-2: considerations regarding therapeutic drug monitoring and drug-drug interactions. Ther Drug
Monit. 2020;42(3):360-368. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32304488.
36. Lange NW, Salerno DM, Jennings DL, et al. Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir use: managing clinically significant
drug-drug interactions with transplant immunosuppressants. Am J Transplant. 2022;22(7):1925-1926.

37. American Society of Transplantation. COVID-19: FAQs for organ transplantation. 2023. Available at: https://
www.myast.org/faqs-organ-transplantation. Accessed February 2, 2024.
38. Salerno DM, Jennings DL, Lange NW, et al. Early clinical experience with nirmatrelvir/ritonavir for the
treatment of COVID-19 in solid organ transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2022;22(8):2083-2088.
39. Wang AX, Koff A, Hao D, Tuznik NM, Huang Y. Effect of nirmatrelvir/ritonavir on calcineurin inhibitor
levels: early experience in four SARS-CoV-2 infected kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant.
40. Rose DT, Gandhi SM, Bedard RA, et al. Supratherapeutic tacrolimus concentrations with nirmatrelvir/
ritonavir in solid organ transplant recipients requiring hospitalization: a case series using rifampin for reversal.
Open Forum Infect Dis. 2022;9(7):ofac238. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35854994.

Special Considerations During Pregnancy and
After Delivery
• Pregnant people should be counseled about the increased risk for severe disease from SARS-CoV-2 infection and the
measures they can take to protect themselves and their families from infection.
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends against withholding COVID-19 vaccination from
pregnant or lactating individuals specifically because of pregnancy or lactation (AIII).
• If hospitalization for COVID-19 is indicated for a pregnant patient, care should be provided in a facility that can conduct
maternal and fetal monitoring, when appropriate.
• General management of COVID-19 in pregnant patients should include:
• Fetal and uterine contraction monitoring based on gestational age, when appropriate
• Individualized delivery planning
• A multispecialty, team-based approach that may include consultation with obstetric, maternal-fetal medicine,
infectious disease, pulmonary-critical care, and pediatric specialists, as appropriate
• The Panel recommends against withholding COVID-19 treatment from pregnant or lactating individuals specifically
because of pregnancy or lactation (AIII).
• In general, the therapeutic management of pregnant patients with COVID-19 should be the same as for nonpregnant
patients, with a few exceptions (AIII). Notable exceptions include:
• The Panel recommends against the use of molnupiravir for the treatment of COVID-19 in pregnant patients unless
there are no other options and therapy is clearly indicated (AIII).
• There is insufficient evidence for the Panel to recommend either for or against the use of therapeutic anticoagulation
in pregnant patients with COVID-19 who do not have evidence of venous thromboembolism. See Antithrombotic
Therapy in Patients With COVID-19 for more information.
• For details regarding therapeutic recommendations and pregnancy considerations, see Therapeutic Management of
Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19; Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19; Pregnancy,
Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics; and the individual drug sections.
• Data on the use of COVID-19 therapeutic agents in pregnant and lactating people are limited. When making decisions
about treatment, pregnant or lactating people and their clinical teams should use a shared decision-making process
and consider several factors, including the severity of COVID-19, the risk of disease progression, and the safety of
specific medications for the fetus, infant, or pregnant or lactating individual. For detailed guidance on using the Panel-
recommended COVID-19 therapeutic agents during pregnancy, see Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics.
• The decision to feed the infant breast milk while the lactating patient is receiving therapeutic agents for COVID-19
should be a collaborative effort between the patient and the clinical team, including infant care providers. The patient
and the clinical team should discuss the potential benefits of the therapeutic agent and evaluate the potential risk
of pausing lactation on future breast milk delivery to the infant. For more information, see Pregnancy, Lactation, and
COVID-19 Therapeutics.
Epidemiology of COVID-19 in Pregnancy

Although the overall risk of severe illness is low, pregnant people with COVID-19 are at a higher risk of
severe disease than nonpregnant people.1 After adjustments have been made for age, race/ethnicity, and
underlying medical conditions, pregnant women have significantly higher rates of intensive care unit
(ICU) admission (10.5 vs. 3.9 cases per 1,000 cases; adjusted risk ratio [aRR] 3.0; 95% CI, 2.6–3.4),

mechanical ventilation (2.9 vs. 1.1 cases per 1,000 cases; aRR 2.9; 95% CI, 2.2–3.8), extracorporeal
membrane oxygenation (0.7 vs. 0.3 cases per 1,000 cases; aRR 2.4; 95% CI, 1.5–4.0), and death (1.5 vs.
1.2 cases per 1,000 cases; aRR 1.7; 95% CI, 1.2–2.4).
An ongoing systematic review and meta-analysis of 435 studies also described increased odds of ICU
admission and mechanical ventilation among pregnant and recently pregnant patients with COVID-19
when compared with nonpregnant patients of reproductive age.2,3 Compared with pregnant women and
recently pregnant women without COVID-19, pregnant women with COVID-19 were at a higher risk of
preterm birth and stillbirth.
A national cohort study in the United States evaluated whether severe maternal morbidity, as defined
by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), was associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection
during pregnancy.4 The study reported that among the 93,624 pregnant individuals who delivered, 4.8%
were infected with SARS-CoV-2 at some point during pregnancy. Among the cases of SARS-CoV-2
infection, 59.5% occurred early in pregnancy, 13.5% occurred 7 to 30 days before delivery, and 27%
occurred <7 days before delivery. The adjusted risk of severe maternal morbidity was 2.22 times higher
for pregnant individuals who were infected <7 days before delivery and 1.67 times higher for those who
were infected 7 to 30 days before delivery, when compared with the risk for pregnant individuals who
delivered and had not been infected with SARS-CoV-2 during pregnancy. The study also reported that at
the time of hospitalization for delivery, severe maternal morbidity was associated with younger (15–25
years) and older maternal (>35 years) ages, non-Hispanic Black race, lower household income and
educational attainment, pre-existing medical conditions, and diagnosed pregnancy complications.
Obstetric and Perinatal Outcomes in Patients With COVID-19

An observational cohort study at 33 U.S. hospitals evaluated the maternal characteristics and outcomes
across disease severity for all of the pregnant patients who had a singleton gestation and a positive
result on a SARS-CoV-2 virologic test.5 The data suggested that adverse perinatal outcomes were more
common in patients with severe or critical disease than in asymptomatic patients with SARS-CoV-2
infection, including an increased incidence of cesarean delivery (59.6% vs. 34.0% of patients; aRR
1.57; 95% CI, 1.30–1.90), hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (40.4% vs. 18.8%; aRR 1.61; 95% CI,
1.18–2.20), and preterm birth (41.8% vs. 11.9%; aRR 3.53; 95% CI, 2.42–5.14). The perinatal outcomes
for those with mild to moderate illness were similar to those observed among asymptomatic patients
with SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Among 1,249,634 delivery hospitalizations in the United States from March 2020 through September
2021, women with COVID-19 had an increased risk of stillbirth, which was defined as fetal death at >20
weeks’ gestation (aRR 1.90; 95% CI, 1.69–2.15).6 The risk of stillbirth was higher during the time period
that Delta was the dominant variant in the United States (aRR 4.04; 95% CI, 3.28–4.97) than during the
pre-Delta period (aRR 1.47; 95% CI, 1.27–1.71).
A retrospective cohort analysis collected data from 14,104 pregnant or recently postpartum individuals
who delivered at U.S. hospitals that participated in the Gestational Research Assessments for COVID-19
(GRAVID) study.7 Compared with pregnant individuals who did not have SARS-CoV-2 infection,
patients with COVID-19 during pregnancy had an increased risk of meeting the composite endpoint
of maternal death or severe morbidity related to hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, postpartum
hemorrhage, or infection. Eighty percent of the patients in this cohort tested positive for SARS-CoV-2
infection during the third trimester. The primary composite endpoint occurred in 13.4% of patients who
had COVID-19 during pregnancy or within 6 weeks postpartum and in 9.2% of those who did not have
COVID-19 (aRR 1.41; 95% CI, 1.23–1.61).

When compared with those who did not have a positive SARS-CoV-2 test result, pregnant patients who
had SARS-CoV-2 infection prior to 28 weeks’ gestation had a subsequent increased risk of fetal/neonatal
death (aRR 1.97; 95% CI, 1.01–3.85), preterm birth at <37 weeks (aRR 1.29; 95% CI, 1.02–1.63),
and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy with delivery at <37 weeks’ gestation (aRR 1.74; 95% CI,
1.19–2.55).8 There were no significant differences between these groups of patients in the risk of
preterm birth at <34 weeks, any major congenital abnormalities, or a size for gestational age of less than
the 5th or 10th percentiles. There were also no significant differences between these groups in the rates
of gestational hypertension overall or preeclampsia with severe features. These data suggest that those
with SARS-CoV-2 infection early in gestation may also have an increased risk of subsequent adverse
pregnancy outcomes.
Vertical Transmission of COVID-19

Although vertical transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is possible, current data suggest that it is rare.9 A review
of 101 infants born to 100 women with SARS-CoV-2 infection at a single U.S. academic medical center
found that 2 infants (2%) had indeterminate SARS-CoV-2 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) results,
which were presumed to be positive. However, the infants exhibited no evidence of clinical disease. It is
reassuring that the majority of the infants received negative PCR results after rooming with their mothers
and breastfeeding directly (the mothers in this study practiced appropriate hand and breast hygiene).
Data collected by the CDC as part of the Surveillance for Emerging Threats to Mothers and Babies
Network showed that among 4,038 infants born to people with COVID-19, for whom laboratory testing
information was available and who were tested during the delivery hospitalization, 227 infants (5.6%)
had positive PCR results for SARS-CoV-2.10
The published data to date were largely collected prior to the emergence of the Omicron variants. The
risk of vertical transmission may vary based on viral dynamics and the transmissibility of the circulating
variants in a community. However, the variant-specific factors associated with vertical transmission have
not been determined. For additional information on vertical transmission and infants born to people with
SARS-CoV-2 infection, see Special Considerations in Children.
Racial and Ethnic Disparities Among Pregnant People With COVID-19

Between January 22 and June 7, 2020, the CDC received reports of 8,207 women who were pregnant at
the time of their COVID-19 diagnosis. Among these women, 46% were reported to be Hispanic, and 22%
were reported to be Black.11 Those proportions were higher than the proportions of Hispanic (24%) and
Black (15%) women who gave birth in 2019, suggesting that pregnant people who are Hispanic or Black
may be disproportionately affected by SARS-CoV-2 infection. It is important to note that these disparities
are related to social determinants of health, current and historic inequities in access to health care and
other resources, and structural racism. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG)
has published guidance on addressing health equity during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Prevention of COVID-19 in Pregnancy

Pregnant people should be counseled about the increased risk for severe disease from SARS-CoV-2
infection and the measures they can take to protect themselves and their families from infection.
Nonpharmacologic measures include practicing physical distancing, washing hands regularly, and
wearing a face covering as per guidance from the CDC.
COVID-19 Vaccines
The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends against withholding COVID-19
vaccination from pregnant or lactating individuals specifically because of pregnancy or lactation (AIII).

Pregnant people should be counseled about the benefits of COVID-19 vaccination, which include a
decreased risk of severe disease and hospitalization for the pregnant person and a decreased risk of
hospitalization for the infant in the first 6 months of life.12 The Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, the
ACOG, and the CDC recommend that all eligible people, including pregnant and lactating individuals
and those planning to become pregnant, receive COVID-19 vaccines as recommended.13-15 The CDC has
published up-to-date guidance regarding COVID-19 vaccination, including guidance for administering
vaccines to pregnant and lactating individuals.16 COVID-19 vaccines can be administered regardless of
trimester and in concert with other vaccines recommended during pregnancy.14
Pregnant people were not included in the initial COVID-19 vaccine studies. However, a growing body
of observational data supports the efficacy and safety of administering COVID-19 vaccines to this
population. At this time, the mRNA vaccines BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) and mRNA-1273 (Moderna)
are recommended for pregnant or lactating individuals. The adjuvanted vaccine NVX-CoV2373
(Novavax) can also be used.14,15 For the most up-to-date clinical recommendations, see the CDC
guidelines on using COVID-19 vaccines. The ACOG and the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine
provide guidance for counseling pregnant and lactating patients about COVID-19 vaccination.13,14
Efficacy
A prospective cohort study of 131 subjects at 2 academic medical centers compared the immunogenicity
and reactogenicity of the mRNA COVID-19 vaccines in pregnant and lactating women and nonpregnant
controls.17 The study also compared vaccine-generated immunity to the immune response to natural
SARS-CoV-2 infection among pregnant participants. Maternal immunoglobulin G antibody levels were
similar after vaccination in pregnant and lactating women and in nonpregnant controls, and the antibody
response did not differ by trimester of vaccination. Vaccinated pregnant women had significantly higher
levels of antibodies than pregnant women who had had natural SARS-CoV-2 infection during the
previous 4 to 12 weeks.
Antibody Transfer to the Neonate
The available data indicate that vaccine-derived antibodies are passively transferred to the neonate during
pregnancy and lactation.18 A case control study that was conducted at 20 pediatric hospitals in 17 states
in the United States from July 1, 2021, to January 17, 2022, assessed the relationship between maternal
vaccination with a 2-dose mRNA COVID-19 vaccine during pregnancy and pediatric hospitalization for
COVID-19.12 In this study, 379 infants aged <6 months were hospitalized. Among these infants, 176 had
COVID-19 and were considered case infants. The remaining 203 infants did not have COVID-19 and
were considered control infants. Sixteen percent of the mothers of the case infants had received 2 doses of
COVID-19 vaccine during pregnancy compared with 32% of the mothers of control infants.
Maternal completion of a 2-dose primary mRNA COVID-19 vaccination series during pregnancy led to
a decrease in the number of infant hospitalizations for COVID-19 during the first 6 months of life (61%
decrease; 95% CI, 31% to 78%).12 There were no statistically significant differences between the case
infants and control infants in the presence of underlying medical conditions or the occurrence of premature
birth. Of the 43 case infants who were admitted to the ICU, 88% had mothers who were unvaccinated.
These data further support the CDC’s recommendation for COVID-19 vaccination in people who are
pregnant, breastfeeding, or trying to become pregnant or who might become pregnant in the future.16
Safety
A study that used data from 3 vaccine safety reporting systems in the United States reported that the
frequency of adverse events among 35,691 vaccine recipients who identified as pregnant was similar to
the frequency observed among nonpregnant patients.19 Local injection site pain, nausea, and vomiting
were reported slightly more frequently in pregnant people than in nonpregnant people. Other systemic
reactions were reported more frequently among nonpregnant vaccine recipients, but the overall

reactogenicity profile was similar for pregnant and nonpregnant patients.
From December 2020 to June 2021, a total of 22,953 pregnant people in the United States were enrolled
in the COVID-19 Vaccine Pregnancy Registry.20 An analysis that compared historic cohorts with people
who received a COVID-19 vaccine during pregnancy found no increased risk of spontaneous abortion;
major birth defects; or pregnancy-associated outcomes, including stillbirth, preterm birth, hypertensive
disorders of pregnancy, neonatal ICU admission, or maternal ICU admission.21
Managing COVID-19 in Pregnancy

In pregnant patients, as in nonpregnant patients, SARS-CoV-2 infection can present as asymptomatic
or presymptomatic disease or with a wide range of clinical manifestations, from mild symptoms to
severe disease and respiratory failure that requires ICU admission. The illness severity, underlying
comorbidities, and clinical status of pregnant patients who have symptoms compatible with COVID-19
should be assessed to determine whether in-person evaluation for potential hospitalization is needed.
If hospitalization for COVID-19 is indicated, care should be provided in a facility that can conduct
maternal and fetal monitoring, when appropriate. General management of COVID-19 in pregnant
patients should include:
• Fetal and uterine contraction monitoring based on gestational age, when appropriate
• Individualized delivery planning
• A multispecialty, team-based approach that may include consultation with obstetric, maternal-fetal
medicine, infectious disease, pulmonary-critical care, and pediatric specialists, as appropriate
In general, the recommendations for managing COVID-19 in nonpregnant patients also apply to
pregnant patients.
Therapeutic Management of COVID-19 in the Setting of Pregnancy

To date, most SARS-CoV-2-related clinical trials have excluded individuals who are pregnant or
lactating. In cases where lactating and pregnant individuals have been included in studies, only a small
number have been enrolled. This makes providing evidence-based recommendations on the use of
anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies in these vulnerable patients difficult and potentially limits their treatment
options. When possible, pregnant and lactating individuals should not be excluded from clinical trials of
COVID-19 therapeutic agents or vaccines.
The Panel recommends against withholding COVID-19 treatments from pregnant or lactating
individuals specifically because of pregnancy or lactation (AIII).
Data on the use of COVID-19 therapeutic agents in pregnant and lactating people are limited. Pregnancy
is a risk factor for severe COVID-19. Studies have demonstrated that pregnant individuals are at
increased risk of ICU admission, mechanical ventilation, and death, as well as poor obstetric and
neonatal outcomes.1-4 When making decisions about treatment, pregnant or lactating people and their
clinical teams should use a shared decision-making process and consider several factors, including the
severity of COVID-19, the risk of disease progression based on the person’s comorbidities, and the
safety of specific medications for the fetus, infant, or pregnant or lactating individual.
For details regarding therapeutic recommendations and pregnancy and lactation considerations, see
Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19; Therapeutic Management of
Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19; Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics; and the
individual drug sections. In general, the therapeutic management of pregnant patients with COVID-19

should be the same as for nonpregnant patients, with a few exceptions (AIII). Notable exceptions
include:
• The Panel recommends against the use of molnupiravir for the treatment of COVID-19 in
pregnant patients unless there are no other options and therapy is clearly indicated (AIII). For
more information regarding the use of molnupiravir in pregnant patients, see Pregnancy, Lactation,
and COVID-19 Therapeutics.
• Pregnant patients were not included in most of the clinical trials that evaluated therapeutic
anticoagulation in the setting of COVID-19, and there is a potential for increased maternal risks
if bleeding occurs during pregnancy. Therefore, there is insufficient evidence for the Panel to
recommend either for or against the use of therapeutic anticoagulation in pregnant patients with
COVID-19 who do not have evidence of venous thromboembolism.
Timing of Delivery
The ACOG provides detailed guidance on the timing of delivery and the risk of vertical transmission of
SARS-CoV-2.
In most cases, the timing of delivery should be dictated by obstetric indications rather than maternal
diagnosis of COVID-19. For people who had suspected or confirmed COVID-19 early in pregnancy and
who recovered, no alteration to the usual timing of delivery is indicated.
After Delivery
Therapeutic management in postpartum patients should follow guidelines for nonpregnant patients.
However, the use of anticoagulant therapy in the immediate postpartum period should be individualized,
as there may be an increased risk of bleeding, especially after an operative delivery.
The majority of studies have not demonstrated the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in breast milk; therefore,
breastfeeding is not contraindicated for people with laboratory-confirmed or suspected SARS-CoV-2
infection.22 Precautions should be taken to avoid transmission to the infant, including practicing
appropriate hand hygiene, wearing face coverings, and performing proper pump cleaning before and
after breast milk expression.
The decision to feed the infant breast milk while the lactating patient is receiving therapeutic agents for
COVID-19 should be a collaborative effort between the patient and the clinical team, including infant
care providers. The patient and the clinical team should discuss the potential benefits of the therapeutic
agent and evaluate the potential risk of pausing lactation on future breast milk delivery to the infant.
Specific guidance on the postdelivery management of infants born to individuals with known or
suspected SARS-CoV-2 infection, including breastfeeding recommendations, is provided by the
American Academy of Pediatrics.
References
with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection by pregnancy status—United States, January 22–October
3, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(44):1641-1647. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/33151921.
2. Clinical manifestations, risk factors, and maternal and perinatal outcomes of coronavirus disease 2019 in
pregnancy: living systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2020;370:m3320. Available at: https://pubmed.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32873575.

3. Allotey J, Stallings E, Bonet M, et al. Update to living systematic review on COVID-19 in pregnancy. BMJ.
2022;377:o1205. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35636775.
4. Regan AK, Arah OA, Fell DB, Sullivan SG. Risk of severe maternal morbidity associated with severe acute
respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection during pregnancy. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023;10(12):ofad613.
5. Metz TD, Clifton RG, Hughes BL, et al. Disease severity and perinatal outcomes of pregnant patients with
coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Obstet Gynecol. 2021;137(4):571-580. Available at:
6. DeSisto CL, Wallace B, Simeone RM, et al. Risk for stillbirth among women with and without COVID-19
at delivery hospitalization—United States, March 2020–September 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep.
7. Metz TD, Clifton RG, Hughes BL, et al. Association of SARS-CoV-2 infection with serious maternal
morbidity and mortality from obstetric complications. JAMA. 2022;327(8):748-759. Available at:
8. Hughes BL, Sandoval GJ, Metz TD, et al. First- or second-trimester SARS-CoV-2 infection and subsequent
pregnancy outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2023;228(2):226.e1-226.e9. Available at:
9. Dumitriu D, Emeruwa UN, Hanft E, et al. Outcomes of neonates born to mothers with severe acute
respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection at a large medical center in New York City. JAMA Pediatr.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Data on COVID-19 during pregnancy: birth and infant outcomes.
2022. Available at: https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/122064.
12. Halasa NB, Olson SM, Staat MA, et al. Effectiveness of maternal vaccination with mRNA COVID-19 vaccine
during pregnancy against COVID-19-associated hospitalization in infants aged <6 months—17 states, July
2021–January 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71(7):264-270. Available at:
13. Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine. Provider considerations for engaging in COVID-19 vaccine counseling
with pregnant and lactating patients. 2021. Available at: https://www.smfm.org/publications/390-provider-
considerations-for-engaging-in-covid-19-vaccine-counseling-with-pregnant-and-lactating-patients. Accessed
February 23, 2024.
articles/2020/12/covid-19-vaccination-considerations-for-obstetric-gynecologic-care. Accessed February 22,
2024.
17. Gray KJ, Bordt EA, Atyeo C, et al. Coronavirus disease 2019 vaccine response in pregnant and lactating
women: a cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2021;225(3):303e1-303e17. Available at:
18. Yang YJ, Murphy EA, Singh S, et al. Association of gestational age at coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

vaccination, history of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, and
a vaccine booster dose with maternal and umbilical cord antibody levels at delivery. Obstet Gynecol.
19. Shimabukuro TT, Kim SY, Myers TR, et al. Preliminary findings of mRNA COVID-19 vaccine safety in
pregnant persons. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(24):2273-2282. Available at:
20. Ellington S. COVID-19 in pregnant people and infants ages 0–5 months. Presented at: Advisory Committee on
Immunization Practices (ACIP) Meeting; October 19–20, 2022. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/
acip/meetings/downloads/slides-2022-10-19-20/02-03-04-COVID-Ellington-Kharbanda-Olson-Fleming-
Dutra-508.pdf.
21. Zauche LH, Wallace B, Smoots AN, et al. Receipt of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines and risk of spontaneous
abortion. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(16):1533-1535. Available at:
22. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. COVID-19 FAQs for obstetrician-gynecologists,
obstetrics. 2023. Available at: https://www.acog.org/clinical-information/physician-faqs/covid-19-faqs-for-ob-
gyns-obstetrics. Accessed February 22, 2024.

Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics
General Considerations
The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends against withholding COVID-19
treatments or vaccination from pregnant or lactating individuals specifically because of pregnancy or
lactation (AIII). Pregnant patients should be offered the opportunity to participate in the COVID-19
International Drug Pregnancy Registry or other pregnancy registries.
The decision to feed the infant breast milk while the lactating patient is receiving therapeutic agents for
COVID-19 should be a collaborative effort between the patient and the clinical team, including infant
care providers. The patient and the clinical team should consider the benefits of breastfeeding, the
postnatal age of the infant, the need for the medication, any underlying risks of exposing the infant to the
drug, and the potential adverse outcomes of COVID-19.
If a patient is receiving a treatment for COVID-19 that prevents them from feeding breast milk to their
infant for a limited time, the clinical team should still encourage pumping breast milk and provide
lactation support. This ensures that lactation can continue after the patient stops receiving the treatment.
While a person with COVID-19 is breastfeeding, prevention measures should be taken to avoid
transmitting SARS-CoV-2 to the infant. These measures include practicing appropriate hand hygiene,
wearing face coverings, and performing proper pump cleaning before and after breast milk expression.
Table A: Recommendations for the Use of COVID-19 Therapeutics in Pregnant and Lactating
People
For the Panel’s recommendations on when to use the medications listed below, refer to Therapeutic
Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19 and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized
Adults With COVID-19. Pregnant patients should be offered the opportunity to participate in the
COVID-19 International Drug Pregnancy Registry or other pregnancy registries. For additional
information on the use of these medications during pregnancy and lactation, see the section text below.
Drug Name
(in alphabetical Pregnancy Lactation
order)
Abatacept Recommended in hospitalized patients, if indicated. Should be offered to patients who qualify
Pregnant patients and their health care providers for this therapy. There is minimal data on
should jointly decide whether to use abatacept during the transfer of abatacept to breast milk.
pregnancy, and the decision-making process should Breastfeeding may be considered while a
include a discussion of the potential risks and benefits. patient receives abatacept.
Baricitinib Recommended in hospitalized patients, if indicated. Feeding breast milk should be avoided
Pregnant patients and their health care providers while taking baricitinib and for 4 days after
should jointly decide whether to use baricitinib during the last dose. Lactation support should be
pregnancy, and the decision-making process should provided during this time.a
include a discussion of the potential risks and benefits.
Dexamethasone Recommended in hospitalized patients, if indicated. Should be offered to patients who qualify
for this therapy. Breastfeeding can continue
while a patient receives dexamethasone.

Drug Name
(in alphabetical Pregnancy Lactation
order)
Heparin (LMWH Recommended in hospitalized patients if indicated and Should be offered to patients who qualify
and UFH) if the patient does not have an obstetric-related bleeding for this therapy. Breastfeeding can continue
risk (e.g., imminent delivery, bleeding complications of while a patient receives LMWH or UFH.
pregnancy) that would preclude use. See Antithrombotic
Therapy in Patients With COVID-19 for more information.
Infliximab Recommended in hospitalized patients, if indicated. Should be offered to patients who qualify for
Pregnant patients and their health care providers this therapy. The available data show that the
should jointly decide whether to use infliximab during amount of infliximab that transfers through
pregnancy, and the decision-making process should breast milk is negligible. Breastfeeding can
include a discussion of the potential risks and benefits. continue while a patient receives infliximab.
Molnupiravir Recommended against, unless there are no other Breastfeeding is not recommended while
options and therapy is clearly indicated. a patient is taking molnupiravir and for 4
days after the last dose.1 Lactation support
should be provided during this time.a
Remdesivir Recommended, if indicated. Should be offered to patients who qualify
for this therapy. Breastfeeding can continue
while a patient receives remdesivir.
Ritonavir- Recommended, if indicated. Should be offered to patients who qualify
Boosted for this therapy. Breastfeeding can continue
Nirmatrelvir while a patient receives ritonavir-boosted
(Paxlovid) nirmatrelvir.
Tocilizumab Recommended in hospitalized patients, if indicated. Should be offered to patients who qualify
Pregnant patients and their health care providers for this therapy. Breastfeeding can continue
should jointly decide whether to use tocilizumab during while a patient receives tocilizumab.
pregnancy, and the decision-making process should
include a discussion of the potential risks and benefits.
a
If a patient is receiving a treatment for COVID-19 that prevents them from feeding breast milk for a limited time, the
clinical team should still encourage pumping breast milk and provide lactation support. This ensures that lactation can
continue after the patient stops receiving the treatment.
Key: LMWH = low-molecular-weight heparin; the Panel = the COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel; UFH =
unfractionated heparin
Rationale
Abatacept
Pregnancy
As there are no data on the use of abatacept during pregnancy in hospitalized patients with COVID-19,
this drug should be used only if baricitinib and tocilizumab are not available or feasible to use. When
deciding whether to prescribe abatacept to a pregnant individual, clinicians need to consider the severity
of the patient’s COVID-19, the patient’s comorbidities, and the gestational age of the fetus.
There is a paucity of data on the use of abatacept in pregnant individuals. It is currently not known
whether abatacept can cross the human placenta; however, abatacept has crossed the placenta in animal
studies. One study reported alterations to the immune systems of the offspring of animals that received
supratherapeutic doses of abatacept throughout pregnancy.2 It is not known whether the immune systems
of infants who were exposed to a single dose of abatacept in utero might be impacted. Abatacept should
only be used during pregnancy if the benefits clearly outweigh the potential risks.

Lactation
Abatacept should be offered to patients who qualify for this therapy. It is not known whether abatacept is
transferred to breast milk during lactation or whether it is absorbed systemically by the infant. Because
abatacept is a large molecule, only small amounts are thought to be transferred to breast milk. Patients
who are receiving abatacept may consider breastfeeding.
Baricitinib
Pregnancy
When deciding whether to prescribe baricitinib to a pregnant individual, clinicians need to consider the
severity of the patient’s COVID-19, the patient’s comorbidities, and the gestational age of the fetus.
Baricitinib is a Janus kinase inhibitor. As a small-molecule drug, baricitinib is likely to pass through
the placenta; therefore, fetal risk cannot be ruled out.3 In animal studies, baricitinib doses that exceeded
the therapeutic human dose were associated with embryofetal developmental abnormalities. Pregnancy
registries provide some data on the use of tofacitinib, another Janus kinase inhibitor, during pregnancy
for other conditions (e.g., ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis).4-6 Pregnancy outcomes
among the participants who received tofacitinib were similar to those among the general population.
Lactation
There is no information on the use of baricitinib in lactating people or on the effects of baricitinib on
breastfed infants; however, baricitinib has been detected in the breast milk of lactating rats.7 Feeding
breast milk should be avoided for 4 days (approximately 5–6 elimination half-lives) after baricitinib is
discontinued.
Dexamethasone
Pregnancy
A short course of betamethasone or dexamethasone, which are both known to cross the placenta, is
routinely used to decrease neonatal complications of prematurity in people who are at risk of imminent
preterm birth.8,9 Treating COVID-19 with a short course of dexamethasone can lower the risk of death in
pregnant individuals. In addition, dexamethasone carries a low risk of fetal adverse effects.
Lactation
Dexamethasone should be offered to lactating patients with COVID-19 who qualify for this therapy.
Breast milk can be fed to the infant while the lactating patient is receiving dexamethasone. Although
there are limited data on the use of dexamethasone in lactating patients, some published reports about
a related antenatal corticosteroid (betamethasone) reported a time-limited decrease in the volume of
breast milk production.10,11 Given the benefits of breast milk, additional lactation support has been
recommended if needed.
Heparin (Low-Molecular-Weight and Unfractionated)

Pregnancy
In general, the preferred anticoagulants during pregnancy are heparin compounds. Because of its
reliability and ease of administration, low-molecular-weight heparin is recommended rather than
unfractionated heparin for the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism in pregnant people.
The use of anticoagulant therapy during labor and delivery requires specialized care and planning. The
management of anticoagulant therapy in pregnant patients with COVID-19 should be similar to the
management used for pregnant patients with other conditions.

Lactation
Low-molecular-weight heparin, unfractionated heparin, and warfarin do not accumulate in breast milk
and do not induce an anticoagulant effect in the newborn. Therefore, they can be used by breastfeeding
individuals who require venous thromboembolism prophylaxis or treatment.
Infliximab
Pregnancy
As there are no data on the use of infliximab during pregnancy in hospitalized patients with COVID-19,
infliximab should be used only if baricitinib and tocilizumab are not available or feasible to use. When
deciding whether to prescribe infliximab to a pregnant individual, clinicians need to consider the
severity of the patient’s COVID-19, the patient’s comorbidities, and the gestational age of the fetus.
There are limited data on the use of infliximab to treat COVID-19 in pregnant patients. It has been used
to treat autoimmune diseases in pregnant individuals when the benefits outweigh the potential risks.
Infliximab crosses the placenta and has been detected in the serum of infants born to patients treated
with infliximab during pregnancy. No adverse effects have been reported in these infants.
Lactation
Infants who are breastfed by people receiving infliximab show minimal absorption of this agent.12 No
adverse effects have been reported in these infants. Therefore, infliximab should be offered to patients
who qualify. Breastfeeding can continue while a patient receives infliximab.
Molnupiravir
Pregnancy
patients unless there are no other options and therapy is clearly indicated (AIII).
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Emergency Use Authorization states that molnupiravir is not
recommended for use in pregnant patients because fetal toxicity has been reported in animal studies of
molnupiravir.1 However, when other therapies are not available, pregnant people with COVID-19 who
are at high risk of progressing to severe disease may reasonably choose molnupiravir therapy after being
fully informed of the potential risks, particularly if they are beyond the time of embryogenesis (i.e., >10
weeks’ gestation).
Lactation
There is no data on the use of molnupiravir in lactating people; however, molnupiravir has been
detected in the offspring of lactating rats. Molnupiravir is not authorized for use in children aged <18
years. Because the risk of adverse effects in infants is currently unknown, the FDA Emergency Use
Authorization fact sheet does not recommend feeding an infant breast milk from a patient who is taking
molnupiravir for the duration of the treatment course and until 4 days after the final dose.1
Remdesivir
Pregnancy
While pregnant individuals were excluded from the clinical trials that evaluated the safety and efficacy
of remdesivir for the treatment of COVID-19, subsequent reports on the use of remdesivir in pregnant
individuals have been reassuring. Among 95 pregnant patients with moderate, severe, or critical
COVID-19 who were included in a secondary analysis of data from a COVID-19 pregnancy registry
in Texas, the composite maternal and neonatal outcomes were similar between those who received

remdesivir (n = 39) and those who did not.13
A systematic review of 13 observational studies that included 113 pregnant people also reported few
adverse effects of remdesivir in pregnant patients with COVID-19.14 The most common adverse effect
was a mild elevation in transaminase levels.
Lactation
Remdesivir is approved by the FDA for use in pediatric patients aged ≥28 days and weighing ≥3 kg.15
Limited data have suggested that the drug is poorly absorbed via the oral route; therefore, the levels of
the drug that are absorbed when the infant ingests breast milk are low.16,17 One case report described a
patient with COVID-19 who received remdesivir during the immediate postpartum period.17 Based on
the concentration of remdesivir in the maternal serum and breast milk, the calculated milk-to-serum ratio
was low. Therefore, the levels of remdesivir that would have reached a breastfed infant were estimated
to be low.

Pregnancy
Ritonavir has been used extensively during pregnancy in people with HIV and has a favorable safety
profile during pregnancy. The mechanisms of action for both nirmatrelvir and ritonavir and the results of
animal studies and case series suggest that this regimen can be used safely in pregnant individuals.
Two descriptive case series evaluated outcomes among pregnant patients with COVID-19 who received
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir.18,19 One case series included 47 patients with COVID-19 and a median
gestational age of 28.4 weeks.18 These patients started taking ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir after a
median duration of 1 day of COVID-19 symptoms. Thirty patients (64%) in the cohort had clinical
characteristics in addition to pregnancy that increased their risk of progressing to severe COVID-19. The
patients tolerated ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir well, with no serious adverse effects noted in either the
pregnant patients or the neonates during the study period.
The other case series included 7 patients with a mean gestational age of 26.4 weeks who initiated
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir after approximately 2 days of COVID-19 symptoms.19 One patient
developed dysgeusia and stopped treatment, but the remaining 6 patients completed 5 days of treatment.
Six of the patients were fully vaccinated, and 4 of these patients had also received a booster dose. All the
patients reported resolution of their COVID-19 symptoms, and no fetal or neonatal adverse effects were
observed during the study period.
Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir should be offered to pregnant and recently pregnant patients with
COVID-19 who qualify for this therapy based on the results of a risk-benefit assessment. The risk-
benefit assessment may include factors such as medical comorbidities, body mass index, vaccination
status, and the number and severity of the risk factors for severe disease.
Obstetricians should be aware of potential drug-drug interactions when prescribing this agent. See
Medications for more information.
Lactation
Studies of infants who were exposed to ritonavir through breast milk suggest that the amount of ritonavir
that transfers through breast milk is negligible and not considered clinically significant.20-23
There are no data on the use of nirmatrelvir in lactating people. However, a prebirth-to-lactation study
performed in rats reported an 8% decrease in body weight on Postnatal Day 17 in the offspring of

rats that received nirmatrelvir and had systemic exposures that were 9 times higher than the clinical
exposures at the authorized human dose.24 This reduction in body weight was not seen in the offspring
of rats that had exposures that were 5 times higher than the clinical exposures at the authorized
human dose. Because the overall oral absorption of nirmatrelvir is poor, it is unlikely that the levels
of nirmatrelvir absorbed from breast milk ingestion would be clinically relevant or expected to cause
adverse effects in an infant.25
Tocilizumab
Pregnancy
Pregnant individuals have been excluded from clinical trials that evaluated the use of the anti-
interleukin-6 receptor monoclonal antibody tocilizumab for the treatment of COVID-19. An analysis of
data from a global safety database reported pregnancy outcomes from 288 women who were exposed
to tocilizumab during their pregnancies.26 Eighty-nine percent of these women received tocilizumab
as ongoing treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, and most were exposed to tocilizumab during their first
trimester. The rates of congenital abnormalities among the infants born to these women were not higher
than the rates seen in the general population. However, an increased rate of preterm birth was observed
among these individuals when compared with the general population. A retrospective report of 61
pregnant women who were exposed to tocilizumab at conception or during their first trimesters showed
no increased rates of congenital abnormalities or spontaneous abortion.27
As pregnancy progresses, monoclonal antibodies are actively transported across the placenta, with the
greatest transfer occurring during the third trimester. This may affect immune responses in the exposed
fetus. If a pregnant patient receives tocilizumab after 20 weeks’ gestation, clinicians should delay
administering live viral vaccines to the infant for at least 6 months.
Lactation
There is limited information on the use of tocilizumab in lactating patients. Based on case report data,
the amount of tocilizumab transferred to the infant via breast milk appears to be very low, with no
reports of adverse effects.28
References
2. Abatacept (Orencia) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2021. Available at: https://www.
3. Sammaritano LR, Bermas BL, Chakravarty EE, et al. 2020 American College of Rheumatology guideline
for the management of reproductive health in rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases. Arthritis Rheumatol.
4. Clowse ME, Feldman SR, Isaacs JD, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in the tofacitinib safety databases for
rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis. Drug Saf. 2016;39(8):755-762. Available at:
5. Mahadevan U, Dubinsky MC, Su C, et al. Outcomes of pregnancies with maternal/paternal exposure in the
tofacitinib safety databases for ulcerative colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2018;24(12):2494-2500. Available at:
6. Wieringa JW, van der Woude CJ. Effect of biologicals and JAK inhibitors during pregnancy on health-
related outcomes in children of women with inflammatory bowel disease. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol.
2020;44-45:101665. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32359679.
7. Baricitinib (Olumiant) [package insert]. Food and Drug Administration. 2022. Available at: https://www.

8. Liggins GC, Howie RN. A controlled trial of antepartum glucocorticoid treatment for prevention of the
respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants. Pediatrics. 1972;50(4):515-525. Available at:
9. Gyamfi-Bannerman C, Thom EA, Blackwell SC, et al. Antenatal betamethasone for women at risk for late
preterm delivery. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(14):1311-1320. Available at:
10. Henderson JJ, Hartmann PE, Newnham JP, Simmer K. Effect of preterm birth and antenatal corticosteroid
treatment on lactogenesis II in women. Pediatrics. 2008;121(1):e92-e100. Available at:
11. Henderson JJ, Newnham JP, Simmer K, Hartmann PE. Effects of antenatal corticosteroids on urinary markers
of the initiation of lactation in pregnant women. Breastfeed Med. 2009;4(4):201-206. Available at:
12. Ben-Horin S, Yavzori M, Kopylov U, et al. Detection of infliximab in breast milk of nursing mothers with
inflammatory bowel disease. J Crohns Colitis. 2011;5(6):555-558. Available at:
13. Gutierrez R, Mendez-Figueroa H, Biebighauser JG, Bhalwal A, Pineles BL, Chauhan SP. Remdesivir use
in pregnancy during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2022;35(25):9445-9451.
14. Budi DS, Pratama NR, Wafa IA, Putra M, Wardhana MP, Wungu CDK. Remdesivir for pregnancy: a
systematic review of antiviral therapy for COVID-19. Heliyon. 2022;8(1):e08835. Available at:
16. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Drugs and lactation database (LactMed)
[Internet]. Remdesivir. 2023. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556881. Accessed
February 26, 2024.
17. Wada YS, Saito J, Hashii Y, et al. Remdesivir and human milk: a case study. J Hum Lact. 2022;38(2):248-251.
18. Garneau WM, Jones-Beatty K, Ufua MO, et al. Analysis of clinical outcomes of pregnant patients treated
with nirmatrelvir and ritonavir for acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(11):e2244141.
19. Loza A, Farias R, Gavin N, Wagner R, Hammer E, Shields A. Short-term pregnancy outcomes after
nirmatrelvir-ritonavir treatment for mild-to-moderate coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Obstet Gynecol.
20. Rezk NL, White N, Bridges AS, et al. Studies on antiretroviral drug concentrations in breast milk: validation
of a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method for the determination of 7 anti-human
immunodeficiency virus medications. Ther Drug Monit. 2008;30(5):611-619. Available at:
21. Palombi L, Pirillo MF, Andreotti M, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for breastfeeding transmission in Malawi:
drug concentrations, virological efficacy and safety. Antivir Ther. 2012;17(8):1511-1519. Available at:
22. Corbett AH, Kayira D, White NR, et al. Antiretroviral pharmacokinetics in mothers and breastfeeding infants
from 6 to 24 weeks post-partum: results of the BAN Study. Antivir Ther. 2014;19(6):587-595. Available at:
23. Gandhi M, Mwesigwa J, Aweeka F, et al. Hair and plasma data show that lopinavir, ritonavir, and efavirenz all
transfer from mother to infant in utero, but only efavirenz transfers via breastfeeding. J Acquir Immune Defic

Syndr. 2013;63(5):578-584. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24135775.
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Influenza and COVID-19
Influenza Vaccination
• People with acute COVID-19 who have not received an influenza vaccine during influenza season should be vaccinated
after they recover from acute illness and are no longer in isolation (BIII).
• Patients may be vaccinated while they are still in isolation if they are in a health care setting.
• An influenza vaccine and a COVID-19 vaccine may be administered concurrently at different injection sites. The
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provide more
information on COVID-19 and influenza vaccines.
Diagnosis of Influenza and COVID-19 When Influenza Viruses and SARS-CoV-2 Are Cocirculating
• Only testing can distinguish between SARS-CoV-2 and influenza virus infections and identify SARS-CoV-2 and influenza
virus coinfection.
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends performing influenza testing in addition to SARS-
CoV-2 testing in outpatients with acute respiratory illness if the results will change the clinical management strategy for
the patient (e.g., administering antiviral treatment for influenza) (BIII).
• The Panel recommends testing for both viruses in all hospitalized patients with acute respiratory illness (AIII).
• Clinicians should consider performing additional testing in specific clinical circumstances. Secondary bacterial infection
is more common with influenza than with COVID-19, so additional testing for bacterial pathogens is important in
patients with influenza who have clinical signs that suggest bacterial superinfection, especially for those who are
immunocompromised or intubated.
• See the CDC webpage Information for Clinicians on Influenza Virus Testing and the Infectious Diseases Society of
America (IDSA) clinical practice guidelines for more information.
Antiviral Treatment of Influenza When Influenza Viruses and SARS-CoV-2 Are Cocirculating
• Antiviral treatment for influenza is the same for all patients regardless of SARS-CoV-2 coinfection (AIII).
• For information on using antiviral drugs to treat influenza in hospitalized and nonhospitalized patients, see the CDC
and IDSA recommendations.
• There are no clinically significant drug-drug interactions between the antiviral agents used to treat influenza and the
antiviral agents or immunomodulators used to treat COVID-19.
• The Panel recommends starting hospitalized patients who are suspected of having influenza on empiric treatment for
influenza with oseltamivir as soon as possible regardless of their COVID-19 status and without waiting for influenza
test results (AIIb).
• Oseltamivir treatment should be continued until nucleic acid detection assay results rule out influenza. For patients
who are not intubated, assays should be performed on upper respiratory tract specimens. For patients who are
intubated, assays should be performed on both upper and lower respiratory tract specimens.
Introduction
Clinicians should monitor local influenza and SARS-CoV-2 activities during influenza season to inform
the evaluation and management of patients with acute respiratory illness. This can be done by tracking
local and state public health surveillance data, assessing the results of testing performed at health care
facilities, and reviewing the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Weekly U.S. Influenza
Surveillance Report.

Influenza Vaccination
For Patients With Acute COVID-19 or Those Recovering From COVID-19
The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommends offering an influenza vaccine
by the end of October to all people aged ≥6 months in the United States.1 Unvaccinated persons can
still benefit from influenza vaccination after October as long as influenza viruses are still circulating in
the community. People with acute COVID-19 who have not received an influenza vaccine should be
vaccinated after they recover from acute illness and are no longer in isolation (BIII). Patients may be
vaccinated while they are still in isolation if they are in a health care setting.
There are currently no data on the safety, immunogenicity, or efficacy of administering influenza
vaccines to patients with acute COVID-19 or those who are recovering from COVID-19. Vaccination
in people who have mild illness is safe and effective.2 Clinicians should consider deferring influenza
vaccination for symptomatic patients with moderate or severe COVID-19 until they have recovered and
completed their COVID-19 isolation period. It is not known whether administering dexamethasone or
other immunomodulatory therapies to patients with severe COVID-19 will affect the immune response
to the influenza vaccine. People with asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection or mild COVID-19 should
seek influenza vaccination when they no longer require isolation. They may be vaccinated sooner if they
are in a health care setting for other reasons. See the influenza vaccine recommendations from the CDC
and the American Academy of Pediatrics.
Coadministration of COVID-19 Vaccines and Influenza Vaccines

Coadministration of a COVID-19 vaccine and an influenza vaccine at different injection sites has been
shown to be safe.3-6 Providers and patients should be aware of a potential increase in reactogenicity
when both vaccines are administered concurrently. The CDC and ACIP provide more information on
coadministering influenza and COVID-19 vaccines.
Clinical Presentation of Influenza Versus COVID-19

The signs and symptoms of uncomplicated, clinically mild influenza overlap with those of mild
COVID-19. Loss of taste and smell can occur with both diseases, but these symptoms are more
common with COVID-19 than with influenza. Fever is not always present in patients with either
disease, particularly in young infants, adults of advanced age, and patients who are immunosuppressed.
Complications of influenza and COVID-19 can be similar, but the onset of influenza complications and
severe disease typically occurs within a week of illness, whereas the onset of severe COVID-19 usually
occurs in the second week of illness.
Because of the overlap in signs and symptoms, when SARS-CoV-2 and influenza viruses are
cocirculating, diagnostic testing for both viruses is needed to distinguish between SARS-CoV-2
and influenza virus infection and to identify coinfection in people with an acute respiratory illness.
Coinfection with influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 has been described in case reports and case series,7-11
but it is uncommon.12 Observational studies have reported greater disease severity in adult patients
with influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 coinfection than in those with SARS-CoV-2 infection alone.13,14
In pediatric patients, coinfection with the 2 viruses was associated with greater disease severity than
infection with influenza virus alone.15
Testing for SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza

The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends performing influenza testing in
addition to SARS-CoV-2 testing in outpatients with acute respiratory illness if the results will change the
clinical management strategy for the patient (e.g., administering antiviral treatment for influenza) (BIII).

The Panel recommends testing for both viruses in all hospitalized patients with acute respiratory illness
(AIII).
Several multiplex molecular assays and multiplex antigen assays that detect SARS-CoV-2 and influenza
A and B viruses have received Food and Drug Administration Emergency Use Authorizations or
De Novo classifications and can provide results in 15 minutes to 8 hours using a single respiratory
specimen.16-18 For more information, see the CDC webpage Information for Clinicians on Influenza
Virus Testing and the recommendations from the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) on the
use of influenza tests and the interpretation of test results.
Treating Influenza With Antiviral Agents

Antiviral treatment for influenza is the same for all patients regardless of SARS-CoV-2 coinfection
(AIII). There are no clinically significant drug-drug interactions between the antiviral agents used
to treat influenza and the antiviral agents or immunomodulators used to treat COVID-19. The IDSA
recommends administering antiviral treatment for influenza to all hospitalized patients with influenza.19
The Panel recommends starting hospitalized patients who are suspected of having influenza on empiric
treatment for influenza with oseltamivir as soon as possible regardless of their COVID-19 status and
without waiting for influenza test results (AIIb). Oseltamivir has no activity against SARS-CoV-2.20
The standard dose of oseltamivir is absorbed well, even in critically ill patients. For patients who cannot
tolerate oral or enterically administered oseltamivir (e.g., because of gastric stasis, malabsorption, or
gastrointestinal bleeding), intravenous peramivir is an option.19 There are no data on the activity of
peramivir against SARS-CoV-2.
See the CDC webpage Influenza Antiviral Medications: Summary for Clinicians for clinical algorithms
for using antiviral agents in patients with suspected or laboratory-confirmed influenza, including
pregnant people and other people who are at high risk for influenza complications. The IDSA clinical
practice guidelines also provide recommendations on using antiviral agents to treat influenza,19 and the
American Academy of Pediatrics provides recommendations on the antiviral treatment of influenza in
children.21
When the result of an influenza nucleic acid detection assay from an upper respiratory tract specimen is
negative in a patient who is receiving antiviral treatment for influenza:
• In a patient who is not intubated: Antiviral treatment for influenza can be stopped.
• In a patient who is intubated: Antiviral treatment for influenza should be continued, and a lower
respiratory tract specimen (e.g., endotracheal aspirate) should be collected and tested using an
influenza nucleic acid detection assay. If the lower respiratory tract specimen is also negative,
antiviral treatment for influenza can be stopped.
COVID-19 Treatment Considerations for Hospitalized Patients With Suspected or

Confirmed Influenza Virus Coinfection
Corticosteroids, which are used to treat patients with severe COVID-19, may prolong influenza viral
replication and may be associated with poor outcomes for influenza.19,22 Currently, no data are available
on the use of corticosteroids in patients with SARS-CoV-2 and influenza virus coinfection. However,
because dexamethasone has demonstrated substantial benefits in patients with COVID-19 who require
supplemental oxygen, the benefits of using corticosteroids in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 and
influenza virus coinfection likely outweigh any potential harm.
Although severe influenza may be associated with a dysregulated innate immune response, there are

no data on the use of immunomodulatory therapies, such as interleukin-6 inhibitors (e.g., tocilizumab,
sarilumab) or Janus kinase inhibitors (e.g., baricitinib, tofacitinib), for the treatment of severe influenza.
There are also no data on the effects these therapies may have on influenza virus infection, such as
potentially prolonging viral replication. These immunomodulators have demonstrated a clinical benefit
in certain patients with COVID-19. When considering using these drugs in patients with COVID-19 who
have suspected or laboratory-confirmed influenza, clinicians should carefully weigh the known benefits
for treatment of severe COVID-19 against the unknown theoretical risks for patients with influenza.
Observational studies have reported that co-occurrence of community-acquired secondary bacterial
pneumonia appears to be infrequent in people with COVID-19; it is more common in people who have
influenza.23-28 Typical bacterial causes of community-acquired pneumonia with severe influenza are
Staphylococcus aureus (both methicillin-resistant S. aureus [MRSA] and methicillin-susceptible S.
aureus [MSSA]), Streptococcus pneumoniae, and group A Streptococcus.19
Patients with COVID-19 who develop new respiratory symptoms with or without fever or respiratory
distress and who do not have a clear diagnosis should be evaluated for the possibility of nosocomial
influenza.
References
1. Grohskopf LA, Blanton LH, Ferdinands JM, et al. Prevention and control of seasonal influenza with vaccines:
recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices—United States, 2023–24 influenza
season. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2023;72(2):1-25. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/rr/
rr7202a1.htm.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Contraindications and precautions. 2023. Available at: https://
www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/acip-recs/general-recs/contraindications.html. Accessed December 18, 2023.
3. Izikson R, Brune D, Bolduc JS, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a high-dose quadrivalent influenza
vaccine administered concomitantly with a third dose of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in adults aged
≥65 years: a Phase 2, randomised, open-label study. Lancet Respir Med. 2022;10(4):392-402. Available at:
4. Lazarus R, Baos S, Cappel-Porter H, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of concomitant administration
of COVID-19 vaccines (ChAdOx1 or BNT162b2) with seasonal influenza vaccines in adults in the UK
(ComFluCOV): a multicentre, randomised, controlled, Phase 4 trial. Lancet. 2021;398(10318):2277-2287.
5. Hause AM, Zhang B, Yue X, et al. Reactogenicity of simultaneous COVID-19 mRNA booster and influenza
vaccination in the US. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(7):e2222241. Available at:
6. Janssen C, Mosnier A, Gavazzi G, et al. Coadministration of seasonal influenza and COVID-19 vaccines: a
systematic review of clinical studies. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2022;18(6):2131166. Available at:
7. Hashemi SA, Safamanesh S, Ghasemzadeh-Moghaddam H, Ghafouri M, Azimian A. High prevalence of
SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A virus (H1N1) coinfection in dead patients in Northeastern Iran. J Med Virol.
8. Huang BR, Lin YL, Wan CK, et al. Co-infection of influenza B virus and SARS-CoV-2: a case report from
Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2021;54(2):336-338. Available at:
9. Yue H, Zhang M, Xing L, et al. The epidemiology and clinical characteristics of co-infection of SARS-CoV-2
and influenza viruses in patients during COVID-19 outbreak. J Med Virol. 2020;92(11):2870-2873. Available

10. Cuadrado-Payán E, Montagud-Marrahi E, Torres-Elorza M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 and influenza virus co-
infection. Lancet. 2020;395(10236):e84. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32423586.
11. Wu X, Cai Y, Huang X, et al. Co-infection with SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A virus in patient with
pneumonia, China. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(6):1324-1326. Available at:
12. Pawlowski C, Silvert E, O’Horo JC, et al. SARS-CoV-2 and influenza coinfection throughout the COVID-19
pandemic: an assessment of coinfection rates, cohort characteristics, and clinical outcomes. PNAS Nexus.
2022;1(3):pgac071. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35860600.
13. Stowe J, Tessier E, Zhao H, et al. Interactions between SARS-CoV-2 and influenza, and the impact of
coinfection on disease severity: a test-negative design. Int J Epidemiol. 2021;50(4):1124-1133. Available at:
14. Swets MC, Russell CD, Harrison EM, et al. SARS-CoV-2 co-infection with influenza viruses, respiratory
syncytial virus, or adenoviruses. Lancet. 2022;399(10334):1463-1464. Available at:
15. Adams K, Tastad KJ, Huang S, et al. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza coinfection and clinical
characteristics among children and adolescents aged <18 years who were hospitalized or died with influenza—
United States, 2021–22 influenza season. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71(50):1589-1596. Available
16. Food and Drug Administration. In vitro diagnostics EUAs—molecular diagnostic tests for SARS-CoV-2.
2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19-emergency-use-
authorizations-medical-devices/in-vitro-diagnostics-euas-molecular-diagnostic-tests-sars-cov-2. Accessed
December 18, 2023.
17. Food and Drug Administration. In vitro diagnostics EUAs—antigen diagnostic tests for SARS-CoV-2.
2023. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19-emergency-
use-authorizations-medical-devices/in-vitro-diagnostics-euas-antigen-diagnostic-tests-sars-cov-2. Accessed
December 18, 2023.
18. Food and Drug Administration. Evaluation of automatic class III designation (De Novo) summaries. 2023.
Available at: https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/cdrh-transparency/evaluation-automatic-class-iii-designation-de-
novo-summaries. Accessed December 18, 2023.
19. Uyeki TM, Bernstein HH, Bradley JS, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of
America: 2018 update on diagnosis, treatment, chemoprophylaxis, and institutional outbreak management of
seasonal influenza. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68(6):895-902. Available at:
20. Choy KT, Wong AY, Kaewpreedee P, et al. Remdesivir, lopinavir, emetine, and homoharringtonine inhibit
SARS-CoV-2 replication in vitro. Antiviral Res. 2020;178:104786. Available at:
21. Committee on Infectious Diseases. Recommendations for prevention and control of influenza in children,
2023–2024. Pediatrics. 2023;152(4):e2023063772. Available at:
22. Zhou Y, Fu X, Liu X, et al. Use of corticosteroids in influenza-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome
and severe pneumonia: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):3044. Available at:
23. Vaughn VM, Gandhi TN, Petty LA, et al. Empiric antibacterial therapy and community-onset bacterial
coinfection in patients hospitalized with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a multi-hospital cohort study.
Clin Infect Dis. 2021;72(10):e533-e541. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32820807.
24. Adler H, Ball R, Fisher M, Mortimer K, Vardhan MS. Low rate of bacterial co-infection in patients with
COVID-19. Lancet Microbe. 2020;1(2):e62. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32835331.

25. Russell CD, Fairfield CJ, Drake TM, et al. Co-infections, secondary infections, and antimicrobial use in
patients hospitalised with COVID-19 during the first pandemic wave from the ISARIC WHO CCP-UK study:
a multicentre, prospective cohort study. Lancet Microbe. 2021;2(8):e354-e365. Available at: https://www.ncbi.
26. Hedberg P, Johansson N, Ternhag A, et al. Bacterial co-infections in community-acquired pneumonia caused
by SARS-CoV-2, influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus. BMC Infect Dis. 2022;22(1):108. Available
27. Pandey M, May A, Tan L, et al. Comparative incidence of early and late bloodstream and respiratory tract co-
infection in patients admitted to ICU with COVID-19 pneumonia versus influenza A or B pneumonia versus
no viral pneumonia: Wales multicentre ICU cohort study. Crit Care. 2022;26(1):158. Available at:
28. Rouzé A, Martin-Loeches I, Povoa P, et al. Early bacterial identification among intubated patients with
COVID-19 or influenza pneumonia: a European multicenter comparative clinical trial. Am J Respir Crit Care

Special Considerations in People With HIV
• The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends that people with HIV receive COVID-19 vaccines,
regardless of their CD4 T lymphocyte (CD4) cell count or HIV viral load, because the potential benefits outweigh the
potential risks (AIIb).
• For people with untreated or advanced HIV, the Panel recommends following the most recent COVID-19 vaccination
schedule from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for people who are moderately or severely
immunocompromised. The CDC defines advanced HIV as CD4 counts <200 cells/mm3, a history of an AIDS-defining
illness without immune reconstitution, or clinical manifestations of symptomatic HIV.
Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
• The Panel defers to CDC recommendations for diagnostic molecular or antigen testing for SARS-CoV-2 infection in
people with HIV who develop signs and symptoms that suggest acute COVID-19.
Managing COVID-19 in People With HIV
• The recommendations for the triage, management, and treatment of COVID-19 in people with HIV are the same as
those for the general population (AIII).
• Nonhospitalized people with HIV and mild to moderate COVID-19 may be eligible to receive the therapies that are
currently recommended for treatment (see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19).
However, in situations where there are logistical constraints for administering these therapies, priority should be given
to those with untreated or advanced HIV (AIII). See Prioritization of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Therapies for the Treatment of
COVID-19 in Nonhospitalized Patients When There Are Logistical Constraints for details.
• People with HIV who are receiving a 5-day course of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) to treat COVID-19 can
continue using their antiretroviral therapy (ART) doses of ritonavir or cobicistat without alteration or interruption.
• In patients with advanced HIV who have suspected or laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, clinicians should
consider HIV-associated opportunistic infections in the differential diagnosis of clinical symptoms and consider
consulting an HIV specialist.
• When starting treatment for COVID-19 in patients with HIV, clinicians should pay careful attention to potential drug-drug
interactions and overlapping toxicities among COVID-19 treatments, antiretroviral (ARV) medications, antimicrobial
therapies, and other medications (AIII).
Managing HIV in People With COVID-19
• People with HIV who develop COVID-19, including those who require hospitalization, should continue their ART and their
medications for the treatment or prevention of opportunistic infections whenever possible.
• Clinicians treating COVID-19 in people with HIV should consult an HIV specialist before adjusting or switching a patient’s
ARV medications.
• An ARV regimen should not be modified for the purpose of preventing or treating SARS-CoV-2 infection.
• Clinicians should consult with an HIV specialist about the timing of ART in people who present with COVID-19 and
untreated HIV.
Introduction
Approximately 1.2 million people in the United States are living with HIV. Most of these individuals
are in care, and many are receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) and have well-controlled disease.1
Similar to COVID-19, HIV disproportionately affects racial and ethnic minorities and people living in

low-income settings in the United States; these demographic groups also appear to have a higher risk of
poor outcomes for COVID-19.2 Many people with HIV have 1 or more comorbidities or conditions that
may put them at higher risk of severe COVID-19.3
Clinical Outcomes of COVID-19

In some of the initial case series of people with COVID-19 in Europe and the United States, no
significant differences were observed in the clinical outcomes of COVID-19 between people with HIV
and people who did not have HIV.4-11 Several subsequent studies have reported worse outcomes for
patients with HIV and COVID-19, especially in patients with CD4 T lymphocyte (CD4) cell counts
<200 cells/mm3.12-18 Many of these studies were done before the widespread use of COVID-19 vaccines;
however, people with advanced HIV may have a suboptimal response to vaccines.19,20
The COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel (the Panel) recommends that people with HIV receive
COVID-19 vaccines, regardless of their CD4 count or HIV viral load, because the potential benefits
outweigh the potential risks (AIIb). People with HIV were included in the clinical trials of the 2 mRNA
vaccines (Pfizer and Moderna) and the glycoprotein vaccine (Novavax) that are currently available
through Emergency Use Authorizations and/or approval from the Food and Drug Administration.21-23
Typically, people with HIV who are receiving ART and who have achieved virologic suppression
respond well to licensed vaccines. Data from studies that used COVID-19 vaccines in people with HIV
confirm that people who are receiving ART and have normal CD4 counts have good immunologic
responses to the vaccines.24-26 However, vaccine response rates are generally lower in people with lower
CD4 counts (e.g., <200 cells/mm3).19,20,27
For people with untreated or advanced HIV, the Panel recommends following the most recent
COVID-19 vaccination schedule from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for
people who are moderately or severely immunocompromised. The CDC defines advanced HIV as CD4
counts <200 cells/mm3, a history of an AIDS-defining illness without immune reconstitution, or clinical
manifestations of symptomatic HIV. Patients who have poor adherence or who experience virologic
failure while on ART may have a similar risk of severe COVID-19 as those with untreated HIV. For
additional considerations regarding vaccination in people who are immunocompromised, see Special
Considerations in People Who Are Immunocompromised.
There is currently no clear evidence that antiretroviral (ARV) medications can prevent SARS-CoV-2
infection. Some studies suggested that tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine may play a role in
preventing SARS-CoV-2 acquisition or hospitalization or death associated with COVID-19; however,
the significance of these findings is unclear.28-30 These studies may not have adequately controlled for
confounding variables such as age and comorbidities. In addition, most of these studies were conducted
in unvaccinated patients.
Diagnostic and Laboratory Testing for COVID-19

Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in People With HIV
The Panel defers to CDC recommendations for diagnostic molecular or antigen testing for SARS-CoV-2
infection in people with HIV who develop signs and symptoms that suggest acute COVID-19. See
Testing for SARS-CoV-2 Infection for more information. There is currently no evidence that the
performance characteristics of nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) and antigen tests differ in people
with or without HIV when diagnosing acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. Antibody tests should not be used
to diagnose current SARS-CoV-2 infection. Currently, antibody tests are not recommended for assessing

SARS-CoV-2 immunity following COVID-19 vaccination or for assessing the need for vaccination in a
person who is unvaccinated. However, if serologic testing is performed in a patient with HIV, the results
should be interpreted with caution because cross-reactivity between antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 and HIV
has been reported.31
Correlation of CD4 Count in People With HIV and COVID-19

The normal range for CD4 counts in healthy adults is about 500 to 1,600 cells/mm3. People with HIV
who have a CD4 count of ≥500 cells/mm3 have similar cellular immune function to those without HIV.
In people with HIV, a CD4 count <200 cells/mm3 meets the definition for AIDS. For patients receiving
ART, the hallmark of treatment success is a plasma HIV RNA measurement below the level of detection
by a polymerase chain reaction assay. Lymphopenia is a common laboratory finding in patients with
COVID-19. Therefore, in patients with HIV, clinicians should note that CD4 counts obtained during
acute COVID-19 may not accurately reflect the patient’s HIV disease stage.
There have been some reports of people with advanced HIV who have presented with COVID-19 and
another coinfection, including Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia and other opportunistic infections.32-36
In patients with advanced HIV who have suspected or laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection,
clinicians should consider HIV-associated opportunistic infections in the differential diagnosis of clinical
symptoms and consider consulting an HIV specialist.
Clinical Presentation of COVID-19

It is currently unknown whether people with HIV have a higher incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection or
a higher rate of progression to symptomatic disease than the general population. Approximately 50%
of people with HIV in the United States are aged >50 years,37 and many have comorbidities that are
associated with more severe COVID-19. These comorbidities include hypertension, diabetes mellitus,
cardiovascular disease, a history of smoking, chronic lung disease, chronic liver disease, and cancer.38
There are a number of case reports and case series that describe the clinical presentation of COVID-19
in people with HIV.4-11,28,39 These studies indicate that the clinical presentation of COVID-19 is similar in
people with and without HIV. Most of the published reports describe populations in which the majority
of individuals with HIV are receiving ART and have achieved virologic suppression. Consequently, the
current understanding of the impact of COVID-19 in people with advanced HIV and low CD4 counts or
persistent HIV viremia is limited.
Managing COVID-19 in People With HIV

The recommendations for the triage, management, and treatment of COVID-19 in people with HIV
are the same as those for the general population (AIII). Nonhospitalized people with HIV and mild
to moderate COVID-19 may be eligible to receive the therapies that are currently recommended for
treatment (see Therapeutic Management of Nonhospitalized Adults With COVID-19). However, in
situations where there are logistical constraints for administering these therapies, priority should be
given to those with untreated or advanced HIV (AIII).
When starting treatment for COVID-19 in patients with HIV, clinicians should pay careful attention
to potential drug-drug interactions and overlapping toxicities among COVID-19 treatments, ARV
medications, antimicrobial therapies, and other medications (AIII).
Among the antiviral drugs recommended for nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19, drug-drug
interactions are a special concern with the use of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid). People with
HIV who are receiving a 5-day course of ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir to treat COVID-19 can continue

using their ART doses of ritonavir or cobicistat without alteration or interruption. Before prescribing
ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir to a patient who is not already on a ritonavir-based or cobicistat-based
regimen, clinicians should carefully review the patient’s concomitant medications, including over-
the-counter medications, herbal supplements, and recreational drugs, to evaluate potential drug-drug
interactions. Clinicians should use resources such as Drug-Drug Interactions Between Ritonavir-Boosted
Nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid) and Concomitant Medications, the Food and Drug Administration prescribing
information for ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir, and the Liverpool COVID-19 Drug Interactions website
for additional guidance on identifying and managing drug-drug interactions.
In hospitalized patients, the appropriate treatment strategy depends on disease severity (see Therapeutic
Management of Hospitalized Adults With COVID-19). Dexamethasone, which is recommended for use
in combination with baricitinib or tocilizumab for some patients with severe or critical COVID-19, is
an immunosuppressive agent. The safety of using this drug in patients who are immunocompromised,
including those with advanced HIV, has not been studied. Therefore, patients with advanced HIV who
are receiving dexamethasone should be closely monitored for secondary infections.
Dexamethasone is a dose-dependent inducer of cytochrome P450 3A4 and could potentially lower
the levels of certain coadministered ARV drugs. More than a single dose of dexamethasone is not
recommended for patients receiving rilpivirine as part of their ARV regimen. Clinicians should consult
an HIV specialist before administering dexamethasone to these patients. It is currently unknown whether
administering ≤10 days of dexamethasone impacts the clinical efficacy of other ARV drugs. Patients
with HIV who are receiving dexamethasone as treatment for COVID-19 should follow up with their
HIV care providers to assess their virologic response.
Although some ARV drugs were studied early in the pandemic for the treatment of COVID-19, none of
these agents have been shown to be effective.
Managing HIV in People With COVID-19

People with HIV who develop COVID-19, including those who require hospitalization, should continue
their ART and their medications for the treatment or prevention of opportunistic infections whenever
possible. If a patient with HIV needs to receive the next dose of the long-acting injectables cabotegravir/
rilpivirine, ibalizumab, or lenacapavir while hospitalized for COVID-19, clinicians should make
arrangements with the patient’s hospital provider to continue administering the medication without
interruption. ART interruption may lead to rebound viremia, and, in some cases, the emergence of drug
resistance. If the appropriate ARV drugs are not on the hospital’s formulary, administer medications
from the patient’s home supplies, if available.
Clinicians treating COVID-19 in people with HIV should consult an HIV specialist before adjusting
or switching a patient’s ARV medications. An ARV regimen should not be modified for the purpose of
preventing or treating SARS-CoV-2 infection. Many drugs, including some ARV agents (e.g., lopinavir/
ritonavir, boosted darunavir, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine), were evaluated in clinical
trials or have been prescribed off-label to treat or prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection. Lopinavir/ritonavir
and darunavir/cobicistat have not been found to be effective for the treatment of COVID-19.40,41
For patients receiving an investigational ARV medication as part of their ARV regimen, arrangements
should be made with the investigational study team to continue the medication, if possible.
For critically ill patients who require tube feeding, some ARV medications are available in liquid
formulations, and some ARV pills may be crushed. Clinicians should consult an HIV specialist and/or
pharmacist to assess the best way to continue an effective ARV regimen for a patient with a feeding tube.
Information may be available in the drug product label or from the Toronto General Hospital.

For people who present with COVID-19 and have either a new diagnosis of HIV or a history of HIV
but are not receiving ART, the optimal time to start or restart ART is currently unknown. For people
with HIV who have not initiated ART or who have been off therapy for >2 weeks before presenting
with COVID-19, an HIV specialist should be consulted about initiating or reinitiating ART as soon
as clinically feasible. If ART is initiated, maintaining treatment and linking patients to HIV care upon
hospital discharge is critical. If an HIV specialist is not available, clinical consultation is available by
phone through the National Clinician Consultation Center.

Pregnant or recently pregnant individuals are at a higher risk of severe illness and death from COVID-19
than nonpregnant individuals (see Special Considerations During Pregnancy and After Delivery).
Although the data on pregnancy and maternal outcomes in individuals who have COVID-19 and HIV
are limited, a prospective meta-analysis demonstrated that pregnant individuals with COVID-19 and
HIV had a 67% greater risk of being admitted to the intensive care unit and a 72% greater risk of
needing critical care.42 An observational study from Botswana found that offspring who were exposed to
both HIV and SARS-CoV-2 had a high prevalence of adverse birth outcomes.43
Given the severity of COVID-19 in pregnant or recently pregnant individuals, COVID-19 vaccines
should be offered to all pregnant and lactating individuals and to those who are planning to become
pregnant, including those who are also living with HIV. Pregnant individuals with HIV who have
COVID-19 should be triaged, managed, and treated the same way as pregnant individuals without HIV.
Clinicians should consider any additional comorbidities when assessing the risk of severe COVID-19
in these patients. See Pregnancy, Lactation, and COVID-19 Therapeutics for information regarding the
therapies recommended for the treatment of COVID-19.
Pregnant individuals with HIV who are hospitalized for COVID-19 should continue their ART and
opportunistic infection treatment and prophylaxis. Clinicians should consult an HIV specialist if any
changes to ARV regimens are needed.
In general, children appear less likely to become severely ill with COVID-19 than adults. In the few
publications that have described cases of COVID-19 among children or adolescents with HIV, most
cases were mild, and HIV did not appear to be an independent predictor of severe COVID-19.44-47
Children with HIV who are eligible should receive COVID-19 vaccines and booster doses regardless
of their CD4 count or viral load. Children with HIV and COVID-19 or multisystem inflammatory
syndrome in children (MIS-C) should receive the same treatment as children without HIV. See
Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With COVID-19, Therapeutic Management of
Nonhospitalized Children With COVID-19, and Therapeutic Management of Hospitalized Children With
MIS-C, Plus a Discussion on MIS-A for more information.
Parents of children with HIV and COVID-19 should be advised to continue their child’s ART without
interruption if the child is being managed at home. For children with HIV who are hospitalized for
COVID-19, ART should be continued for the duration of hospitalization.
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Appendix A, Table 1. COVID-19 Treatment
Guidelines Panel Roster
Name Affiliation
Co-Chairs
Roy M. Gulick, MD, MPH Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
H. Clifford Lane, MD National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Henry Masur, MD National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Executive Secretary
Alice K. Pau, PharmD National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Members
Judith Aberg, MD Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
Adaora Adimora, MD, MPH University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC
Jason Baker, MD, MS Hennepin Healthcare and University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
Lisa Baumann Kreuziger, MD, MS Versiti and Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
Roger Bedimo, MD, MS University of Texas Southwestern and Veterans Affairs North Texas Health Care
System, Dallas, TX
Pamela S. Belperio, PharmD Department of Veterans Affairs, Los Angeles, CA
Anoopindar Bhalla, MD Children’s Hospital Los Angeles and University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, CA
Stephen V. Cantrill, MD Denver Health, Denver, CO
Kara Chew, MD, MS University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
Kathleen Chiotos, MD, MSCE Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia and University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
Craig Coopersmith, MD Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
Eric Daar, MD Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA
Amy L. Dzierba, PharmD New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY
Gregory Eschenauer, PharmD University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
Laura Evans, MD, MSc University of Washington, Seattle, WA
John J. Gallagher, DNP, RN Case Western Reserve University School of Nursing, Cleveland, OH
Rajesh Gandhi, MD Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
David V. Glidden, PhD University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
Neil Goldenberg, MD, PhD Johns Hopkins All Children’s Institute for Clinical and Translational Research,
St. Petersburg, FL
Birgit Grund, PhD University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
Erica J. Hardy, MD, MMSc Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI
Lauren Henderson, MD, MMSc Boston Children’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
Carl Hinkson, MSRC Providence Health & Services, Everett, WA
Brenna L. Hughes, MD, MSc Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
Steven Johnson, MD University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO
Marla J. Keller, MD Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY
Arthur Kim, MD Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
Jeffrey L. Lennox, MD Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
Mitchell M. Levy, MD Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI
Jonathan Li, MD, MMSc Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA

Name Affiliation
Members, continued
Christine MacBrayne, PharmD, MSCS Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO
Gregory Martin, MD, MSc Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
Nandita R. Nadig, MD Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
Andrew T. Pavia, MD University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT
Grant Schulert, MD, PhD Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and University of Cincinnati
College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
Nitin Seam, MD National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Steven Q. Simpson, MD University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS
Susan Swindells, MBBS University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE
Pablo Tebas, MD University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
Phyllis Tien, MD, MSc University of California, San Francisco and San Francisco Veterans Affairs
Health Care System, San Francisco, CA
Alpana A. Waghmare, MD Seattle Children’s Hospital, Seattle, WA
Cameron R. Wolfe, MBBS Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
Jinoos Yazdany, MD, MPH University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
Community Members
Danielle M. Campbell, MPH University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
Carly Harrison LupusChat, New York, NY
Richard Knight, MBA American Association of Kidney Patients, Bowie, MD
Pharmacology Consultants
Sarita Boyd, PharmD Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD
Jomy George, PharmD National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Kimberly Scarsi, PharmD University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE
Ex Officio Members, U.S. Government Representatives
Timothy Burgess, MD Department of Defense, Bethesda, MD
Derek Eisnor, MD Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, Washington, DC
Joseph Francis, MD, MPH Department of Veterans Affairs, Washington, DC
Pragna Patel, MD, MPH, DTM&H Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
Virginia Sheikh, MD, MHS Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD
Timothy M. Uyeki, MD, MPH Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
U.S. Government Support Team
Richard T. Davey, Jr., MD National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Alison Han, MD (Co-Team Coordinator) National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Elizabeth S. Higgs, MD, DTM&H, MIA National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Martha C. Nason, PhD (Biostatistics National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Support)
Michael Proschan, PhD (Biostatistics National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Support)
Renee Ridzon, MD (Co-Team Coordinator) National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Kanal Singh, MD, MPH (Co-Team National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
Coordinator)
Assistant Executive Secretaries
Safia Kuriakose, PharmD Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, in support of NIAID,
Frederick, MD
Andrea M. Lerner, MD, MS National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

Appendix A, Table 2. COVID-19 Treatment
Guidelines Panel Financial Disclosure for Companies
Related to COVID-19 Treatment or Diagnostics
Reporting Period: January 1, 2023, to December 31, 2023
Financial Disclosure
Panel Member
Company Relationship
Judith Aberg, MD Emergent Research support
Gilead Research support
GSK/ViiV Healthcare Advisory board, research support
Janssen Research support
Kintor DSMB chair/member
Merck Advisory board, research support
Pfizer Research support
Regeneron Research support, protocol reviewer
Adaora Adimora, MD, MPH Gilead Consultant, honoraria
Merck Advisory board, consultant, honoraria, research support
Jason Baker, MD, MS None N/A
Lisa Baumann Kreuziger, MD, MS 3M Spouse is an employee, stockholder
CSL Behring Research support
Takeda Research support
Versiti Employee
Roger Bedimo, MD, MS Gilead Advisory board
GSK/ViiV Healthcare Advisory board
Janssen Advisory board
Merck Advisory board, research support
Shionogi Advisory board
Theratechnologies Advisory board
Pamela S. Belperio, PharmD None N/A
Anoopindar Bhalla, MD None N/A
Timothy Burgess, MD AstraZeneca Research support
Danielle M. Campbell, MPH Gilead Advisory board
GSK/ViiV Healthcare Attendee at a community stakeholder meeting, honoraria
Stephen V. Cantrill, MD None N/A
Kara Chew, MD, MS Pardes Biosciences Consultant
Kathleen Chiotos, MD, MSCE None N/A
Craig Coopersmith, MD None N/A
Eric Daar, MD Gilead Consultant, research support
GSK/ViiV Healthcare Consultant, research support
Merck Consultant
Theratechnologies Consultant
Richard T. Davey, Jr., MD None N/A

Panel Member
Amy L. Dzierba, PharmD None N/A
Derek Eisnor, MD None N/A
Gregory Eschenauer, PharmD None N/A
Laura Evans, MD, MSc None N/A
Joseph Francis, MD, MPH None N/A
John J. Gallagher, DNP, RN None N/A
Rajesh Gandhi, MD None N/A
David V. Glidden, PhD Gilead Consultant
Neil Goldenberg, MD, PhD Anthos Therapeutics Advisory board, research support
Bayer Advisory board, research support
Boehringer Ingelheim Research support
CPC Clinical Research DSMB chair/member
Daiichi Sankyo Steering committee chair, research support
Janssen Advisory board, research support
Novartis DSMB chair/member
Birgit Grund, PhD None N/A
Roy M. Gulick, MD, MPH None N/A
Alison Han, MD None N/A
Erica J. Hardy, MD, MMSc None N/A
Carly Harrison Novartis Advisory board
Lauren Henderson, MD, MMSc Bristol Myers Squibb Research support
Sobi Consultant, research support, travel support
SkyGenic Consultant, spouse is an employee
Elizabeth S. Higgs, MD, DTM&H, None N/A
MIA
Carl Hinkson, MSRC None N/A
Brenna L. Hughes, MD, MSc None N/A
Steven Johnson, MD None N/A
Marla J. Keller, MD None N/A
Arthur Kim, MD None N/A
Richard Knight, MBA None N/A
Safia Kuriakose, PharmD None N/A
H. Clifford Lane, MD None N/A
Jeffrey L. Lennox, MD Pfizer Spouse is an employee of Pfizer contract
Andrea M. Lerner, MD, MS None N/A
Mitchell M. Levy, MD None N/A
Jonathan Li, MD, MMSc Merck Research support
Christine MacBrayne, PharmD, None N/A
MSCS
Gregory Martin, MD, MSc Eagle Pharmaceuticals Research grants review panel
Grifols Research grants review panel

Panel Member
Henry Masur, MD None N/A
Nandita R. Nadig, MD None N/A
Martha C. Nason, PhD Bristol Myers Squibb Stockholder
Medtronic Stockholder
Pragna Patel, MD, MPH, DTM&H None N/A
Alice K. Pau, PharmD None N/A
Andrew T. Pavia, MD AstraZeneca Consultant
Haleon Honoraria
Michael Proschan, PhD None N/A
Renee Ridzon, MD None N/A
Grant Schulert, MD, PhD Boehringer Ingelheim Consultant
Nitin Seam, MD None N/A
Virginia Sheikh, MD, MHS None N/A
Steven Q. Simpson, MD None N/A
Kanal Singh, MD, MPH None N/A
Susan Swindells, MBBS GSK/ViiV Healthcare Research support
Pablo Tebas, MD Shionogi Consultant
Phyllis Tien, MD, MSc Merck Research support
Timothy M. Uyeki, MD, MPH None N/A
Alpana A. Waghmare, MD AlloVir Research support
Ansun BioPharma Research support
GSK Research support
Pfizer Research support
Vir Biotechnology Consultant, research support
Cameron R. Wolfe, MBBS AbbVie Consultant
AstraZeneca Research support
Atea Pharmaceuticals DSMB chair/member
Biogen DSMB chair/member
Gilead Advisory board
Janssen DSMB chair/member
Jinoos Yazdany, MD, MPH AstraZeneca Consultant, research support
Aurinia Research support
Bristol Myers Squibb Research support
Gilead Research support
Pfizer Consultant
Key: DSMB = data and safety monitoring board; N/A = not applicable

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