Crash Course:

Grammar

Organized by: Lauren Arico (WCCC Tutor)

What in the World is a Clause?
Clause Phrase
A clause is a group of r​ elated words A Phrase contains either a s​ ubject ​OR
that are used as a part of a sentence. a verb​, but does not usually have both.
A clause contains a ​subject and a verb Phrases c ​ annot stand on their own​!
and can either stand on its own or not.

Independent Clause:
A complete thought - can stand on its own - A simple sentence.
Example(s):​ She likes dogs.
He plays hockey.
You must work hard.

Dependent Clause:
Not a complete thought does not stand on its own. When a dependent clause is by
itself, it is a fragment - not a sentence.
Example(s):​ as she walked
because she was late
if you want to succeed in life

Special Mention:
Fragments do not really have anything to do with sentence length.
Example(s): W ​ hile writer Sylvia Plath is known for exploring death and mental
illness in her poems.
Sentences that begin with prepositions or conjunctions (while, which, because, but,
if, unless, after, and, although, who, that) often lead to fragments.
The Many Uses of the Comma
Not all of the rules listed are in the PowerPoint, and not all of the rules for commas
are in these notes. Rules regarding common mistakes are listed here. If you have
further questions about commas, ask a tutor or associate with Purdue’s website:
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/punctuation/commas/extended_rules_f
or_commas.html

Rule 1
Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
Example(s)​: The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment,
and reduce crime.

Rule 2
Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined with any of
these seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Example(s)​: I have painted the entire house, but he is still working on sanding
the doors.

Rule 3
Use commas after introductory clauses, phrases, or words that come before
(sometimes after) the main clause.
Example(s)​: While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.

Rule 4
Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and
words that are not essential to the meaning of a sentence. If these words are
dropped, the sentence will still make sense and retain its basic meaning.
This is also known as a parenthetical phrase.
Example(s)​: I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this.

Rule 5
Use commas to separate two or more adjectives that describe the same noun when
the word ​and​ can be inserted between them.
Example(s)​: He is a strong, healthy man. (He is a strong a
​ nd​ healthy man.)
Rule 6
Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates, addresses, and titles in
names. (This one is a doozy; prepare yourself.)
Example(s)​:
1) I lived in San Francisco, California, for 20 years.
(If you use the two-letter capitalized form of a state, you don’t need a comma
after the state.)
I lived in San Francisco, CA for 20 years.
2) Kathleen met her husband on December 5, 2003, in Mill Valley, California.
(If any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma)
Kathleen met her husband in December 2003 in Mill Valley, California.
3) Al Baker, M.D., is our family doctor.

Rule 7
Use commas to separate a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.
Example(s)​: Mother asked, “Who wants to get ice cream?” “I do,” he said.

Rule 8
Use commas surrounding words such as therefore and however when they are used
as interrupters.
Example(s)​: I would, therefore, like a response
I will be happy, however, to volunteer my time.

Again, there are more rules (and exceptions) than the ones listed
here. These are just an overview of comma rules.
Common Comma Issues
Comma Splices
When you want to join two independent clauses, you need a conjunction or a
semicolon. A comma alone is not strong enough to join them. This kind of mistake is
called a comma splice.

Example(s)​:

Incorrect: We were out of milk, I went to the store.

Correct (conjunction): We were out of milk, so I

went to the store.

Correct (semicolon): We were out of milk; I went to

the store.

Run-on Sentences
Run-on sentences, also known as fused sentences, occur when two complete
sentences are squashed together without using a coordinating conjunction or
proper punctuation, such as a period or a semicolon. Run-on sentences can be short
or long. A long sentence isn't necessarily a run-on sentence.

The Oxford Comma

The Oxford comma is the final comma in a list of words. This comma is
TECHNICALLY optional; however, not using the oxford comma can cause confusion
and change the meaning of the sentence.

Example(s)​:

The sweaters were r​ ed​, b

​ lue and green​.

The sweaters were​ red​, b

​ lue​, and ​green​.

These sentences, because of the Oxford comma, have two different meanings. The
first sentence means that there are two sweaters where one is red and the other is
blue and green.

The second sentence could either mean that there are multiple sweaters that are all
red, blue, and green OR that there are three sweaters and one is red, one is blue, and
one is green.
The Semicolon
There are t​ hree main ways​ to properly use a semicolon within your writing.

1) Use a semicolon to join two ​closely related​ independent clauses.

Example(s)​: The ice cream man drove by the house today; I got a
popsicle!

2) Use a semicolon if you need to make a list of items that are separated with a
comma. This often occurs when listing locations, names, dates, and
descriptions.
Example(s)​:
Over the summer, I visited Philadelphia, PA; Manhattan, NY; and San
Francisco, CA.
My favorite authors are Ernest Hemingway, who wrote “Hills Like White
Elephants;” J.K. Rowling, who wrote the H​ arry Potter​ series; and Aldous
Huxley, who wrote ​Brave New World​.

3) Use a semicolon ​before​ words such as namely, however, therefore, etc., when
they introduce a complete sentence.
Example(s)​: That girl is an excellent student; however, she does not
know how to properly use a semicolon.
Apostrophes
Use an apostrophe when creating a contraction or when dealing with possessives.

Contraction
Formed by combining two words and replacing one or more of the medial letters
with an apostrophe.
Example(s)​: Do + Not = Don’t
Have + Not = Haven’t
You + Are = You’re
They + Are = They’re

Singular Possessives
Form a singular possessive simply by adding an apostrophe with an s.
Example(s)​: James = James’s
Patty = Patty’s
Child = Child’s

Plural Possessives
Use an apostrophe after the “s” at the end of a plural noun to show possession.
Example(s)​: The parents’ bedroom
The players’ coach
If a plural noun doesn’t end in “s,” add an apostrophe + “s” to create the possessive
form.
Example(s)​: The children’s table
The women’s magazine
The people’s vote

Special Mention
It’s vs. Its
Its ​is the possessive form of I​ t.
It’s ​= “it is”
(You will never use i​ ts’.)

Example(s)​: It’s a nice day to go

for a hike.
His dog loves chasing its tail.
Spice Up Your Sentences with Sentence Variation
Several sentences of the same length can make for bland writing. To enliven
paragraphs, write sentences of different lengths. This will also allow for effective
emphasis.

Simple Sentence
A sentence with one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

Example(s)​: My aunt enjoyed taking the hayride with you.

China’s Han Dynasty marked an official recognition of Confucianism.

Compound Sentence
A sentence with multiple independent clauses but no dependent clauses.

Example(s)​: The clown frightened the little girl, and she ran off screaming.
The Freedom Riders departed on May 4, 1961, and they were determined to
travel through many southern states.

Complex Sentence
A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Example(s)​: After Mary added up all the sales, she discovered that the lemonade
stand was 32 cents short.
While all of his paintings are fascinating, Hieronymus Bosch’s triptychs, full of
mayhem and madness, are the real highlights of his art.

Compound-Complex Sentence
A sentence with multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Example(s)​: Catch-22 is widely regarded as Joseph Heller’s best novel, and

because Heller served in World War II, which the novel satirizes, the zany but
savage wit of the novel packs an extra punch.