NETWORK REFERENCE MODELS

Dr. SHUCHITA UPADHYAYA BHASIN

Professor
Department of Computer Science & Applications
 Types of networking models: Two Types
• Reference Model:
• A reference model is not intended to be an implementation specification
• The primary purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer
understanding of the functions and process involved.
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is the most widely known
internetwork reference model.
• Protocol Model:
• A protocol model provides a model that closely matches the structure of a
particular protocol suite.
• The TCP/IP model is a protocol model because it describes the functions
that occur at each layer of protocols within the TCP/IP suite

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

• The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual

model that characterizes and standardizes the communication
functions of a telecommunication or computing system without
regard to their underlying internal structure and technology.
• Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with
standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system
into abstraction layers.
• The OSI model is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable
• The OSI model consists of seven separate but related layers, each of
which defines a segment of the process of moving information across
a network

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
Units of data passed between layers

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Application Layer
• Network virtual terminal. A software version of a physical terminal. A
virtual terminal allows you to log on to a remote host. To do so, the
application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host.
The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals
and allows you to log on.
• File access, transfer, and management. Allows a user at a remote
computer to access files in another host (to make changes or read data); to
retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer; and to
manage or control files in a remote computer at that computer.
• Mail services. Provides the basis for electronic mail forwarding and
storage.
• Directory services. Provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.
•

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Presentation Layer
The presentation layer defines the way
that data is formatted, presented,
converted, and coded
• Translation. Changing the format of a
message from that used by the sender
into one mutually acceptable for
transmission. Then, at the destination,
changing that format into the one
understood by the receiver. (often
ASCII -- American Standard Code for
Information Interchange)
• Encryption. Encryption and
decryption of data for security.
• Compression. Compressing and
decompressing data to make
transmission more efficient.
• Security. Validating passwords and
log-in codes.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Session Layer
• Session management. Dividing a session into
sub sessions by the introduction of
checkpoints and separating long messages
into shorter units
• Synchronization. Deciding in what order to
pass the dialog units to the transport layer,
and where in the transmission to require
confirmation from the receiver.
• Dialog control. Deciding who sends, and
when.
• Graceful close. Ensuring that the exchange
has been completed appropriately before the
session closes.
• Token Management: If both sides are not
allowed to do the transmission at the same
time, then the session layer manages the
exchange of tokens. The side holding the
token is permitted to perform the operation.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

TRANSPORT LAYER – Connection Oriented

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Transport Layer contd.
• End-to-end message delivery. Overseeing the transmission and arrival of
all packets of a message at the destination point.
• Multiplexing. Multiple network connections may be established to
increase throughput or several transport connections may be multiplexed
on same network connection for cost savings.
There may be many applications or services running on each host in the network. Each
of these applications or services is assigned an address known as a port so that the
Transport layer can determine with which application or service the data is identified.
• Service-point (port) addressing. Guaranteeing delivery of a message to the
appropriate application on a computer running multiple applications.
• Segmentation and reassembly. Dividing a message into transmittable
segments, and marking each segment with a sequence number. These
numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly at
the destination and to identify and replace packets lost in transmission.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Transport Layer contd.
• Segment sequencing. Segment sequencing is one connection-
oriented service provided by the Transport layer. When large
messages are divided into segments for transport, the Transport layer
must resequence the segments when they are received before
reassembling the original message.
• Connection control. The transport layer might create a logical
connection between the source and the destination for the duration
of the complete message transfer for better control over the message
transfer. Creating a connection involves three steps.
1. Connection establishment
2. Data transfer
3. Connection release
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Transport Layer contd.
• Flow control. Mechanism to regulate flow of information so that a fast host
cannot overrun a slow one. Network hosts have limited resources, such as
memory or bandwidth. When Transport layer is aware that these resources
are overtaxed, some protocols can request that the sending application
reduce the rate of data flow. This is done at the Transport layer by
regulating the amount of data the source transmits as a group. Flow
control can prevent the loss of segments on the network and avoid the
need for retransmission.
• Reliable Delivery/Error Control. For many reasons, it is possible for a piece
of data to become corrupted, or lost completely, as it is transmitted over
the network. The Transport layer can ensure that all pieces reach their
destination by having the source device to retransmit any data that is lost.
• Same Order Delivery. Because networks may provide multiple routes that
can have different transmission times, data can arrive in the wrong order.
By numbering and sequencing the segments, the Transport layer can
ensure that these segments are reassembled into the proper order.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Transport Layer Services

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 NETWORK LAYER
• Network layer can be connection-oriented or connectionless.
• Connection oriented service require some initial interaction between
the communicating entities before data transfer begins. This
interaction leads to the creation of a logical connection or virtual
circuit between the communicating entities.
• Connectionless service do not require any initial interaction between
the communicating entities. Furthermore, one message is handled
independently of any other messages between the same entities. This
is referred to as datagram service of the network.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Network layer
• Source-to-destination delivery. Moving a packet from its point of origin to its
intended destination across multiple network links.
• Logical addressing. Inclusion of the source and destination addresses in the
header.
• Routing. Deciding which of multiple paths a packet should take.
• Congestion control. If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same
time, they will get in each other’s way, forming bottlenecks. The control of such
congestion also belongs to the network layer.
• Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum
transmission unit (MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a
frame for transmission and re-assembly at the destination station.
• Internetworking. Network layer allows heterogeneous networks to be
interconnected by performing the necessary addressing and protocol
conversions.
• Accounting. Customers are to be charged on packet or time basis for using the
network. Some accounting function is built into the network layer for this.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

DATA LINK LAYER

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Data Link Sublayers
To support a wide variety of network functions, the
Data Link layer is often divided into two sublayers (as
described by IEEE 802): an upper sublayer and a
lower sublayer.
• Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer which is the
upper sublayer defines the software processes that
provide services to the Network layer protocols.
• Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer which is the
lower sublayer defines the media access processes
performed by the hardware.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 DATA LINK LAYER - Functions

• Node-to-node delivery. The data link layer is responsible for node-to-

node delivery.
• Framing. The Data Link layer divides the stream of bits received from
the network layer into small chunks or data units called frames.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 DATA LINK LAYER - Functions contd.

• Addressing. Headers and trailers added at this layer include the physical
addresses of the most recent node and the next intended node.
• Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, the
data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control
over the line at any given time.
• Flow control. To avoid overwhelming the receiver, the data link layer regulates
the amount of data that can be transmitted at one time. It adds identifying
numbers to enable the receiving node to control the ordering of the frames.
• Error handling. Data link layer protocols provide for data recovery, usually by
having the entire frame retransmitted.
• Synchronization. Headers contain bits to alert the receiving station that a frame is
arriving. In addition, these bits provide a pattern to allow the receiver to
synchronize its timing to that of the transmission (to know the duration of each
bit). Trailers contain bits for error control and also bits that indicate the frame has
ended, and that anything to follow is either a new frame or an idle channel.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Example Data Link Layer Protocols

• Ethernet
• Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
• High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
• Frame Relay
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 PHYSICAL LAYER

• The physical layer is the actual

transmission hardware or link (physical
connection) between devices, along
which the messages physically pass.
• This physical connection may be Twisted
–pair cable, Coaxial cable, Fiber-optic
cable or wireless communication
through the air.
• The same NIC that is involved in services
at the Data Link layer also helps at the
Physical layer.
• The NIC is responsible for converting the
data, called bits, into transmission
signals.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Physical layer – Functions

• Physical medium and the interface: It

defines the relationship between a
device and a physical transmission
medium (e.g., a copper or fiber optic
cable, radio frequency).
This includes the layout of pins, voltages,
signal timing and similar characteristics for
connected devices and frequency (5 GHz or
2.4 GHz etc.) for wireless devices.
• Connectors: manages the way a device
connects to the network media.
For example, if the physical connection from
the device to the network uses coaxial
cable, the hardware that functions at the
Physical layer will be designed for that
specific type of network.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Physical layer – Functions contd.
• Signal Type. The Physical layer defines that it is an analog signal or
digital signal.
• Transmission mode i.e. simplex, half duplex, full duplex.( Is the data
transmission between two connected devices one way or both ways)
• Line configuration or the network topology ( bus, mesh, ring
etc being some of the most common) i.e. how two or more devices
can be linked physically.
• Encoding of bits : How are bits (0s and1s) to be represented by
available signaling systems i.e. how many volts should be used to
represent a 1 and how many for a 0 . How many microseconds will a
bit last i.e. what will be the bit interval.
The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1
bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Physical layer – Functions contd.
• Devices: There are many devices that function specifically at the
Physical layer. These include NICs, repeaters, hubs, and
concentrators.
• Connection. How the initial connection is established and how it is
torn down when both sides are finished?
• Pins. How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is
used for?
• Multiplexing. The physical Layer also defines by which method the
media is divided, what is the type? E.g. FDM (frequency division
multiplexing), TDM (Time division multiplexing).

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Network Interface (Network Access) Layer
• Equivalent to the data link layer in the OSI reference model
• This layer is not properly defined in TCP/IP except that the host has to
connect to the network using some protocol so it can send IP packets
over it.
• Various interfaces are available for connecting end computer systems
to specific networks such as X.25, ATM, frame relay, Ethernet, and
token ring.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)

• Provides basic TCP/IP

functionality by creating a layer-
two connection between two
devices over a serial line.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

• Provides layer-two connectivity

like SLIP, but is much more
sophisticated and capable.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Network Interface / Network Layer (“OSI Layer 2/3”)

• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

• Used to map layer three IP
addresses to layer two physical
network addresses.
• ARP is used to find the physical
address of the node when its
Internet address is known.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Network Interface / Network Layer (“OSI Layer 2/3”) contd.

• Reverse Address Resolution

Protocol (RARP)
• Allows a host to discover its
internet address when it knows
only its physical address.

• Now mostly superseded by

BOOTP and DHCP.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Internet Layer /Network Layer (OSI Layer 3)
• It is responsible for
 logical device addressing,
data packaging, manipulation and delivery,
 routing.
• Internet layer is a packet – switched connectionless layer that handles the
transfer of information across multiple networks through the use of gateways or
routers.
• Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel
independently to the destination
• They may even arrive in a different order than they were sent, in which case it is
the job of the higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired.
• Protocols at this layer are:
 Internet Protocol (IP): IP is a connectionless, unreliable datagram protocol
primarily responsible for addressing and routing packets between hosts.
 supporting protocols : ICMP and IGMP and the routing protocols (RIP, OSPF,
BGP, etc.)
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Internet Layer /Network Layer contd.
Provides encapsulation and connectionless delivery of transport layer
Internet Protocol IPv4, IPv6 messages over a TCP/IP network. Also responsible for addressing and routing
functions.

IP Security IPSec A set of IP-related protocols that improve the security of IP transmissions.

Internet Control Message ICMP/ICMPv4, A “support protocol” for IPv4 and IPv6 that provides error-reporting and
Protocol ICMPv6 information request-and-reply capabilities to hosts. It is a mechanism used by
hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the
sender since IP is an unreliable connectionless protocol.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Internet Layer /Network Layer contd.
Protocols used to support the routing of IP
datagrams and the exchange of routing
information.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol(EIGRP)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) Exterior
Gateway Protocol (EGP)

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Internet Layer /Network Layer contd.
The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) allows a host to
signal its multicast group membership to its attached router. A
multicast router periodically issues an IGMP query message to
check whether there are hosts belonging to multicast groups.
When a host receives a query, it must respond with a report for
each group it is joining. By exchanging queries and reports, a router
would know which multicast groups are associated with a given
port so that the router would forward an incoming multicast
Internet Group Management packet only to the ports that have hosts belonging to the group.
Protocol (IGMP)

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Internet Layer /Network Layer contd .
Internet Protocol
Resolves certain problems with IP associated with
Mobility Support
mobile devices.
(Mobile IP)
Allows addresses on a private network to be automatically translated
to different addresses on a public network, providing address sharing
and security benefits.

IP Network Address
Translation (IP
NAT)

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 (Host-to-Host) Transport Layer

Protocol Name Description

Reliable Connection oriented (where the protocol keeps track of the
data sent and received to make sure it arrives, and re-sends it if
necessary)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) The main transport layer protocol for TCP/IP. Establishes and
manages connections between devices and ensures reliable
and flow-controlled delivery of data using IP.

Unreliable Connectionless(with no guarantee that data gets to

destination)

It is used to send data in a simple way between application

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) processes, without the many reliability and flow management
features of TCP, but often with greater efficiency.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Application Layer
Domain Name System (DNS) Provides the ability to refer to IP devices using names instead of just numerical IP
addresses. Allows machines to resolve these names into their corresponding IP
addresses.

Network File System (NFS) Allows files to be shared seamlessly across TCP/IP networks.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Application Layer contd.
Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) : allow the configuration Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): A
of a TCP/IP device at startup. Generally superseded complete protocol for configuring TCP/IP devices and
by DHCP. managing IP addresses.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Application Layer contd.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): A full-featured File Transfer protocol, Trivial File Transfer protocol (FTP, TFTP):
protocol for remote management of networks and devices. Protocols designed to permit the transfer of all types of files from
one device to another.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Application Layer contd.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions, Simple Mail Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP): Enables the
Transfer Protocol, Post Office Protocol, Internet operation of the Usenet online community by
Message Access Protocol (MIME, SMTP, POP, IMAP) : transferring Usenet news messages between hosts.
Protocols that define the formatting, delivery and
storage of electronic mail messages on TCP/IP
networks.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Application Layer contd.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Transfers Telnet Protocol (Telnet): Allows a user on one
hypertext documents between hosts; implements the machine to establish a remote terminal session on
World Wide Web. another.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Application Layer contd.

Permit commands and operations on

Berkeley “r”
r one machine to be performed on
Commands
another.

Internet Relay Allows real-time chat between TCP/IP

IRC
Chat users.

An older document retrieval protocol,

Gopher
Gopher now largely replaced by the World
Protocol
Wide Web.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
TCP/IP Protocols

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Data transmission using TCP/IP

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COMPARISON OF OSI AND TCP/IP REFERENCE MODELS

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 COMPARISON OF OSI AND TCP/IP REFERENCE MODELS
OSI TCP/IP
OSI model is based on the concept of services, The TCP/IP model did not originally clearly
interfaces and protocols and make an explicit distinguish between service, interface and protocol.
distinction between the three.
Each layer performs some services for the layer
above it. The service defines a layer’s semantics. It
tells what the layer does

The OSI reference model was devised before the With TCP/IP the protocols came first, and the model
corresponding protocols were invented. was just a description of the existing protocols.

The OSI model has seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers
The OSI model supports both connectionless and The TCP/IP has only connectionless mode in the
connection-oriented communication in the network network layer but supports both connectionless and
layer, but only connection-oriented communication connection-oriented modes in the transport layer.
in the transport layer.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. What is the significance of reference model in describing the network architecture?
2. Describe the OSI reference model along with a description of functions of each of its
layers.
3. Describe in detail the functionality of network and data link layers of OSI reference model.
4. What is the relationship of TCP/IP with Internet?
5. Draw a diagram to illustrate the complete stack of protocols of TCP/IP model and illustrate
the purpose of each of the protocols.
6. Describe the purpose of ARP, RARP, ICMP and IGMP protocols.
7. Mention the protocols of the application layer of TCP/IP model and describe the purpose.
8. Define: datagram, frame, fragmentation, logical address, physical address, port address.
9. Compare OSI and TCP/IP reference models.
10. How is data transmitted using TCP/IP model?

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin