energies

Article
Thermal Performance Combined with Cooling
System Parameters Study for a Roller Kiln Based on
Energy-Exergy Analysis
Yali Wang, Haidong Yang * and Kangkang Xu
School of Electromechanical Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China;
yayaw0603@163.com (Y.W.); xukangkang@gdut.edu.cn (K.X.)
* Correspondence: yanghd@gdut.edu.cn




Received: 6 July 2020; Accepted: 29 July 2020; Published: 31 July 2020


Abstract: Roller kilns, characterized as high energy consumption equipment, are widely used in the
firing process of ceramic tiles. To evaluate the thermal performance of a roller kiln, a detailed energy
and exergy analysis is carried out employing the operating values from a typical ceramic factory.
In this study, parametric studies are performed that examine the impacts of the roller kiln’s cooling
system on thermal performance, fuel-saving, cost-saving, and environmental influence. The results
show that the targeted energy only accounts for 13.4% and 9.7% of the total energy and exergy inputs,
indicating the poor efficiency of the roller kiln. This research also identifies that the exergy destruction
is the largest cause of the exergy loss in the system, accounting for 85.1% of the total exergy input—of
which 50.9% is due to heat and mass transfer, and 37.9% is caused by fuel combustion. Based on the
parametric studies, it has been found that with every 1% increase in cooling air mass flow, the energy
and the exergy efficiencies of the kiln increase by 0.06% and 0.04%; with every 1% increase in cooling
gas temperature, the energy and the exergy efficiencies of the kiln drop by 0.09% and 0.07%; with every
1% increase in cooling gas residence time, the energy and the exergy efficiencies of the kiln increase by
0.16% and 0.12%. Furthermore, results show that the cooling air residence time has the main impact
on the cost-saving and carbon dioxide emission reduction, followed by cooling air mass and cooling
air temperature.

Keywords: ceramic roller kiln; energy analysis; exergy analysis; parametric study; irreversibility

1. Introduction
Roller kilns are typical equipment used in the wall and floor tile manufacturing. The firing
process occurring in roller kilns is the greatest energy consumption stage, accounting for 55% of the
total thermal energy in tile production [1]. Therefore, various studies have been carried out on the
energy analyses for the kiln [2–5]. Massimo Milani et al. [2] employed a new heat-recovery burner for
the internal heat recovery in a ceramic kiln. Based on the lumped and distributed parameter model,
the results showed that 10% of the fuel can be saved. Bertrand Delpech et al. [3] carried out research on
the heat recovery by the application of heat-pipe for the ceramic kiln, which reduced the natural gas
by 110,600 Sm3 per year. Hasan Caglayan et al. [4] used the cooling gas with a temperature of 148 ºC
instead of the ambient air for the firing process—the results showed the natural gas could be reduced
by 10%. Ana Mezquita et al. [5] recovered the cooling gas into the kiln’s firing chamber, and the
percentage of energy saved could be up to 17%, based on their calculation methodology. Whereas,
most of the previous studies focus on the energy conservation for the kiln, and the literature refers to
the investigation of energy quantification and quality, and the identification of the key factors affecting
thermal efficiency for the kiln are limited.

Energies 2020, 13, 3922; doi:10.3390/en13153922 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 3922 2 of 25

Exergy analysis is a powerful tool in the thermodynamic evaluation of complex engineering

processes that not only consider the energy quantity, but also energy quality, and its degradation
and irreversibility. In recent years, exergy analysis has been widely applied to evaluate the thermal
performance of the energy-related systems for various industrial sectors [6]. There are many exergy
studies for the cement industry [7–13]. C. Koroneos et al. [7] performed an exergy assessment for the
cement production, and concluded that raw feed preheating, clinker cooling and combustion were the
greatest losses of exergy. Zafer Utlu et al. [8] evaluated thermodynamic utilization efficiencies for a raw
cement mill, and pointed out that this technique was a powerful tool in the analysis and establishment
of energy-saving policies. Ehsan Amiri Rad et al. [9] also carried out energy and exergy analysis for the
pressure optimization of a waste heat recovery boiler in a cement plant. Based on the exergy analysis,
M. Ziya SÖĞÜT [10] calculated the potential of CO2 emissions, due to exergetic losses of the coal
mixture, natural gas and fuel-oil for a Turkish cement sector. S. Karellas et al. [11] used exergy analysis
as a method to compare the efficiency of two different waste heat recovery approaches. Regarding
clinker production, Maria Luiza Grillo Renóet al. [12] confirmed the advantage of waste spent pot
lining as a mineralizer from an exergetic perspective. Abid Ustaoglu et al. [13] also carried out the
energy and exergy analyses to assess exergy loss and destruction for a wet type rotary kiln. For the
iron and steel industry, U. Camdali et al. [14] calculated irreversibility and exergy efficiency for a ladle
furnace using the second law of thermodynamics. According to the exergy analysis, Mehmet Selçuk
Mert et al. [15] identified the most efficient component and inefficient components in a cogeneration
plant for an iron and steel factory. Junnian Wu et al. [16] carried out a comprehensive estimate of
energy and CO2 emissions using exergy to explore the impact on the environment of an iron and steel
industrial network. W. Rong et al. [17] also identified the main factors affecting exergy efficiency by
using exergy analysis for a rotary kiln-electric furnace. Regarding a lime production plant, according to
the first and second laws of thermodynamics, Wenjie Rong et al. [18] determined the energy and exergy
efficiencies for an annular shaft kiln, and revealed the dominant factor affecting the exergy efficiency.
Alexis Sagastume Gutiérrez et al. [19] also investigated energy and exergy performance to identify the
main factors causing exergy destruction for a lime shaft kiln. Moreover, exergy analysis has also been
used in the plaster and magnesium productions. Mert Gürtürk et al. [20,21] made a detailed energy
and exergy analysis for a plaster rotary kiln and proposed measures to improve exergy efficiency.
Vladan Karamarkovic et al. [22] identified the kiln shell and exhaust gases as the major reasons for
heat loss in a magnesium production company using energy and exergy analyses. Numerous studies
have shown that exergy analysis is a powerful tool that can provide a better investigation of thermal
performance and efficiency improvement for energy-related systems.
Although the previous research has been performed to evaluate the thermal efficiency for various
industrial facilities from the exergetic perspective, there is very limited literature regarding the exergy
analysis for the ceramic industry. Zafer Utlu et al. [23] used energetic and exergetic analysis methods
to evaluate the performance of the drying system in a ceramic plant. Canan Kandilli et al. [24] also
adopted the exergy method to optimize the hydrogen mass flow rate for the ceramic enrichment
application. Hasan Caglayan et al. [25] applied exergy analysis to analyze the cogeneration system
in the ceramic industry. Their research mainly focused on drying equipment, oxygen-rich kiln and
cogeneration system for the ceramic industry. Regarding roller kilns, only one paper [26] performed
the exergy analysis on this equipment. However, the sources of exergy destruction are not discussed
in detail in their exergy analysis. Indeed, the further classification of exergy destruction is beneficial
to identify the evitable and inevitable exergy destruction and the evitable exergy loss for the roller
kiln, which could help in the accurate verdict of energy conservation potential. Furthermore, previous
studies mainly focus on the heat recovery from the cooling system, and the parametric studies of the
cooling system are not reported in the literature.
Therefore, the purpose of the present paper is to evaluate the thermal performance, based on a
comprehensive energy and exergy analysis, and investigates the exergy destruction for the actual roller
kiln. Furthermore, the influences of cooling system parameter on thermal performance, fuel-saving,
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 3 of 25

cost-saving and environmental impact are discussed. The present research’s focuses are described
as follows:
• To analyze and quantify the energy and exergy of each stream based on energy-exergy analysis
model, and identify key factors affecting the thermal efficiency of the process.
• To analyze and quantify the main sources of energy and exergy loss, and identify the evitable and
inevitable exergy destruction and the evitable exergy loss for the roller kiln.
• To carry out the parametric studies of the cooling system for investigating the influence on thermal
performance, fuel-saving, cost-saving and environmental impact for the roller kiln.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25
2. Description of the Roller Kiln
The•studied
To analyze
rollerandkiln,quantify
locatedtheinmain sourcesfactory
a ceramic of energyin and exergyChina,
Foshan, loss, and identify
is used in the
theevitable
firing process to
and inevitable exergy destruction and the evitable exergy loss for the roller kiln.
produce polished
•
tiles with a production of about 8711 kg/h. It is a single-deck
To carry out the parametric studies of the cooling system for investigating the influence on
kiln with a length of 310 m,
including 155thermal
modules, each of fuel-saving,
performance, which is 2 cost-saving
m long. Tiles are placed onimpact
and environmental the planefor theformed by the arranged
roller kiln.
in-parallel rollers, and then conveyed by the rotary rollers to travel through the roller kiln for firing.
The2.roller
Description of the Roller
kiln consists of aKiln
heating system and a cooling system. The heating system, which is
divided into The studied roller
a preheating kiln, located
phase in a ceramic
(environment factory in Foshan,
temperature to 600 China,
K) andis used in the phase
a firing firing process
(600 K to firing
to produce
temperature) polished
according totiles
the with a production
different temperatureof aboutvalues.
8711 kg/h.
In Itthe
is apreheating
single-deck kiln withthere
phase, a length
is no burner,
of 310 m, including 155 modules, each of which is 2 m long. Tiles are placed on the plane formed by
and the required heating comes from the hot flue gas of the firing process. The residual water and
the arranged in-parallel rollers, and then conveyed by the rotary rollers to travel through the roller
adsorptive
kilnwater in the unfired tile are eliminated in this process. The firing phase, which is the most
for firing.
important process
The roller in kiln
the consists
roller kiln, involves
of a heating structural
system watersystem.
and a cooling removal, chemical
The heating reactions
system, which is and crystal
divided into a preheating phase (environment temperature to 600 K)
transformation of the ceramic tile. In the real case, 200 burners are installed to supply the heat required and a firing phase (600 K to
firing temperature) according to the different temperature values. In the preheating phase, there is
by physical-chemical reactions. The firing temperature of this system is about 1413 K, which is mainly
no burner, and the required heating comes from the hot flue gas of the firing process. The residual
affected by
watertheandopenings
adsorptive ofwater
the burner.
in the unfiredThe tile
cooling system in
are eliminated follows the heating
this process. The firing system.
phase, whichIn the cooling
system, aisfired
the mosttileimportant
usually experiences
process in the rollera rapid kiln,cooling
involvesand slow water
structural cooling process
removal, to form
chemical a high density,
reactions
and good and crystal
crystal fired tile. Theofcooling
transformation the ceramic of the tile
tile. In thefrom 1413200
real case, Kburners
to 392 are K can be achieved
installed to supply the by injecting
heat required by physical-chemical reactions. The firing temperature
ambient air with different rates at different kiln locations. Note that the fast transformation of this system is about 1413 K, of the
which is mainly affected by the openings of the burner. The cooling system follows the heating
crystalline form occurs at 846 K, accompanied by volume contraction, so the slow cooling is required
system. In the cooling system, a fired tile usually experiences a rapid cooling and slow cooling process
within the range
to form of the
a high temperature
density, and good to avoid
crystal cracks.
fired tile. The Incooling
the cooling process,
of the tile from 1413 theKambient
to 392 K can airbe
absorbs the
heat from the high-temperature
achieved by injecting ambient tile,airand
withthen forms
different theatcooling
rates differentgas. kiln Some of the
locations. Notehotthatpollution-free
the fast gas
transformation
can be directly extracted of the crystalline
from the firing formzoneoccursasatoxidizing
846 K, accompanied
air or used by volume
for other contraction, so the such as
plant facilities,
the dryer.slow cooling is required within the range of the temperature to avoid cracks. In the cooling process,
Another part cooling gas with lower temperature is directly released into the atmosphere in
the ambient air absorbs the heat from the high-temperature tile, and then forms the cooling gas. Some
the current case.
of the hot pollution-free gas can be directly extracted from the firing zone as oxidizing air or used for
Theother
firewall
plant is installed
facilities, such atas the interface
the dryer. Another of part
the cooling
heating gassystem
with lower andtemperature
cooling system,
is directlywhich not
only avoids the backflow of the flue gas from the firing section, but also decreases the transverse
released into the atmosphere in the current case.
temperatureThe firewall isdue
difference, installed at the interface
to rapid coolingofairflowthe heating system
to the firingandzone
cooling system,
when thewhich not only
pressure fluctuates.
avoids the backflow of the flue gas from the firing section, but also decreases the transverse
The roller kiln is characterized by the opposite movement of the tile and hot air. The unfired tile
temperature difference, due to rapid cooling airflow to the firing zone when the pressure fluctuates.
enters at the The
kilnroller
head, then
kiln travels through
is characterized the heating
by the opposite system
movement andtile
of the cooling
and hotsystem at a constant
air. The unfired tile speed,
and finally becomes
enters at the kilnthehead,
firedthen
tile,travels
whichthroughis discharged
the heating from
systemthe and
kilncooling
tail. system at a constant
speed,
Figure and finally becomes
1 schematically showsthe fired tile, whichkiln.
the studied is discharged from the kiln tail.
Figure 1 schematically shows the studied kiln.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the roller kiln.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the roller kiln.
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 4 of 25

3. Theoretical Analysis
Energy analysis, based on the first law of thermodynamics, is a traditional method for thermal
performance analysis that can quantify the conversion, utilization and loss of energy in quantity.
Nevertheless, it cannot identify or quantify of the true scale, degradation and irreversibility of the
energy. In this paper, the first and second laws of thermodynamics are combined to comprehensively
discuss the thermal performance of the roller kiln.
For the studied kiln, the evaluation of thermal performance is based on the following assumptions:
(1) The roller kiln is assumed to be an open system running under a steady state; (2) the kinetic and
potential energy changes are neglected in the analysis; (3) the gases in the process are assumed to be
ideal gases; (4) the electrical energy used in the process is not considered; (5) for the environment,
the temperature and pressure are assumed to be T0 = 298 K, P0 = 1 atm.

3.1. Mass and energy balances

The general equation for mass balance is expressed as:
· ·
X X
min,i = mout, j (1)
i j

· ·
where min stands for the mass flow of the inlet and mout stands for the mass flow of the outlet.
The energy balance can be defined as:
X · X ·
Enin,i = Enout,j (2)
i j

· ·
where Enin is the energy input flow and Enout is the energy output flow. Table 1 summarizes some
equations used in energy analysis [18,27].

Table 1. Equations used in energy analysis.

Term Equation Explanation

General calculation equation En = cp · m · ∆T (1) where cp is the specific heat, and T is the temperature.
Combustion heat of the fuel En f = m · LHV (2) where LHV is low heating value of the fuel.
Latent heat Enwa = m · r (3) where r is latent heat of vaporization.
Chemical reaction Ench = m · q (4) where q is the reaction heat.
Kiln wall heat loss Enkw (pls. see Equations (3) and (4) and equations in Table 2

The heat transfer through the system to the environment consists of three processes:
The high-temperature fluid and the system’s inner surface, the wall, and the system’s outer surface and
the environment. Heat transfer of the system occurs in three different ways: Conduction, convection
and radiation. Heat transfer in the system is considered to be a stable process. The diagram of the heat
transfer process is shown in Figure 2.
Energy loss between the control system and environment can be evaluated as [28]:

Tin − Tout
Enkw = ×A (3)
RT

where A is the heat dissipation area and RT means the total thermal resistance, which can be expressed as:

RT = Rin + Rwall + Rout (4)

Here, Rin , Rwall and Rout can be determined by equations in Table 2, respectively. The equations
are summarized in Table 2.
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 5 of 25
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 25

Figure 2. The thermal resistance of heat transfer through the kiln to the atmosphere.
Figure 2. The thermal resistance of heat transfer through the kiln to the atmosphere.

Table
Table 2. 2.Thermal
Thermalresistance
resistance equations
equations[28,29].
[28,29].
Equation
Equation Explaination
Explaination
𝑅 = (1)1 where 𝑎 whereis convection coefficient.
a is convection coefficient.
Rin = a (1)
𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 +. . . +𝑅 + Pwhere
δi 𝛿 where𝜆δi are
and λi are
andthe the thickness
thickness and and conductivity
conductivity coefficient of
coefficient
Rwall = R1 + R2 + . . . + Rn−1 + Rn = λi (2)
𝑅 = ∑ (2) of materialmaterial
layer oflayer of i, respectively.
𝑖, respectively.
Rout = 1
+ 1
(3) where h is position coefficient, ε is the emissivity of the surface,
𝑅h (Two=−T0 )
0.25
εσ(Two + 0 ) wo 0
2 +T 2 ·(T +T ) where ℎ and
is position coefficient, 𝜀constant
σ is Stefane-Boltzman is the emissivity ofW/m
as 5.67 ×10–8 the 2 K4 .
( ) .
surface, and 𝜎 is Stefane-Boltzman constant as 5.67 ×10–8 W/m2
(3)
( )⋅( ) K4.
Energy efficiency is a significant parameter for assessing thermal performance. Its definitions
depend onEnergy
different research
efficiency is apurposes [17].
significant In this case,
parameter the energy
for assessing efficiency
thermal of the kiln
performance. can be defined
Its definitions
as thedepend
ratio ofonphysical-chemical
different research reaction
purposesenergy
[17]. Into thecase,
this input
theenergy,
energywhich is expressed
efficiency of the kilnas:
can be
defined as the ratio of physical-chemical reaction energy
.
to the input energy, which is expressed as:
.
P
∑ Enreac
ηen𝜂 == P .. (5) (5)
∑
Enin

3.2. Exergy Balance

3.2. Exergy Balance
The general
The general formform of exergy
of exergy balanceisisgiven
balance given by:
by:
. . .
X ∑. 𝐸𝑥 , =X
∑ 𝐸𝑥 . , + 𝐸𝑥 . (6)
. . .
Exin,i = Exout,j + ExD (6)
i j
where 𝐸𝑥 , 𝐸𝑥 and 𝐸𝑥 denote the exergy input, exergy output and the exergy destruction,
. .
respectively. . content of a flow is given by [20]:
The exergy
where Exin , Exout and ExD denote the exergy .
input,
. .
exergy output and the exergy destruction,
respectively. The exergy content of a flow is𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥 by+[20]:
given 𝐸𝑥 (7)
. .
where 𝐸𝑥 and 𝐸𝑥 are the physical. and .chemical . exergy, respectively. Table 3 lists some
equations used in exergy analysis [27,30,31]. Ex = Exph + Exch (7)
.
Physical .
exergy is defined as the work obtainable by taking the matter through the reversible
whereprocess fromEx
Exph and itschinitial
are thestate (𝑇, 𝑃) to
physical thechemical
and environmental state
exergy, (𝑇 , 𝑃 ), which
respectively. can 3
Table belists
expressed
some using
equations
used Equation
in exergy(1)analysis
in Table[27,30,31].
3. Based on the first law of thermodynamics, the enthalpy change is estimated
as follows:exergy is defined as the work obtainable by taking the matter through the reversible
Physical
process from its initial state (T, P) to the𝐻environmental
− 𝐻 = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑐 ⋅ (𝑇 state
− 𝑇 ) (T0 , P0 ), which can be expressed(8) using
Equation The
(1) in Table 3. Based on the first law of thermodynamics, the enthalpy change
entropy change, based on the first and second laws of thermodynamics, is calculated as:
is estimated
as follows:
𝑆 − 𝑆H −
=H 𝑚 ⋅ =𝑐 m⋅ 𝑙𝑛
· cp · (T−−𝑅 T⋅ 𝑙𝑛 (9)
0 0) (8)
The pressure
The entropy termbased
change, on theon
right
theside
firstis and
applicable
second tolaws
determine the entropy of theisgas,
of thermodynamics, but not of
calculated as:
the liquid and the solid [27].
" ! !#
T P
S − S0 = m · cp · ln − R · ln (9)
T0 P0
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 6 of 25

Table 3. Equations used in exergy analysis.

Term Equation Explanation

where H is the enthalpy and S is the entropy, the subscript 0 stands for the
General calculation equation of physical exergy Exph = H − H0 − T0 (S − S0 ) (1)
  ambient environment.
Exergy of chemical reaction Excr = −m · Gp − Gr (2) where Gp and Gr are the Gibbs sum of products and reactants.
Combustion exergy of the fuel Excom = m · φ · LHV (3) where φ is the relation between the chemical exergy and LHV.
P P where x is the Molar fraction, ex is the specific exergy and R is the
Chemical exergy of a gas mixture Ex gm = m · ( k xk exch,k + RT0 k xk ln xk ) (4)
  universal gas constant.
Latent heat of exergy Exlh = m · 1 − TTpt0 · r (5) where Tpt is the phase-transition temperature.
where Q is the amount of exchanged heat through the kiln wall, Tin is the
Exkw = 1 − TTin0 · Q (6)
 
Kiln wall exergy loss
average temperature in the kiln.
Exergy destruction ExD = T0 · S gen (7) where S gen represents for the entropy generation.
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 7 of 25

The pressure term on the right side is applicable to determine the entropy of the gas, but not of
the liquid and the solid [27].
The chemical reaction, combustion exergy of the fuel, chemical exergy of the gas mixture, latent
heat of exergy and kiln wall exergy loss can be evaluated using equations in Table 3, respectively.
The exergy destruction is calculated using Equation (7) (Table 3) [27]. Similar to energy efficiency,
the exergy efficiency is defined as follows:
P .
Exreac
ηex = P . (10)
Exin

3.3. Cost and Environmental Analysis

System efficiency could be improved by involving a parameter analysis for working conditions
optimization, which will lead to potential energy-saving and environmental emission reduction.
The amount of cost-saving can be calculated as follows:

CS = ES × EC (11)

where ES and EC are the energy-saving and energy cost, respectively.

The amount of environmental emission reduction is estimated as follows:

EER = FS × FE (12)

where FS and FE are fuel-saving and emission per kg of fuel, respectively.

3.4. Uncertainty Analysis

There are errors existing in the measurements and calculated values, due to the uncertainty of
experimental data collection. In the present research, the uncertainties associated with the measuring
instruments are listed in Table 4. Uncertainty analysis is carried out by employing the approach
explained in Refs. [32,33], which can be calculated by:

2 2 2 1/2
 ∂y ∂y ∂y
 
∆y = ( ∆x1 ) + ( ∆x2 ) + . . . + ( ∆xn ) 

 (13)
∂x1 ∂x 2 ∂x n

The relative uncertainty of the determined quantity is expressed as:

∆y
δy = · 100% (14)
y

Based on the Equations (13) and (14), the uncertainty value of energy and exergy efficiencies errors
are determined as 7.30% and 8.19%, respectively.

Table 4. The accuracy of the measuring instrument.

Instrument Accuracy
Weighing machine, (kg) ±2%
Gas velocity measuring device, (m/s) ±2%
Thermocouple, (◦ C) ±1.5%
Pressure Transducer, (kPa) ±3.0

4. Results and Discussion

The studied kiln produces ceramic tiles with the dimensions of 600 × 600mm and if there is no
interruption, usually works 24 h a day for several months. The operational data were obtained from a
ceramics kiln. The mass, energy and exergy flows of the roller kiln are depicted in Figure 3.
 Energies 2020, 13, 3922 8 of 25
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 25

Figure 3. The
Figure 3. mass, energy,
The mass, and exergy
energy, flowsflows
and exergy of the
ofroller kiln.kiln.
the roller

4.1. Mass
4.1. Mass Balance
Balance
The The
massmass balance
balance of the
of the roller
roller kiln
kiln is discussed
is discussed in in this
this section.Figure
section. Figure3 3shows
showsthat
thatthe
theinlets
inlets of
of the
roller kiln include unfired tile, fuel, combustion air, recovered cooling gas, cooling
the roller kiln include unfired tile, fuel, combustion air, recovered cooling gas, cooling air (rapid air (rapid cooling
air and
cooling slow
air and cooling
slow air)air)
cooling andandleakage
leakageair.air.
The outlets
The outletsarearefired
firedtile,
tile,flue
fluegas,
gas,exhausted
exhausted cooling
cooling gas,
recovered cooling gas and cooling gas for drying. The mass balance of the roller
gas, recovered cooling gas and cooling gas for drying. The mass balance of the roller kiln is described kiln is described
as follows:
as follows:
. . . . . . . . . . .
𝑚 +
m𝑚
.
+𝑚. .
+𝑚 .0
+𝑚 + .
𝑚 = .
𝑚 +.
𝑚 .+ 𝑚 ,. cg,rec
u f t + m f + mcoma + ,m cg,rec + mca + mla = m f t + m f g + m
+𝑚 .
++
+ m, cg,d 𝑚 m. ,cg,ex (15) (15)
. . . . . .
where 𝑚 . , 𝑚 ,. 𝑚 . , 𝑚. 0 , , .𝑚 and. 𝑚 stand for the mass flows of the unfired tile, fuel,
where m f t , m f , mcoma , m cg,rec , mca and mla stand for the mass flows of. the unfired
. . tile, fuel,
. combustion
combustion uair, recovered cooling gas, cooling air and leakage air, . and. 𝑚. , 𝑚 ., 𝑚 , , .𝑚 , and
. air, recovered cooling gas, cooling air and leakage air, and m f t , m f g , mcg,rec , mcg,d and mcg,ex stand for
𝑚 , stand for the mass flows of the fired tile, flue gas, recovered cooling gas, cooling gas for drying
the mass flows of the fired tile, flue gas, recovered cooling gas, cooling gas for drying and exhausted
and exhausted cooling gas, respectively.
cooling gas, respectively.
The unfired tile enters the kiln at a rate of 9074 kg/h. After the firing process, there is a mass loss
The unfired tile enters the kiln at a rate of 9074 kg/h. After the firing process, there is a mass loss
of 363 kg/h, due to the evaporation of water and volatile matter. Then, the tile is discharged from the
of 363 kg/h, due to the evaporation of water and volatile matter. Then, the tile is discharged from the
kiln at a rate 8711 kg/h.
kiln at a rate 8711 kg/h.
In the system, the mixed gases (fuel, combustion air, cooling air, flue gas and cooling gas) are
In the system, the mixed gases (fuel, combustion air, cooling air, flue gas and cooling gas) are
assumed to be ideal gases, so the density can be determined using the ideal gas equation. The mass
assumed to be ideal gases, so the density can be determined using the ideal gas equation. The mass
flow of the gas can be estimated because the gas’s volume flow can be obtained. According to the
flow of the gas can be estimated because the gas’s volume flow can be obtained. According to the mass
mass balance, leakage air is equal to the mass difference of the inlets and outlets of the roller kiln,
which is evaluated to be 486 kg/h. The mass balance of the roller kiln is presented in Table 5.
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 9 of 25

balance, leakage air is equal to the mass difference of the inlets and outlets of the roller kiln, which is
evaluated to be 486 kg/h. The mass balance of the roller kiln is presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Mass balance of the roller kiln.

Input Matter Amount (kg/h) Output Matter Amount (kg/h)

Unfired tile 9074 Fired tile 8711
Fuel (water-gas) 3591 Flue gas 11,492
Combustion air 4044 Exhausted cooling gas 30,099
Recovered cooling gas 3008 Recovered cooling gas 3008
Cooling air 51,151 Cooling gas for drying 18,043
Leakage air 486 – –
Total 71,354 Total 71,354

4.2. Energy Analysis

4.2.1. Energy Balance

In the firing process, the main energy consumption is thermal energy; other forms of energy,
such as electrical energy, are not considered in this case. In the roller kiln, the input energy flows
include unfired tile, fuel, combustion air, recovered cooling gas, cooling air and leakage air. The output
energy flows consist of fired tile, flue gas, exhausted cooling gas, recovered cooling gas, cooling gas for
drying, latent heat of water, enthalpy of the calcination reaction, heat loss through the kiln wall and
uncountable energy losses. The energy balance for the control volume can be expressed as follows:
X . X .
Enin = Enout (16)

X . . . . . 0 . .
Enin = Enu f t + En f + Encoma + Encg,rec + Enca + Enla (17)
X . . . . . . . . . .
Enout = En f t + En f g + Encg,rec + Encg,d + Encg,ex + Enwa + Encr + Enkw + Enul (18)
.
where En f is the energy of the fuel that includes two items: physical and chemical energy. Here, the
chemical energy of the fuel can be calculated by Equation (2) (Table 1), of which the low heating value
. . . 0 . . . . . . .
is evaluated to be 5638 kJ/kg. Enu f t , Encoma , Encg,rec , Enca , Enla , En f t , En f g , Encg,rec , Encg,d , Encg,ex and
the physical energy of the fuel can be determined using Equation (1) (Table 1).
The specific heat capacity is a function of the temperature, which can be calculated by [27]:

Cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT3 (19)

where Cp means the specific heat capacity in kJ/kmol · K. The coefficients a, b, c and d are summarized
in Table 6.

Table 6. The coefficients of specific heat capacity.

Material a b c d Temperature Range (K)

CO 28.16 0.1675 × 10–2 0.5372 × 10–5 −2.222 × 10–9 273–1500
H2 29.11 −0.1916 × 10–2 0.4003 × 10–5 −0.8704 × 10–9 273–1500
CH4 19.89 5.024 × 10–2 1.269 × 10–5 −11.01 × 10–9 273–1500
O2 25.48 1.520 × 10–2 −0.71559 × 10–5 1.312 × 10–9 273–1500
N2 28.9 −0.1571 × 10–2 0.8081 × 10–5 −2.873 × 10–9 273–1500
CO2 22.26 5.981 × 10–2 −3.501 × 10–5 7.469 × 10–9 273–1500
H2 O 32.24 0.1923 × 10–2 1.005 × 10–5 −3.595 × 10–9 273–1500
NO 29.34 −0.09395 × 10–2 0.9747 × 10–5 −4.187 × 10–9 273–1500
NO2 22.9 5.715 × 10–2 −3.52 × 10–5 7.87 × 10–9 273–1500
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 10 of 25

The specific heat capacity of a gas mixture can be calculated as:

1X
Cp,gm = Cp (20)
n
For the unfired and fired tile, the specific heat capacity can be calculated as [34]:

Cp,tile = 0.84 + 2.6 × 10−4 × (T − 273) (21)

4.2.2. Reaction Enthalpy

In order to determine the reaction enthalpy, the chemical composition should be firstly known.
The mineral formula and chemical composition of the unfired tile is shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Mineral formula and chemical composition of the unfired tile.

Mineral Formula Chemical Composition

Term Mass Percentage Term Mass Percentage
Kaolin 21% SiO2 69.30%
Illite 15% Al2 O3 19.80%
Quartz 26% Fe2 O3 0.28%
Potassium feldspar 7% CaO 0.36%
Albite 31% MgO 0.16%
Total 100% K2 O 1.12%
Na2 O 5.05%
IL 3.93%
Total 100%

In the firing process, the dominant chemical reactions include the dehydration and decomposition
of kaolin, the dehydration of mica, the transformation of quartz crystal, the formation of mullite and
glassy phase formation. The main chemical reactions are detailed as follows:

R-1: Al2 O3 ·2SiO2 ·2H2 O (s) → Al2 O3 ·2SiO2 (s)+2H2 O (g) (22)

R-2: KAl2 (AlSi3 O10 )(OH)2 (s) → KAlSi3 O8 (s)+Al2 O3 (s)+H2 O (g) (23)

R-3: α−SiO2 (s) → β-SiO2 (s) (24)

R-4: Al2 O3 ·2SiO2 (s) → (1/3)3Al2 O3 ·2SiO2 (s)+(4/3) SiO2 (s) (25)

R-5: K(AlSi3 O8 ) (s) → K(AlSi3 O8 ) (l) (26)

R-6: Na (AlSi3 O8 ) (s) → Na (AlSi3 O8 ) (l) (27)

The energy of the chemical reactions can be estimated according to the Equation (4) (Table 1),
in which q is the chemical reaction heat. The enthalpies of the matters participating in the above
chemical reaction are listed in Table 8 [35,36]. This reaction enthalpy is determined to be 2,622,882 kJ/h.
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 11 of 25

Table 8. The entropy and enthalpy of the substances participating in the chemical reactions.

T(K) N(mol) ‘S(kJ/mol·K) 4HF (kJ/mol) T(K) N(mol) S(kJ/mol·K) 4HF (kJ/mol)
R-1 R-4
Reactants Reactants
Al2 O3 ·2SiO2 ·2H2 O(s) 823 1 0.511 −4110.446 Al2 O3 ·2SiO2 (s) 1373 1 0.504 −3466.882
Products Products
Al2 O3 ·2SiO2 (s) 823 1 0.374 −3333.506 3Al2 O3 ·2SiO2 (s) 1373 0.3 0.98 −6848.779
H2 O(g) 823 2 0.224 −246.444 SiO2 (s) 1373 1.3 0.142 −899.91
4S(kJ/mol·K) 0.311 4S(kJ/mol·K) 0.012
Qr(kJ/mol) 284.052 Qr(kJ/mol) −15.924
R-2 R-5
Reactants Reactants
KAl2 (AlSi3 O10 )(OH)2 (s) 873 1 0.778 −5958.991 K(AlSi3 O8 )(s) 1393 1 0.669 −4015.322
Products Products
KAlSi3 O8 (s) 873 1 0.507 −3980.799 K(AlSi3 O8 )(l) 1393 1 0.697 −3976.728
Al2 O3 (s) 873 1 0.167 −1672.958 4S(kJ/mol·K) 0.028
H2 O(g) 873 1 0.229 −247.186 Qr(kJ/mol) 38.594
4S(kJ/mol·K) 0.125 R-6
Qr(kJ/mol) 58.048 Reactants
R-3 Na(AlSi3 O8 )(s) 1413 1 0.637 −4019.502
α-SiO2 (s) 846 1 0.104 −907.056 Products
Products Na(AlSi3 O8 )(l) 1413 1 0.666 −3988.88
β-SiO2 (s) 846 1 0.105 −906.328 4S(kJ/mol·K) 0.029
4S(kJ/mol·K) 0.001 Qr(kJ/mol) 30.622
Qr(kJ/mol) 0.728
 Energies 2020, 13, 3922 12 of 25

4.2.3. Kiln Wall Heat Loss

The cross-section of the roller kiln is idealized as a rectangle with a width of 4.07 m and a height
of 2.81 m. The kiln wall is composed of internal fire bricks and an external insulation layer. The former
is made of lightweight high alumina bricks with a thickness of 0.113 m, while the latter includes
aluminum silicate refractory fiber felt with 0.119 m thickness and an aluminum silicate refractory fiber
with 0.078 m thickness. The composition of the kiln bottom is similar to that of the kiln wall, except
that the thicknesses of the three corresponding materials are 0.13 m, 0.13 m and 0.10 m, respectively.
The lightweight high alumina bricks of the kiln roof are shaped like a rectangle with dimensions of
0.30 × 3.68 m. The external insulation layer of the kiln roof is an aluminum silicate refractory fiber
Energies 2020, 13,
bundle, withx FOR
0.15PEER REVIEW
m width and 4.07 m length, that prevents heat loss. Figure 4 shows the dimensions 15 of 25
and materials of the cross-section of the roller kiln.

Thecross-section
Figure4.4.The
Figure cross-section of
ofthe
theroller
rollerkiln.
kiln.

Kiln wall heat loss is regarded as an invalid heat, which could be detrimental to the thermal
Kiln wall heat loss is regarded as an invalid heat, which could be detrimental to the thermal
efficiency of the system. To accurately evaluate this heat loss, it is recommended to divide the control
efficiency
volume ofinto
the smaller
system.areas
To accurately
and determineevaluate this emissivity
the mean heat loss, andit is surface
recommended to divide
temperature thepart.
for each control
volume
The Model S thermocouple, capable of measuring temperatures from 0 C to 1600 C, with an errorpart.
into smaller areas and determine the mean emissivity and surface
◦ temperature
◦ for each
The rate
Model S thermocouple,
of ±1.5%, was appliedcapable
to acquireof the
measuring temperatures
kiln temperature value. fromA HIMA 0°C infrared
to 1600°C, with an error
thermometer
rate with
of ±1.5%, was applied
a measuring to acquire
span from ◦
−50 Cthe to kiln ◦
380 temperature value.
C and a deviation ofA HIMA
±1.5 ◦ infrared
C was thermometer
used to measure the with
surface temperature
a measuring span fromof−50 the °C
kiln.
toAccording
380 °C and to Equations
a deviationin Table
of ±1.5 2, the
°C total
was heatusedloss of the kilnthe
to measure can surface
be
calculatedof
temperature as the
2,718,276
kiln. kJ/h.
According to Equations in Table 2, the total heat loss of the kiln can be
calculated as 2,718,276 kJ/h.the heat loss of the pipeline, the recovered
Besides, considering
.
cooling gas is recycled as oxidizing
air at a temperature
Besides, considering of 471
the Kheat
and loss
energyof of
the631,799 Enurecovered
kJ/h. the
pipeline, l
means uncountable
cooling gasenergy losses, as
is recycled
.
according to the energy balance, which can be determined as the difference between the input and
oxidizing air at a temperature of 471 K and energy of 631,799 kJ/h. 𝐸𝑛 means uncountable energy
output of energy flows in the roller kiln.
losses, according to the energy balance, which can be determined as the difference between the input
In the system, energy efficiency can be calculated by Equation (5), which is determined to be 13.4%.
and The
output of energy
obtained resultsflows
of theinenergy
the roller kiln.
balance for the roller kiln are summarized in Table 9 and Figure 5.
In the system, energy efficiency can be calculated by Equation (5), which is determined to be
13.4%. The obtained results of the energy balance for the roller kiln are summarized in Table 9 and
Figure 5.

Table 9. Energy balance of the roller kiln.

CP
Term T0 (K) T (K) m (kg/h) Amount (kJ/h)
(kJ/(kg•K))
Input
Unfired tile 298 315 0.851 9074 131,261.217
flow
Fuel (water-gas)
298 300 1.446 3591 103,86.102
sensible heat
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 13 of 25

Table 9. Energy balance of the roller kiln.

CP Amount
Term T0 (K) T (K) m (kg/h)
(kJ/(kg•K)) (kJ/h)
Input flow Unfired tile 298 315 0.851 9074 131,261.217
Fuel (water-gas)
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 298 300 1.446 3591 103,86.10216 of 25
sensible heat
Fuel (water-gas)
– – – – 19,233,755.100
combustion
Cooling gasheatfor
Combustion air 298
298 450300 1.206
1.143 18,043
4044 3,307,497.612
9242.054
drying
Recovered cooling gas 298 471 1.214 3008 631,799.484
Recovered
Cooling air 298 300 1.143 51,151 116,898.402
Leakagegas air 298
298 491300 1.2221.143 3008486 709,484.631
1110.692
cooling
Total – – – 71,354 20,134,453.051
Output flow Latent heat
Fired tile of --298 -- 392 -- 0.871 -- 8711 713,155.284
74,063.875
theFlue
water
gas 298 540 1.151 11,492 3,200,698.681
Exhausted cooling gas
Reaction 298 420 1.193 30,099 4,380,848.522
Cooling gas for drying --298 -- 450 -- 1.206 --18,043 2,622,881.905
3,307,497.612
enthalpy
Recovered cooling gas 298 491 1.222 3008 709,484.631
Kilnheat
Latent wallof heat
the water – – – – 74,063.875
Reaction enthalpy – -- – -- – -- – 2,718,276.253
2,622,881.905
loss
Kiln wall heat loss – – – 2,718,276.253
Uncountable
Uncountable energy -- – -- – -- – -- – 2,407,546,288
2,407,546,288
energy losses
losses
Total
Total -- – -- – -- – 71,354 20,134,453.051
71,354 20,134,453.051

Figure 5. Sankey diagram for the roller kiln.

Figure 5. Sankey diagram for the roller kiln.
As depicted, the energy input is determined to be 20,134,453 kJ/h, which is dominated by the
As depicted, with
fuel combustion the energy input is determined
a contribution of 95.5% while to bethe
20,134,453
recovered kJ/h, which
cooling gasis accounts
dominated forby3.1%.
the
fuel combustion with a contribution of 95.5% while the recovered cooling gas
The result reveals that only 13.4% of the energy input is used in the physical-chemical reactions, which accounts for 3.1%. The
result reveals
indicates that only
the kiln’s poor13.4%
thermal of performance.
the energy input is used
Cooling gasinis the
foundphysical-chemical
to be the leadingreactions, which
factor resulting
indicates the kiln’s poor thermal performance. Cooling gas is found to be the
in the low energy efficiency, with an energy loss of 8,397,831 kJ/h, accounting for 41.7% of the total leading factor resulting
in the low
energy energy
input. efficiency,
In the with an the
cooling system, energy loss ofis8,397,831
efficiency a function kJ/h, accounting
of the for 41.7%
heat transfer betweenof the total
cooling
energy
gas andinput.
high-In the cooling tile.
temperature system,Thethemassefficiency is a functionand
flow, temperature of the heat transfer
residence time of between cooling
the cooling air
gas and high- temperature tile. The mass flow, temperature and residence time
are the direct parameters affecting the absorbed heat by the cooling air. Therefore, the optimization of the cooling air are
the direct parameters
of working conditionsaffecting the absorbed
in the cooling zone willheatbeby the cooling
beneficial air. Therefore,
to improve the optimization
kiln efficiency and energy of
working conditions in the cooling zone will be beneficial to improve kiln
conservation. Besides, although 8.5% of the cooling gas is recycled to the kiln itself as oxidizing efficiency and energy
conservation.
air and 39.4%Besides,
is used although
for other 8.5%plant of the cooling
facilities, suchgasas is
therecycled
dryers, to the kiln
more thanitself
50% asof oxidizing
the heat-richair
and
and 39.4% is used for
pollution-free othergas
cooling plant facilities,
is still released such as theinto
directly dryers, more than 50%
the atmosphere. of the heat-rich
Therefore, minimizingand
pollution-free
or recycling this energy loss by applying heat recovery systems is still essential. The next factor or
cooling gas is still released directly into the atmosphere. Therefore, minimizing of
recycling
energy loss thisisenergy
flue gas,loss by applying
which accounts heat
forrecovery
15.9% ofsystems
the totalisenergy
still essential. The air
input. The nextexcess
factorcoefficient
of energy
loss
has aisgreat
flue gas,
effectwhich accounts for
on combustion 15.9% ofand
condition thefuel
totalgas
energy input.On
emission. The airone
the excess
hand,coefficient
increasing hasthea
great effect on combustion condition and fuel gas emission. On the one hand,
air excess coefficient reduces the combustion temperature, decreasing the heat transfer rate, and thus,increasing the air excess
coefficient reduces the combustion temperature, decreasing the heat transfer rate, and thus, resulting
in a decline in the physical-chemical reactions rate. Besides, the excess air also leads to an increase in
energy loss, due to the increase in the amount of flue gas. On the other hand, reducing the coefficient
of excess air leads to incomplete combustion, which results in the heat released decrease during
combustion, thus, consuming more fuel. In this study, the excess air coefficient is 1.26. In other words,
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 14 of 25

resulting in a decline in the physical-chemical reactions rate. Besides, the excess air also leads to an
increase in energy loss, due to the increase in the amount of flue gas. On the other hand, reducing the
coefficient of excess air leads to incomplete combustion, which results in the heat released decrease
during combustion, thus, consuming more fuel. In this study, the excess air coefficient is 1.26. In other
words, the supply of combustion air is 26% greater than the ideal value. Thus, under the premise of
providing at least sufficient oxygen to ensure product quality and stability, reducing the air excess
coefficient will reduce flue gas, thereby decreasing energy loss due to flue gas emissions. Kiln wall
energy loss and uncontrolled heat losses are 13.5% and 12%, respectively. These relatively high values
could be due to the insufficient insulation of the system. Thus, enhancing the insulation could be
effective for better thermal performance.

4.3. Exergy Analysis

4.3.1. Exergy Balance

In order to investigate the qualitative and quantitative aspects, exergy analysis is applied to the
roller kiln. Exergy is defined that the maximum theoretical useful work (shaft work or electrical
work) is produced when the system and the external environment reach complete thermodynamic
equilibrium while interacting with each other in Ref. [30]. The exergy balance for the roller kiln consists
of the input flows of unfired tile, fuel, combustion air, recovered cooling gas, cooling air, leakage air
and the output flows of fired tile, flue gas, exhausted cooling gas, recovered cooling gas, cooling gas
for drying, latent heat of water, and wall heat loss.
X . X . X .
Exin = Exout + ExD (28)

X . . . . . 0 . .
Exin = Exu f t + Ex f + Excoma + Excg,rec + Exca + Exla (29)
X . . . . . . . .
Exout = Ex f t + Ex f g + Excg,rec + Excg,d + Excg,ex + Exwa + Exkw (30)

The exergy of any substance includes both physical and chemical exergy, which can be assessed by
Equation (7). In the present paper, the physical exergy of the matter can be calculated using Equation (1)
(Table 3).
The fuel’s chemical exergy can be determined according to Equation (3) (Table 3), in which the φ
represents the relation between the chemical exergy and the LHV that can be determined to be 0.95
for this fuel [30]. The chemical exergy of a gas mixture, such as air and combustion products, can be
calculated using Equation (4) (Table 3).
The exergy loss through the kiln wall can be determined using Equation (6) (Table 3) [30].
The symbol Q in the Equation (6) (Table 3) means the amount of the exchanged heat through the kiln
to the atmosphere, which is determined to be 2,718,276 kJ/h. The exergy los through the kiln wall is
evaluated as 423,867 kJ/h.

4.3.2. Exergy Destruction

Exergy destruction, which is proportional to entropy generation, is caused by the irreversibility
of the process. In the roller kiln, entropy generation is due to three aspects: Combustion of the fuel,
calcination of the tile and heat and mass transfer in the kiln. Performing the calculation of Equation (7)
(Table 3) to evaluate exergy destruction requires first determining the entropy generation S gen , which
can be expressed as follows [18]:  
S gen = Sp − Sr − Sloss (31)

where Sp and Sr stand for the entropy of products and reactants, respectively. Sloss means entropy due
to heat loss.
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 15 of 25

Exergy Destruction of Fuel Combustion

In the roller kiln, the entropy values of the matters associated with combustion are shown in
Table 10. The entropy change of combustion is equal to the difference between the products (combustion
gas) and reactants (fuel and oxidizing air), which is 21,396 kJ/h. Entropy, due to the heat loss in this
process, is given by [18]:
.
. Qloss
Sloss = (32)
T
In the combustion process, T is the boundary temperature at which heat is lost to its surroundings
(gases and solids), close to the combustion temperature. Thus, the value of the combustion temperature
is considered to be the surrounding temperature. Ql oss is the heat loss accompanied by heat transfer in
the combustion process, which can be determined as the difference between the heat generated by fuel
combustion and the heat of the combustion gases at the combustion temperature [18]:
. . .
Qloss = m f · LHV + mcomg · cp,comg · Tcom (33)

The entropy due to heat loss is calculated as 469 kJ/h. In the combustion process, the total entropy
is 20,927 kJ/h, and the exergy destruction because of the combustion is estimated to be 6,236,292 kJ/h.

Exergy Destruction of Calcination Reaction

As for the calcinations in this case, the main sources of entropy generation are the physical-chemical
reactions. The same method in the above discussion of the combustion process can be applied to
determine the entropy of calcination. Table 8 presents the entropy values of the materials involved in
the calcination reaction. The corresponding entropy change is 3226 kJ/kg·K. The entropy, due to the
heat loss of the reacting system, is given by [18]:
.
. Q
Sloss = − reac (34)
Treac

Based on the data in Table 8, Equation (48) can be used to calculate the entropy due to the heat
loss of the dehydration and decomposition of kaolin, the dehydration of mica, the transformation
of quartz crystal, the formation of mullite and the glassy phase formation, the obtained results are
−2548 kJ/kg·K, −227 kJ/kg·K, −34 kJ/kg·K, 86 kJ/kg·K, −63 kJ/kg·K, −232 kJ/kg·K, respectively. Thus, the
exergy destruction of the calcination reaction is 1,860,965 kJ/h.

Exergy Destruction of the Heat and Mass Transfer

The exergy destruction because of the heat and mass transfer is the difference between the
total exergy destruction and the sum of exergy destruction caused by the fuel combustion and
calcination reaction: . .  . . 
ExD,hmt = ExD − ExD,com + ExD,reac (35)

The results for the exergy analysis of the roller kiln are displayed in Table 11 and Figure 6.
As depicted, fuel combustion is the main source of exergy input, accounting for 99.1%. In this system,
9.7% of the exergy input is used for physical-chemical reactions in the firing process, which is lower
than its energy efficiency. This is because irreversible processes always destroy exergy, which means
not all energy can be converted to useful work.
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 16 of 25

Table 10. Entropy generation in the combustion process.

T (K) M (kg/mol) Ni (kmol) s (kJ/kmol•K) xi Rln(xi·P) Ni·si (kJ/kg•K) Total Entropy (kJ/kg•K)
Fuel (water-gas) 28,803.190
CO 300 0.028 47.188 197.841 0.32 −9.473 9782.837
H2 300 0.002 22.334 130.658 0.15 −15.773 3270.321
CH4 300 0.016 2.955 186.434 0.02 −32.525 647.047
O2 300 0.032 0.295 205.329 0.002 −51.668 75.771
N2 300 0.028 70.488 191.789 0.478 −6.137 13,951.351
CO2 300 0.044 4.425 214 0.03 −29.154 1075.863
Combustion air 28,175.358
N2 300 0.028 109.417 191.789 0.7748 −2.121 21,217.067
O2 300 0.032 29.068 205.329 0.2059 −13.139 6350.326
CO2 300 0.044 0.042 214 0.0003 −67.441 11.925
H2 O(g) 300 0.018 2.683 189.167 0.019 −32.951 596.039
Recovered cooling
22,543.714
gas
N2 471 0.03 81.393 206.74 0.77 −2.121 16,999.795
O2 471 0.03 21.623 220.69 0.21 −13.139 5056.098
CO2 471 0.04 0.032 234.86 0.00 −67.441 9.529
H2 O(g) 471 0.02 1.996 206.66 0.02 −32.951 478.293
Combustion gas 100,918.179
CO2 1413 0.04 30.88 292.18 0.08 −21.220 9678.425
CO 1413 0.03 0.0001 246.05 0.00 −131.449 0.020
NO 1413 0.03 0.0001 262.707 0.000000547 −119.878 0.049
N O2 1413 0.046 0.0001 315.82 0.000000145 −130.917 0.025
N2 1413 0.028 305.898 241.88 0.7715 −2.157 74,650.284
O2 1413 0.032 34.836 258.067 0.0879 −20.216 9694.323
H2 O 1413 0.018 25.197 250.742 0.0636 −22.906 6895.053
Over total entropy 21,395.918
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 17 of 25

Table 11. Exergy flow of the roller kiln.

CP Enthalpy Entropy Physical Exergy Chemical Total Exergy

Term To (K) T (K) m (kg/h)
(kJ/(kg•K)) (kJ/h) (kJ/kg•K) (kJ/h) Exergy (kJ/h) (kJ/h)
Input flow Unfired tile 298 315 0.851 9074 131,261.217 428.368 3607.464 – 3607.464
Fuel (water-gas) 298 300 1.446 3591 10,386.102 34.736 34.698 19,233,755.100 19,233,789.798
Combustion air 298 300 1.143 4044 9242.054 30.910 30.876 – 30.876
Recovered cooling gas 298 471 1.214 3008 631,799.484 1671.766 133,613.345 – 133,613.345
Cooling air 298 300 1.143 51,151 116,898.402 390.966 390.530 – 390.530
Leakage air 298 300 1.143 486 1110.692 3.715 3.711 – 3.711
Total – – – 71,354 – – – – 19,371,435.724
Output flow Fired tile 298 392 0.871 8711 713,155.284 2080.049 93,300.670 – 93,300.670
Flue gas 298 540 1.151 11,492 3,200,698.681 7862.551 857,658.364 – 857,658.364
Exhausted cooling gas 298 420 1.193 30,099 4,380,848.522 12,322.437 708,762.222 – 708,762.222
Cooling gas for drying 298 450 1.206 18,043 3,307,497.612 8968.412 634,910.708 – 634,910.708
Recovered cooling gas 298 491 1.222 3008 709,484.631 1835.656 162,459.147 – 162,459.147
Latent heat of the water – – – – – – – – 14,223.512
Kiln wall heat loss – – – – – – – – 423,867.0236
Total – – – 71,354 – – – – 2,895,181.646
Exergy
Combustion – – – – – – – – 6,236,292.406
destruction
Calcination reaction – – – – – – – – 1,860,965
Heat and mass transfer – – – – – – – – 8,378,996.672
Total – – – – – – – – 16,476,254.08
 . . . .
𝐸𝑥 , = 𝐸𝑥 − (𝐸𝑥 , + 𝐸𝑥 , ) (35)
The results for the exergy analysis of the roller kiln are displayed in Table 11 and Figure 6. As
depicted, fuel combustion is the main source of exergy input, accounting for 99.1%. In this system,
Energiesof
9.7% the13,exergy
2020, 3922 input is used for physical-chemical reactions in the firing process, which is
18 of 25
lower

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 25

Figure 6. Grassmann diagram of the roller kiln.
Figure 6. Grassmann diagram of the roller kiln.
In contrast
In contrasttotothe
theresult
result regarding
regarding energy
energy analysis,
analysis, the cooling
the cooling gasnot
gas did didcontribute
not contribute to the
to the largest
largest loss.
exergy exergyForloss. For theanalysis,
the exergy exergy analysis, exergy destruction
exergy destruction is the keyisfactor
the key factor the
affecting affecting
exergythe exergy
efficiency
efficiency of the process. The identified sources of exergy destruction in each subsystem
of the process. The identified sources of exergy destruction in each subsystem are illustrated in Figure are
7.
illustrated in Figure 7. As depicted, the exergy destruction of the heating system and
As depicted, the exergy destruction of the heating system and cooling system accounts for 60.7% and cooling system
accounts
24.4%, for 60.7%
which indicateand 24.4%,
that which indicate
the heating system isthat
the the
main heating
sourcesystem is the
of exergy main source of exergy
destruction.
destruction.

Figure
Figure 7. The sources
7. The sources of
of exergy
exergy destruction
destruction in
in the
the kiln
kiln subsystems.
subsystems.

The exergy destruction because of heat and mass transfer, combustion and calcination reaction
The exergy destruction because of heat and mass transfer, combustion and calcination reaction
accounts for 85.1% of the exergy input in the kiln. It is found that exergy destruction, due to heat and
accounts for 85.1% of the exergy input in the kiln. It is found that exergy destruction, due to heat and
mass transfer is the main source of irreversibility, with a total of 8,378,997 kJ/h. The exergy destruction,
mass transfer is the main source of irreversibility, with a total of 8,378,997 kJ/h. The exergy
due to heat and mass transfer, is mainly caused by the temperature difference between the ceramic tile
destruction, due to heat and mass transfer, is mainly caused by the temperature difference between
and the gas. Obviously, reducing the temperature difference has positive impacts on the decline in
the ceramic tile and the gas. Obviously, reducing the temperature difference has positive impacts on
exergy destruction of heat and mass transfer, but the temperature difference also drives the calcination
the decline in exergy destruction of heat and mass transfer, but the temperature difference also drives
process. This value can be selected by the optimization performance. Noted that, the cooling system
the calcination process. This value can be selected by the optimization performance. Noted that, the
accounts for 52.8% of the exergy destruction, due to heat and mass transfer. Therefore, a parameter
cooling system accounts for 52.8% of the exergy destruction, due to heat and mass transfer. Therefore,
study of the cooling system is still essential. This content involved is further investigated in Section 5.
a parameter study of the cooling system is still essential. This content involved is further investigated
The other major source of exergy destruction is fuel combustion, which accounts for 37.9% of
in Section 5.
the total exergy destruction. Combustion is an irreversible process that inevitably produces exergy
The other major source of exergy destruction is fuel combustion, which accounts for 37.9% of
destruction. This exergy loss could be minimized by making a better combustion condition [37], which
the total exergy destruction. Combustion is an irreversible process that inevitably produces exergy
could be achieved by the following methods: Increasing the temperature of the reactants, optimizing
destruction. This exergy loss could be minimized by making a better combustion condition [37],
the air excess coefficient to make combustion close to stoichiometric conditions and using high-quality
which could be achieved by the following methods: Increasing the temperature of the reactants,
fuel with a simple molecular structure.
optimizing the air excess coefficient to make combustion close to stoichiometric conditions and using
high-quality fuel with a simple molecular structure.
The exergy loss through the flue and exhausted cooling gas account for 4.4% and 3.7% of the
exergy input, respectively. These could be reduced through waste heat recovery applications or
optimizing the air excess coefficient.
The exergy loss through the kiln wall is 423,867 kJ/h, corresponding to 2.2% of the total exergy
input. The result indicates that the roller kiln has insufficient insulation. This may have a negative
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 19 of 25

The exergy loss through the flue and exhausted cooling gas account for 4.4% and 3.7% of the exergy
input, respectively. These could be reduced through waste heat recovery applications or optimizing
the air excess coefficient.
The exergy loss through the kiln wall is 423,867 kJ/h, corresponding to 2.2% of the total exergy
input. The result indicates that the roller kiln has insufficient insulation. This may have a negative
impact on the heat exchange between the tile and the gas, affecting the system thermal efficiency, and
thus, leading to an increase in fuel consumption. Thus, it is necessary to improve insulation to reduce
exergy loss.
In order to acquire discernment into present results investigation, a comparison is performed with
previous research. Salvador Ferrer et al., [26] performed energy-exergy analysis on a roller kiln by
using the same approach. In their case, the energy efficiency was determined as 15%, which is found to
be higher than the exergy efficiency of 10%. The conclusion is similar to the current result (i.e., energy
and exergy efficiencies are 13.4% and 9.7% in the present paper). This can be explained that exergy is
destroyed by the entropy generation of the system. In addition, both the energy and exergy efficiency
in their study is slightly higher than that in this study. These discrepancies are complicated, since there
are some differences between the two analyses, namely, fuel selection (natural gas was applied as fuel
in their case, but water-gas is the present fuel), material properties, kiln configurations, insulation
situations and so on. Despite the efficiency differences are slight, both efficiencies are very low, which
display the notable energy conservation potential.
Furthermore, the exergy destruction was determined as 83% of the total exergy input, while that
is 85.1% in the present process. However, no specific investigation was performed for the sources
of exergy destruction, in this respect, not enough attention was paid to identify the evitable and
inevitable exergy destruction and the evitable exergy loss for the roller kiln. In the current work, exergy
destruction (caused by heat and mass transfer, fuel combustion, and chemical reactions) are calculated.
Since the study of exergy destruction sources plays an important role in the accurate verdict of energy
conservation potential, the current research is worth promoting.

5. Parametric Study of the Cooling System

5.1. Thermodynamic and Fuel-Saving Analysis

5.1.1. Change in Cooling Air Mass Flow

Cooling air mass flow has an impact on the exit temperature of the fired tiles. An increase in the
mass flow of the cooling gas could cause more heat exchange between the cooling gas and the fired tile,
which means it can absorb more heat from the fired tile. This also could lead to a slight decrease in the
outlet temperature of the cooling gas. The analysis revealed that for every 1% increase in cooling air
mass flow, the outlet temperature of the recovered gas, cooling gas for drying and exhausted cooling
gas decreased by 0.29%, 0.25%, and 0.21%, respectively. At the same time, every 1% increase in cooling
air mass flow reduces the outlet temperature of the fired tiles by 2.81%. On the other hand, more
energy content in recovered cooling gas is carried back to the roller kiln system as oxidizing air, which
also reduces fuel consumption.
Figure 8 shows the changes of energy and exergy efficiencies with the increase of cooling air
mass flow. With a 1% increase in cooling air mass flow, the estimated variation of energy and exergy
efficiencies increased by 0.06% and 0.04%, respectively. Also, the estimated energy-saving is about
89,195 kJ/h, corresponding to the fuel consumption decrease of 0.44%. It is noted that this could be
achieved by adjusting the valve opening, thereby simply changing the operational parameter without
additional investment. Therefore, an increase in cooling air mass flow is recommended to improve the
thermal performance of the kiln.
mass flow. With a 1% increase in cooling air mass flow, the estimated variation of energy and exergy
efficiencies increased by 0.06% and 0.04%, respectively. Also, the estimated energy-saving is about
89,195 kJ/h, corresponding to the fuel consumption decrease of 0.44%. It is noted that this could be
achieved by adjusting the valve opening, thereby simply changing the operational parameter without
additional
Energies 2020,investment.
13, 3922 Therefore, an increase in cooling air mass flow is recommended to improve
20 of 25
the thermal performance of the kiln.

14 3.0 Energy efficiency

Exergy efficiency
13 2.5 Fuel saving

12 2.0
Efficiencies (%)

Fuel saving (%)

11 1.5

10 1.0

9 0.5

8 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Increment in cooling air mass flow (%)
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 25
Figure 8. Impacts on energy and exergy efficiencies and fuel-saving of the roller kiln with changes in
Figure
5.1.2.cooling
Change8.air
Impacts
inmass on energy
flow.
Cooling and exergy efficiencies and fuel-saving of the roller kiln with changes in
Air Temperature
cooling air mass flow.
5.1.2.InChange in Cooling
the process Airand
of heat Temperature
mass transfer, exergy destruction is generated in the irreversible
process through
In the processa finite
of heat temperature difference.
and mass transfer, It has
exergy been found
destruction that the reduction
is generated in temperature
in the irreversible process
difference between the two mediums is beneficial for lowering exergy
through a finite temperature difference. It has been found that the reduction in temperaturedestruction, but temperature
difference
difference
between the also
twodrives heat transfer
mediums in thefor
is beneficial cooling system.
lowering With
exergy the given scope
destruction, of temperatures
but temperature (291–
difference
309
also K), even
drives though
heat theinlower
transfer temperature
the cooling system.ofWith
cooling air causes
the given scopeaofdrop in exergy(291–309
temperatures destruction, the
K), even
heat exchange is also enhanced, and this effect overcomes the decreased
though the lower temperature of cooling air causes a drop in exergy destruction, the heat exchange is amount of exergy
destruction.
also enhanced, Therefore,
and this iteffect
is theoretically
overcomes the desirable to cool
decreased the fired
amount tiles at
of exergy a lower temperature.
destruction. Therefore, itAs is
depicted
theoretically desirable to cool the fired tiles at a lower temperature. As depicted in Figure 9,performs
in Figure 9, for every 1% (a temperature change of 3 °C), the studied kiln for every
approximately
1% (a temperature 0.09% and of
change 0.07% drops
3 ◦ C), in energy
the studied kilnand exergyapproximately
performs efficiencies, respectively. Theoretically,
0.09% and 0.07% drops in
if the cooling
energy air temperature
and exergy efficiencies,isrespectively.
close to the value of 291 K,if the
Theoretically, the energy
coolingand exergy efficiencies
air temperature is closecan be
to the
improved to 13.7% and 9.91%, respectively. This situation also results
value of 291 K, the energy and exergy efficiencies can be improved to 13.7% and 9.91%, respectively.in a decrease in fuel
consumption
This situationof 2.3%.
also results in a decrease in fuel consumption of 2.3%.

16 3.0 Energy efficiency

Exergy efficiency

14 1.5 Fuel saving

Fuel saving (%)
Efficiencies (%)

12 0.0

10 -1.5

8 -3.0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Increasement in cooling air temperature (%)

Figure 9. Impacts on energy and exergy efficiencies and fuel-saving of the roller kiln with changes in
Figure
cooling9.air
Impacts on energy and exergy efficiencies and fuel-saving of the roller kiln with changes in
temperature.
cooling air temperature.
5.1.3. The Residence Time of the Cooling Air
5.1.3.Variation
The Residence
in the Time of air
cooling theresidence
Cooling Airtime could affect the heat exchange between the cooling air
and the
Variation in the cooling air residence time time
fired tiles. An increase in the residence couldofaffect
cooling
theair reduces
heat the outlet
exchange temperature
between the coolingof
the tiles. The fired tiles experience at roughly 3.9% decrease in outlet temperature with a
air and the fired tiles. An increase in the residence time of cooling air reduces the outlet temperature 1% increase
in the
of the residence
tiles. The time
firedoftiles
the experience
cooling air. at The thermal
roughly analysis
3.9% for the
decrease in roller
outlet kiln, shown inwith
temperature Figure 10,
a 1%
increase in the residence time of the cooling air. The thermal analysis for the roller kiln, shown in
Figure 10, revealed the change of the energy and exergy efficiencies with variations in cooling air
residence time. As depicted, for every 1% increase in the residence time, the studied kiln experiences
approximately 0.16% and 0.12% rises in energy and exergy efficiencies, respectively, and the
corresponding fuel consumption decreases by 1.18%.
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 21 of 25

revealed the change of the energy and exergy efficiencies with variations in cooling air residence time.
As depicted, for every 1% increase in the residence time, the studied kiln experiences approximately
0.16% and 0.12% rises in energy and exergy efficiencies, respectively, and the corresponding fuel
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 25
consumption decreases by 1.18%.

16 8 Energy efficiency
Exergy efficiency
Fuel saving
14 6
Efficiencies (%)

Fuel saving (%)

12 4

10 2

8 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Increasement in residence time of the cooling air (%)

Figure 10. Impacts on energy and exergy efficiencies and fuel-saving of the roller kiln with changes in
Figure 10. Impacts
the residence onthe
time of energy andair.
cooling exergy efficiencies and fuel-saving of the roller kiln with changes
in the residence time of the cooling air.
It is noted that the prolongation of cooling air residence time also affects the production time of
5.2.
otherCost and Environmental
processes, such as theAnalysis
calcining process, as these processes are continuous. Therefore, it leads
to a drop in the production of tile per unit time. With every 1% increase in residence time of the
The cost-saving and environmental emission reduction can be evaluated according to Equations
cooling air, the studied kiln experiences an approximately 1.13% drop in tile production. Increasing
(11) and (12). The results for different operating parameters are shown in Table 12. For the cost
the residence time of cooling air improves the thermal efficiency of the roller kiln, but at the expense of
analysis, it has been found that the cooling air residence time has the highest cost-saving of 7.590
tile production.
RMB/h; corresponding to 50.25% of the total cost-saving. By changing the cooling air mass and
cooling
5.2. Costair
andtemperature,
Environmentalthe cost-savings have been assessed at 2.836 RMB/h and 4.679 RMB/h,
Analysis
respectively. In the environmental analysis, the present study mainly considers carbon dioxide
The cost-saving
emission, which could andbeenvironmental
the potential emission
for globalreduction
warming.can Asbedepicted,
evaluatedsimilar
according to Equations
results could be
(11) and (12). The results for different operating parameters are shown in
acquired from the environmental perspective. The average carbon dioxide emission reductionTable 12. For the cost analysis,
with
the best performance can be achieved by variation of cooling air residence time, followed RMB/h;
it has been found that the cooling air residence time has the highest cost-saving of 7.590 by the
corresponding
cooling air mass to and
50.25% of theair
cooling total cost-saving.The
temperature. Bycorresponding
changing the cooling
emissionair reduction
mass and values
coolingare
air
temperature, the cost-savings have
28.363 kg/h, 17.484 kg/h and 10.597 kg/h. been assessed at 2.836 RMB/h and 4.679 RMB/h, respectively. In the
environmental analysis, the present study mainly considers carbon dioxide emission, which could be
the potential for global
Table warming.
12. Cost As depicted,
analysis and similar
environmental results
analysis forcould be acquired
different operatingfrom the environmental
parameters.
perspective. The average carbon dioxide emission reduction with the best performance can be achieved
Cost Analysis Environmental Analysis
by variation of cooling air residence time, followed by the cooling air mass and cooling air temperature.
Operating Average Average Carbon
The corresponding emission reduction values are 28.363 kg/h, 17.484 kg/h and 10.597Contribution
Contribution kg/h.
Parameters Cost-saving Dioxide Emission
(%) (%)
(RMB/h)
Table 12. Cost analysis and environmental analysis for Reduction (kg/h) parameters.
different operating
Cooling air mass 2.836 18.774 10.597 18.774%
Cost Analysis Environmental Analysis
Cooling air
4.679Average 30.976 17.484
Average Carbon 30.976%
temperature
Operating Parameters Contribution Contribution
Cost-saving Dioxide Emission
Cooling air (%) (%)
7.590(RMB/h) 50.250 Reduction
28.363 (kg/h) 50.250%
residence time
Cooling air mass 2.836 18.774 10.597 18.774%
Total air temperature15.104 4.679
Cooling 100.00030.976 56.444
17.484 100.000
30.976%
Cooling air residence
7.590 50.250 28.363 50.250%
time
6. Conclusions Total 15.104 100.000 56.444 100.000

According to the first and second laws of thermodynamics, this paper presents a comprehensive
energy and exergy analysis for the roller kiln and discusses the influence of the parameters of the
cooling system on thermal performance, fuel-saving, cost-saving and environmental impact for the
roller kiln. The main conclusions are summarized as follows:
1. The targeted physical-chemical reactions only account for 13.4% of the total energy input, while
the exergy value is 9.7%. These results indicate that the system has a very poor thermal
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 22 of 25

6. Conclusions
According to the first and second laws of thermodynamics, this paper presents a comprehensive
energy and exergy analysis for the roller kiln and discusses the influence of the parameters of the
cooling system on thermal performance, fuel-saving, cost-saving and environmental impact for the
roller kiln. The main conclusions are summarized as follows:

1. The targeted physical-chemical reactions only account for 13.4% of the total energy input, while the
exergy value is 9.7%. These results indicate that the system has a very poor thermal performance.
2. The main sources of exergy destruction generated from the heat and mass transfer and fuel
combustion are about 14,615,289 kJ/h, accounting for 75.4% of the exergy input—50.8% of the
exergy destruction is due to the heat and mass transfer, while 37.9% of the exergy destruction is
caused by fuel combustion. The results also show that the heating system is the subsystem with
greater exergy destruction.
3. Changing operational parameters in the cooling system could affect the thermal performance
of the roller kiln. For every 1% increase in cooling air mass flow, the energy and the exergy
efficiencies of the kiln increase roughly by 0.06% and 0.04%. Increasing the temperature of the
cooling gas by 1%, the energy efficiency experiences an approximate drop of 0.09%, while the
associated exergy efficiency drops by 0.07%. Prolonging the residence time of the cooling gas
by 1%, the studied kiln experiences approximately 0.16% and 0.12% rises in energy and exergy
efficiencies, respectively.
4. The cooling air residence time has the main impact on the cost-saving and carbon dioxide emission
reduction, followed by cooling air mass and cooling air temperature.

Author Contributions: Main idea, Y.W.; formal analysis, Y.W. and H.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.W.;
writing—review and editing, Y.W., H.Y. and K.X.; Project Administration, H.Y.; Supervision, Y.W., H.Y. and K.X.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No: U1501248,
51905109).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Nomenclatures
Nomenclature
A area (m2 )
CP specific heat (kJ/(kg·K))
CS cost-saving (RMB/h)
ex specific exergy (kJ/kg)
En energy (kJ)
.
En energy rate (kJ/h)
Ex exergy (kJ)
.
Ex exergy rate (kJ/h)
EC energy cost (RMB/MJ)
EER environmental emission reduction (kg/h)
ES energy-saving (MJ/h)
FE emission per kg of fuel
FC fuel-saving (kg/h)
H enthalpy (kJ)
LHV low heating value (kJ/kg)
m mass (kg)
.
m mass rate (kg/h)
P pressure (Pa)
q reaction heat (kJ/kg)
Q heat (kJ)
Energies 2020, 13, 3922 23 of 25

.
Q heat rate (kJ/h)
r latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg)
R thermal resistance (K/W) or the universal gas constant (kJ/kmol·K)
S entropy (kJ)
T temperature (K)
Greek Letters
α convective radiation heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 ·K)
δ thickness (m)
λ conductivity(W/m·K)
ε emissivity
η efficiency (%)
φ the relation between the chemical exergy and the LHV
Subscripts
ca cooling air
cg cooling gas
ch chemical
com combustion
coma combustion air
comg combustion gas
cr chemical reaction
d drying
D destruction
en energy
ex exhausted
f flue
fg flue gas
ft fired tile
gen generation
gm gas mixture
hmt heat and mass transfer
in input
kw kiln wall
la leakage air
lh latent heat
out output
p product
ph physical
pt phase-transition
r reactant
reac reaction
rec recovered cooling gas
T total
uft unfired tile
wa water
wo wall outer
0 ambient

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