Ice Berg

Ice berg
course code MFOG 301
How it is formed
Sea ice forms when seawater freezes, typically at temperatures below -2°C or 29°F. It
creates expansive sheets on the ocean's surface, developing into glaciers and giving
rise to icebergs. Due to its lighter density compared to water, ice floats with a significant
portion submerged.
Both sea ice and icebergs are transported by winds and currents towards warmer
waters. The prevalent type of sea ice is pack ice, which is highly mobile, drifting across
the ocean under the influence of wind and currents. It can tilt vertically due to tides,
waves, and swells.
In contrast, there's land fast ice, attached to the coast, seafloor, or icebergs, making it
immobile. It forms in place through the freezing of seawater or by attaching to the shore,
seafloor, or icebergs. Fast ice responds to tides, waves, and swells by moving vertically,
and fragments may break off and join the pack ice.
There is another type of sea ice called marine ice, which forms beneath Antarctic ice
shelves, often visible in icebergs that break off from these shelves. This type of ice can
have a green tint due to the presence of organic matter.
Sea ice experiences significant seasonal variations. It expands during autumn and
winter as the ocean freezes, reaching its maximum extent. In spring and summer, the
ice cover retreats. In the Northern Hemisphere, sea ice extent typically ranges from
around 8 million square kilometers in September to approximately 15 million square
kilometers in March.
In the Southern Hemisphere, sea ice extent varies from around 4 million square
kilometers in February to approximately 20 million square kilometers in September.
Between 2006 and 2020, 14 of the lowest minimum sea ice extent measurements in the
Arctic during the satellite era were recorded. In September 2012, the North Hemisphere
experienced its lowest sea ice level, dropping to about 3.41 million square kilometers—
Ice berg 1
more than 50 percent below the average coverage for that time of year. This marked the
lowest minimum since record-keeping began in 1979.
In March 2015, the Northern Hemisphere witnessed its highest sea ice extent fall to
approximately 14.5 million square kilometers, representing the lowest maximum since
record-keeping began. Globally, the minimum and maximum sea ice extents are
approximately 10 million square kilometers and 28 million square kilometers,
respectively.
Leads are long, linear features found in the pack ice throughout the year, extending for
hundreds of kilometers with widths ranging from a few meters to hundreds of meters.
During winter, leads freeze rapidly. Both new and young ice can thicken mechanically
through processes like rafting and ridging when compressed between thicker floes.
A pressure ridge consists of a sail above the waterline and a keel below. In the Arctic,
most keels are 10–25 meters deep, about four times the height of the sail. Keel widths
are typically 2–3 times the sail width. Antarctic pressure ridges are less massive than
those in the Arctic, although they constitute about 25 percent of the total ice area in both
polar regions. Surprisingly, 40–60 percent of the total ice mass is contained within these
pressure ridges.
Ice crystals forming on the ocean surface quickly break into smaller pieces, creating a
soupy mixture known as frazil or grease ice. In calm conditions, these crystals freeze
together to form a continuous sheet called nilas, reaching up to 10 cm (about 4 inches)
in thickness and appearing dark gray.
As the nilas sheet thickens from freezing at the bottom, it transforms into young ice,
which is gray to grayish white and can reach up to 30 cm (about 1 foot) in thickness. If
new and young ice are not shaped into rafts or ridges, they continue growing through a
bottom-freezing process called congelation.
Congelation ice, characterized by its columnar crystal texture due to downward crystal
growth into the water, is prevalent in Arctic pack ice and fast ice.
Ice berg 2

Ice Berg

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Ice berg

course code MFOG 301

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