SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT – I – Introduction to Communication Research – SVC1301

1
 I. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Meaning of research
The Department of Education and Training defines research as follows:
Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in
a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings.
This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to
new and creative outcomes.
Objectives of Research
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon • To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group • To test a hypothesis • To find out the cause of a
phenomenon • To establish the cause and effect relationship between variable • To explore
new ideas and thoughts • To experiment new methods of problem solving.
Types of Research
• Descriptive research • Ex-post facto research • Applied research • Conceptual research •
Qualitative research • Quantitative research • Empirical research • Exploratory research •
Historical research
Although the research works and studies differ in their form and kind, they all still meet on
the common ground of scientific methods employed by them. Hence, scientific research is
expected to satisfy the following criteria:
i. The aim of the research should be clearly mentioned, along with the use of common
concepts.
ii. The procedures used in the research should be adequately described, in order to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, while maintaining the
continuity of what has already been done.
iii. The researchs procedural design should be carefully planned to obtain results that are as
objective as possible.
iv. The flaws in the procedural design should be sincerely reported by the researcher to
correctly estimate their effects upon the findings.
v. The data analysis should be adequate to reveal its significance.
vi. The methods used during the analysis should be appropriate.
vii. The reliability and validity of the concerned data should be checked carefully.
viii. The conclusions are needed to be confined and limited to only those data, which are
justified and adequately provided by the research.
ix. In case, the researcher is experienced and has a good reputation in the field of research,
greater confidence in research is warranted.

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In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research” as following:

1) Systematic - This states that the research is structured with some specified steps, which are
to be followed in a specified sequence, according to the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not actually rule out creative thinking, but it does
discourage the use of guessing and intuition in order to arrive at conclusions.
2) Logical - This states that the research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, and that
the logical process of induction and deduction are essential while conducting a research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole; while, deduction is the process
of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion that follows from that very premise. Besides,
logical reasoning enables the research to be more meaningful in the context of decision
making.
3) Empirical - This states that the research is basically related to one or more aspects of a real
situation. Moreover, it deals with the concrete data, which provides a base for the external
validity of research results.
4) Replicable - This states that the research results should be allowed verification by
replicating their study, to thus build a sound basis for decisions.
For over three decades researchers and practitioners have depended on Communication
Research for the most up-to-date, comprehensive and important research on communication
and its related fields. Important, In-Depth Research and Scholarship Communication
processes are a fundamental part of virtually every aspect of human social life.
Communication Research publishes articles that explore the processes, antecedents, and
consequences of communication in a broad range of societal systems. Although most of the
published articles are empirical, we also consider overview/review articles. These include the
following:
mass media
interpersonal
health
political
entertainment
advertising/persuasive communication
new technology, online, computer-mediated and mobile communication
organizational
intercultural
group

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family

Communication Research takes you to the cutting-edge of research and theory in all
areaswithin the field of communication. It serves as the international forum aimed at the
academic or professional interested in current research in communication and its related
fields.

Why you need Communication Research

Research and theory presented in all areas of communication give you comprehensive
coverage of the field Rigorous, empirical analysis provides you with research that’s reliable
and high in quality The multi-disciplinary perspective contributes to a greater understanding
of communication processes and outcomes "Themed issues" bring you in-depth examinations
of a specific area of importance, as thematically connected articles selected in the standard
peer-review process are conveniently presented in a single issue Expert editorial guidance
represents a wide range of interests from inside and outside the traditional boundaries of the
communication discipline
What are the main types of quantitative approaches to research?
It is easier to understand the different types of quantitative research designs if you consider
how the researcher designs for control of the variables in the investigation.
If the researcher views quantitative design as a continuum, one end of the range represents a
design where the variables are not controlled at all and only observed. Connections amongst
variable are only described. At the other end of the spectrum, however, are designs which
include a very close control of variables, and relationships amongst those variables are clearly
established. In the middle, with experiment design moving from one type to the other, is a
range which blends those two extremes together.
There are four main types of Quantitative research: Descriptive, Co relational, Causal-
Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and Experimental Research.
Types of Quantitative Design
Descriptive research seeks to describe the current status of an identified variable. These
research projects are designed to provide systematic information about a phenomenon. The
researcher does not usually begin with an hypothesis, but is likely to develop one after
collecting data. The analysis and synthesis of the data provide the test of the hypothesis.
Systematic collection of information requires careful selection of the units studied and careful
measurement of Co relational research attempts to determine the extent of a relationship
between two or more variables using statistical data. In this type of design, relationships
between and among a number of facts are sought and interpreted.
This type of research will recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its
analysis to prove causes for these observed patterns. Cause and effect is not the basis of this
type of observational research. The data, relationships, and distributions of variables Causal-

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comparative/quasi experimental research attempts to establish cause effect relationships
among the variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with
some key differences. An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by the
experimenter, and effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable are
measured. The researcher does not randomly assign groups and must use ones that are
naturally formed or pre-existing groups.
Identified control groups exposed to the treatment Experimental research, often called true
experimentation, uses the scientific method to establish the cause-effect relationship among a
group of variables that make up a study. The true experiment is often thought of as a
laboratory study, but this is not always the case; a laboratory setting has nothing to do with it.
A true experiment is any study where an effort is made to identify and impose control over all
other variables except one. An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects
on the dependent variables. Subjects are randomly assigned to each variable.
Examples of Descriptive Research:
• A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation
• A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers
• A description of how parents feel about the twelvemonth school year
• A description of the attitudes of scientists regarding global warming
• A description of the kinds of physical activities that typically occur in nursing homes, and
how frequently each occurs
• A description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulative are studied
only. Variables are not manipulated; they are only identified and are studied as they occur in
a natural setting. *Sometimes correlational research is considered a type of descriptive
research, and not as its own type of research, as no variables are manipulated in the study.
Examples of Correlational Research:
• The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem
• The relationship between diet and anxiety
• The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course
• The relationship between ACT scores and the freshman grades
• The relationships between the types of activities used in math classrooms and student
achievement
• The covariance of smoking and lung disease variable are studied and compared to groups
who are not. When analyses and conclusions are made, determining causes must be done
carefully, as other variables, both known and unknown, could still affect the outcome. A
causal comparative designed study, described in a New York Times article, "The Case for
$320,00 Kindergarten Teachers," illustrates how causation must be thoroughly assessed
before firm relationships amongst variables can be made.
Examples of Co relational Research:

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• The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade
• The effect of taking multivitamins on a students’ school absenteeism
• The effect of gender on algebra achievement
• The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students
• The effect of magnet school participation on student attitude • The effect of age on lung
capacity experimental treatments rather than identified in naturally occurring groups
Examples of Experimental Research:
• The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer
• The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school
• The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture approach on
students’ achievement
• The effect of a systematic preparation and support system on children who were scheduled
for surgery on the amount of psychological upset and cooperation
• A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs. traditional instruction on
computational skill
What is the basic methodology for a quantitative research design?
The overall structure for a quantitative design is based in the scientific method. It uses
deductive reasoning, where the researcher forms an hypothesis, collects data in an
investigation of the problem, and then uses the data from the investigation, after analysis is
made and conclusions are shared, to prove the hypotheses not false or false.
The basic procedure of a quantitative design is:
1. Make your observations about something that is unknown, unexplained, or new.
Investigate current theory surrounding your problem or issue.
2. Hypothesize an explanation for those observations.
3. Make a prediction of outcomes based on your hypotheses. Formulate a plan to test your
prediction.
4. Collect and process your data. If your prediction was correct, go to step 5. If not, the
hypothesis has been proven false. Return to step 2 to form a new hypothesis based on your
new knowledge.
5. Verify your findings. Make your final conclusions. Present your findings in an appropriate
form for your audience.

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 SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT – II – Introduction to Communication Research – SVC1301

1
 II.RESEARCH DESIGN
WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN?
In this chapter, three research design types are introduced:
Exploratory
Descriptive
Causal
There are many definitions of research design, but no single definition imparts the full
range of important
aspects:
Research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data.
Research design aids the researcher in the allocation of limited resources by posing crucial
choices in
methodology.
Research design is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain
answers to research
questions. The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research. It includes an outline of
what the
investigator will do from writing hypotheses and their operational implications to the final
analysis of
data.
Research design expresses both the structure of the research problem—the framework,
organization, or
configuration of the relationships among variables of a study—and the plan of investigation
used to obtain
empirical evidence on those relationships.
Together, these definitions give the essentials of research design:
An activity- and time-based plan.
A plan always based on a research question.
A guide for selecting sources and types of information.
A framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s variables.
A procedural outline for every research activity.
One of the project management tools used in mapping a research design is critical path
method (CPM).
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 CPM depicts sequential and simultaneous activities and estimates schedules or timetables
for each activity
and phase of the research project.
CLASSIFICATION OF DESIGNS
Early in any research study, one faces the task of selecting the design to use.
Following are the eight different descriptors of research design.
1- Degree of Research Question Crystallization
A study may be exploratory or formal.
The distinctions between the two are the (a) degree of structure, and (b) the immediate
objective of the
study.
Exploratory studies tend toward loose structures, with the objective of discovering future
research tasks.
– The immediate purpose is usually to develop hypotheses or questions for future research.
The formal study begins where the exploration leaves off—with a hypothesis or research
question.
– It also involves precise procedures and data source specifications.
– The goal of a formal design is to test the hypotheses or answer the research questions posed.
2- Method of Data Collection
The method of data collection distinguishes between monitoring and communication
processes.
Monitoring includes studies in which the researcher inspects the activities of a subject or
the nature of some
material, without attempting to elicit responses from anyone.
Examples of monitoring include:
– Traffic counts at intersections
– License plates recorded in a restaurant parking lot
– A search of the library collection
– The State Farm Dangerous Intersection Study
In each case, the researcher notes and records the information available from observation.
In a communication study, the researcher questions the subjects and collects their
responses by personal or
impersonal means.

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 Collected data may result from:
– Interview or telephone conversations.
– Self-administered or self-reported instruments through the mail, left in convenient locations,
or
transmitted electronically, or by other means.
– Instruments presented before and/or after a treatment or stimulus condition in an
experiment.
3- Researcher Control of Variables
In an experiment, the researcher attempts to control and/or manipulate the variables in
the study.
Experimental design is appropriate when one wishes to discover whether certain variables
produce effects
in other variables.
Experimentation provides the most powerful support possible for a hypothesis of causation.
With an ex post facto design, investigators have no control over the variables in the sense
of being able to
manipulate them.
They can only report what has happened, or what is happening.
Researchers using this design must not influence the variables; doing so introduces bias.
The researcher is limited to holding factors constant by judicious selection of subjects,
according to strict
sampling procedures and by statistical manipulation of findings.
4- The Purpose of the Study
The essential difference between reporting, descriptive, causal-explanatory and causal-
predictive studies lies
in their objectives.
A reporting study provides a summation of data, often recasting data to achieve a deeper
understanding
or to generate statistics for comparison.
A descriptive study is concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, or how much.
A causal-explanatory study is concerned with learning why. That is, how one variable
produces changes
in another variable.

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 A causal-predictive study attempts to predict the effect on one variable by manipulating
another variable
while holding all other variables constant.
5- The Time Dimension
Cross-sectional studies are carried out once, and represent a snapshot of one point in time.
Longitudinal studies are repeated over an extended period.
The advantage of a longitudinal study is that it can track changes over time.
In longitudinal panel studies, researchers may study people over time.
In marketing, panels are set up to report consumption data.
These data provide information on relative market share, consumer response to new
products, and new
promotional methods.
Some types of information cannot be collected a second time from the same person without
the risk of bias.
Some benefits of a longitudinal study can be revealed in a cross-sectional study by adroit
questioning about
past attitudes, history, and future expectations.
6- The Topical Scope
Statistical studies are designed for breadth, rather than depth.
They attempt to capture a population’s characteristics by making references from a
sample’s
characteristics.
Generalizations about findings are based on the relativity of the sample and the validity of
the design.
Case studies place more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of fewer events or
conditions, and their
interrelations.
The reliance on qualitative data makes support or rejection more difficult.
An emphasis on detail provides valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation, and
strategy.
– This detail is secured from multiple sources of information.
– It allows evidence to be verified and avoids missing data.
Although they have a significant scientific role, case studies have been maligned as
“scientifically
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worthless” because they do not meet the minimum requirements for comparison.
– Important scientific propositions have the form the universals, which can be falsified by a
single
counter-instance.
– A single, well-designed case study can provide a major challenge to a theory, and provide a
source of
new hypotheses and constructs simultaneously.
7- The Research Environment
Designs differ as to whether they occur under actual environmental conditions (field
conditions) or under
staged/manipulated conditions (laboratory conditions).
Simulations, which replicate the essence of a system or process, are increasingly used in
research, especially
in operations research.
Conditions and relationships in actual situations are often represented in mathematical
models.
Role-playing and other behavioral activities may also be viewed as simulations.
8- Participants’ Perceptual Awareness
Participant’s perceptual awareness refers to when people in a disguised study perceive that
research is being
conducted.
Participant’s perceptual awareness may reduce the usefulness of a research design.
Participants’ perceptual awareness influence the outcomes of the research.
When participants believe that something out of the ordinary is happening, they may
behave less naturally.
There are three levels of perceptional awareness:
a- Participants perceive no deviations from everyday routines (non-aware, unaffected).
b- Participants perceive deviations, but as unrelated to the researcher (aware, consciously
unaffected).
c- Participants perceive deviations as researcher-induced (aware, consciously affected).
I- EXPLORATORY STUDIES
Exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the problems they
will meet during the
study.
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 Exploration allows researchers to:
– Develop clearer concepts
– Establish priorities
– Develop operational definitions
– Improve the final research design
– Possibly save time and money
If exploration reveals that a problem is not as important as first thought, more formal
studies can be
cancelled.
Exploration serves other purposes as well:
The area of investigation may be so new or vague that the researcher needs to do an
exploration just to
learn something about the dilemma.
Important variables may not be known or well defined.
A hypothesis for the research may be needed.
The researcher may need to determine if it is feasible to do a formal study.
Researchers and managers alike give exploration less attention than it deserves.
There is often pressure for a quick answer.
There may be a bias about qualitative research.
Subjectiveness
Non-representation
Non-systematic design.
Exploration can save time and money, so it should not be slighted.
Qualitative Techniques
Although both qualitative and quantitative techniques are applicable, exploration relies
more heavily on
qualitative techniques.
There are multiple ways to investigate a management question, including:
Individual depth interviews: usually conversational, rather than structured.
Participant observation: perceive firsthand what participants experience
Films, photographs, and videotape: to capture the life of the group under study.

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 Projective techniques and psychological testing: such as a Thematic Apperception Test,
projective
measures, games, or role-playing.
Case studies: for an in-depth contextual analysis of a few events or conditions.
Street ethnography: to discover how a cultural subgroups described and structures its
world at street level.
Elite or expert interviewing: for information from influential or well-informed people.
Document analysis: to evaluate historical or contemporary confidential or public records,
reports,
government documents, and opinions.
Proxemics and kinesics: to study the use of space and body-motion communication,
respectively.
When these approaches are combined, four exploratory techniques emerge:
Secondary data analysis.
Experience surveys.
Focus groups.
Tow-stage designs.
Secondary Data Analysis
The first step in an exploratory study is a search of the secondary literature.
Studies made by others, for their own purposes, represent secondary data.
It is inefficient to discover anew through the collection of primary data or original
research what has
already been done and reported.
Start with an organization’s own archives.
By reviewing prior studies, you can identify methodologies that proved successful and
unsuccessful.
Solutions that didn’t receive attention in the past may reveal subjects for further study.
Avoid duplication in instances where prior data can help resolve the current dilemma.
The second source of secondary data is published documents prepared by authors outside
the sponsor
organization.
Data from secondary sources help us decide what needs to be done, and can be a rich
source of

8
hypotheses.
In many cases, you can conduct a secondary search in libraries, or via your computer and
an online
service or an Internet gateway.
If we confine an investigation to obvious subjects in bibliographic sources, some of the best
information
may be missed.
We provide a detailed list of Business Reference Sources on the website.
Experience Survey
Published data are seldom more than a fraction of the existing knowledge in a field.
A significant portion of what is known on a topic is proprietary to a given organization,
and therefore
unavailable to an outside researcher.
Also, internal data archives are rarely well organized, making secondary sources difficult
to locate.
Thus, it is beneficial to seek information from persons experienced in the field of study,
tapping into their
memories and experiences.
In an experience survey, we seek a person’s ideas about important issues or aspects of the
subject and
discover what is important across the subject’s range of knowledge.
Avenues to explore:
What is being done?
What has been tried in the past without success? With success?
How have things changed?
What are the change-producing elements of the situation?
Who is involved in decisions and what role does each person play?
What problem areas and barriers can be seen?
What are the costs of the processes under study?
Whom can we count on to assist and/or participate in the research?
What are the priority areas?
The product of such questioning may be:

9
 A new hypothesis
The discarding of an old one
Information about the practicality of doing the study
Discovery of what facilities are available
What factors need to be controlled, and how
Who will cooperate in the study.
Discovery is more easily carried out if we analyze cases that provide special insight.
People who might provide insightful information include:
Newcomers to the scene
Marginal or peripheral individuals
Individuals in transition
Deviants and isolates
“Pure” cases
Those who fit well and those who do not
Those who represent different positions in the system
During the early phase of the MindWriter research study, Jason and Myra plan to
interview:
Managers of the service facility
Managers of the call center
Managers of the contract courier service
Long-term employees of various departments
Individuals associated with engineering and production
Focus Groups
Focus groups became widely used in the 1980s.
A focus group is a group of people (typically 6 to 10), led by a trained moderator, who
meet for 90 minutes to
2 hours.
The facilitator or moderator uses group dynamics to focus or guide the group in an
exchange of ideas,
feelings, and experiences on a specific topic.
One typical objective of a focus group might be a new product or product concept, a new
employee

10
motivation program, or improved production-line organization.
The basic output of the session is a list of ideas and behavioral observations, with
recommendations by the
moderator, that are often used for later quantitative testing.
In another application, a large title insurance company ran focus groups with its branch
office
administrations to discover their preferences for distributing files on the company’s intranet.
Two-Stage Design
With a two-stage design approach, exploration becomes s separate first stage with limited
objectives:
Clearly define the research question
Develop the research design
Argument for a two-stage approach: we need to know more about the problem before
resources are
committed.
This approach is particularly useful when the research budget in inflexible.
A limited exploration for a specific, modest cost carries little risk for both the sponsor and
the researcher.
An exploratory study is finished when researchers have achieved the following:
Major dimensions of the research task have been established.
A set of subsidiary investigative questions that can guide a detailed research design have
been defined.
Several hypotheses about possible causes of a management dilemma have been developed.
Certain hypotheses have been identified as being so remote that they can be safely ignored.
A conclusion that additional research is not needed or is not feasible has been reached.
II- DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
Formalized studies are typically structured with clearly states hypotheses or investigative
questions.
Research objectives:
Descriptions of phenomena or characteristics associated with a subject population (the
who, what, when,
where, and how of a topic).
Estimates of the proportions of a population that have these characteristics.

11
 Discover of associations among different variables (sometimes labeled a correlational study)
A descriptive study may be simple or complex, and it may be done in many settings.
The simplest study concerns a univariate question or hypothesis in which we ask about (or
state something
about) the size, form, distribution, or existence of a variable.
In the account analysis at BankChoice, we might want to develop a profile of savers.
Examples of other
variables include:
– Number of accounts opened in the last six months
– Amount of account activity
– Size of accounts
– Number of accounts for minors
Our task is to determine if the variables are interdependent or unrelated. If they are, we
must determine
the strength or magnitude of the relationship.
Descriptive studies are often much more complex than the BankChoice example.
III-CAUSAL STUDIES
Statistically untrained undividual sometimes mistake correlation (the simultaneous
occurance of two
phenomena as causation.
The essential element of causation is that A “produces” B or A “forces” B to occur.
Empirically, we can never demonstrate an A-B causality with certainty.
– Empirical conclusions are inferences (inductive conclusions).
– As such, they are based on what we observe and measure.
– We cannot observe and measure all the processes that may account for the A-B relationship.
In Chapter 3 we discussed the example of sales failing to increase following a promotion.
Having ruled
out other causes, we were left with the inference that was probably (but not certainly) the
cause: a poorly
executed promotion.
Meeting the ideal standard of causation requires that one variable always causes another
variable, and no
other variable has the same causal effect.

12
 The method of agreement states that “When two or more cases of a given phenomenon
have one and only one
condition in common, then that condition may be regarded as the cause (or effect) of the
phenomenon.”
The method of agreement helps rule out some variables as irrelevant. A, B, D, and E are
unlikely to be
causes of Z. However, there is an implicit assumption that there are no variables to consider.
– No one can accept this supposition with certainty because the number of variables is infinite.
– In addition, while C may be the cause, it may instead function only in the presence of some
other
variable, which was not included.
– The negative canon of agreement states that where the absence of C is associated with the
absence of
Z, there is evidence of a causal relationship between C and Z.
– Together with the method of agreement, this forms the basis for the method of difference:
“If there are
two or more cases, and in one of them observation Z can be made, while in the other it cannot;
and if
variable C occurs when observation Z can be made, while in the other it cannot; and if
variable C
occurs when observation Z is made, and does not occur when observation Z is not made; then
it can
be asserted that there is a causal relationship between C and Z.
No one can ever be certain that variable A causes variable B to occur, but one can gather
evidence that
increases the belief that A leads to B.
We seek three types of evidence of causation:
Covariation between A and B.
– Do we find that A and B occur together in the way hypothesized?
– When A does not occur, is there also an absence of B?
– When there is more or less of A, does one also find more of less of B?
Time order of events moving in the hypothesized direction.
– Does A occur before B?
No other possible causes of B.

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– No one can determine that C, D, and E do not covary with B in a way that suggests possible
causal
connections?
In addition to the three conditions above, successful inference making from experimental
designs must meet
two additional requirements:
Control: all factors, with the exception of the independent variable, must be held constant
and not
confound with another variable that is not part of the study.
Random assignment: each person must have an equal chance for exposure to each level of
the
independent variable.
If we consider the possible relationships that can occur between two variables, we can
conclude that there are
three possibilities:
Symmetrical
Reciprocal
Asymmetrical
A symmetrical relationship is one in which two variables fluctuate together, but we assume
the changes in
neither variable are due to changes in the other.
Symmetrical conditions are most often found when two variables are alternate indicators
of another cause
or independent variable.
We might conclude that a correlation between low work attendance and active
participation in a camping
club is the result of (dependent on) another factor, such as a lifestyle preference.
A reciprocal relationship exists when two variables mutually influence or reinforce each
other.
This could occur if reading an advertisement leads to the use of a product. The usage, in
turn, sensitizes
the person to notice and read more of the advertising for that product.
Most research analysts look for asymmetrical relationships.

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 With these, we postulate that changes in one independent variable (IV) are responsible for
changes in a
dependent variable (DV).
The identification of the IV and DV is often obvious, but sometimes the choice is not clear.
In these cases,
dependence and independence should be evaluated on the basis of:
– The degree of which each variable may be altered.
– The time order between the variables.

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 SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT – III – Introduction to Communication Research – SVC1301

1
 III.METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They
produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research
is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the
size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be
randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect
data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their
influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the
research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling
to select participants. A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that
utilizes some form of random selection
(http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/sampprob.php). In order to have a random
selection method, you must set up some process or procedure that assures that the different
units in your population have equal probabilities of being chosen. Simple examples of
random selection are picking a name out of a hat or choosing the short straw. Computers are
used for generating random selection in more complex projects. Typical quantitative data
gathering strategies include: Administering surveys with closed‐ended questions (e.g.,
face‐to face and telephone  interviews, mail questionnaires, etc.)
(http://www.achrn.org/quantitative_methods.htm) Experiments/clinical trials.  Observing
and recording well‐defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients  waiting in
emergency at specified times of the day). Obtaining relevant data from management
information systems.  INTERVIEWS In Quantitative research (survey research), interviews
are more structured than in Qualitative research.
http://www.stat.ncsu.edu/info/srms/survpamphlet.html In a structured interview, the
researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001) 5
Telephone interviews Advantages: Less time consuming Less expensive  Researcher has
ready access to anyone who has a landline telephone.  Higher response rate than the mail
questionnaire.  Can be fully automated using CATI (Computer Assisted Telephone
Interviewing) saving data processing time. Disadvantages: The response rate is not as high
as the face‐to‐face interview.  The sample may be biased as only those people who have
landline phones are contacted (excludes people who do not have a phone, or only have cell
phones). Face‐to‐face interviews (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001) Advantages: Enables the
researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore  gain their
cooperation. Yields the highest response rates in survey research.  Allows the researcher
to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow‐  up information.
Disadvantages: Impractical when large samples are involved Can be time consuming and
expensive.  Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal
interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop
or hand‐held computer to enter the information directly into the database. Advantages:
Saves time involved in processing the data.  Saves the interviewer from carrying around
hundreds of questionnaires.  Disadvantages: Can be expensive to set up. Requires that
interviewers have computer and typing skills.  QUESTIONNAIRES Questionnaires often

2
make use of checklist and rating scales. These devices help simplify and quantify people's
behaviors and attitudes. A checklist is a list of behaviors, characteristics, or other entities the
researcher is looking for. Either the researcher or survey participant simply checks whether
each item on the list is observed, present or true or vice versa. A rating scale is 6 more useful
when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a continuum. They are also known as Likert scales.
(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001) Mail questionnaires Advantages: Can be sent to a large number
of people.  Saves the researcher time and money compared to interviewing.  People are
more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial  issues in
particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous. Allow the respondent to
answer at their leisure. Disadvantages: In most cases, the majority of people who receive

questionnaires don't return them.  Therefore: o Over‐sampling may be necessary if doing a
one‐time mail out in order to get enough completed questionnaires to be generalizable to the
population. o Follow‐up reminders to participants encouraging them to complete the
questionnaire may be necessary, thereby increasing the time and cost to conduct the study. o
May need to offer incentives to increase response rate. Time – mail surveys take longer than
other types of surveys.  Web‐based questionnaires: A new and inevitably growing
methodology is the use of Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e‐mail on
which you would click on an address that would take you to a secure web‐site to fill in a
questionnaire. Advantages: This type of research is often quicker and less detailed.  Very
cost effective. Disadvantages: Excludes people who do not have a computer or are unable to
access a computer.  Need to have access to email addresses.  Many worksites have
screening mechanisms in place blocking access to employee  emails. The validity of such
surveys may be in question as people might be in a hurry to complete it and so might not
give accurate responses. (http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm)

Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They
produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research is
concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size
of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be
randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect
data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their
influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the
research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling
to select participants.
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random
selection (http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/sampprob.php). In order to have a
random selection method, you must set up some process or procedure that assures that the
different units in your population have equal probabilities of being chosen. Simple examples
of
random selection are picking a name out of a hat or choosing the short straw. Computers are

3
used for generating random selection in more complex projects.
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:
Administering surveys with closed‐ended questions (e.g., face‐to face and telephone
interviews, mail questionnaires, etc.)
(http://www.achrn.org/quantitative_methods.htm)
Experiments/clinical trials.
Observing and recording well‐defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients
waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
INTERVIEWS
In Quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than in
Qualitative
research. http://www.stat.ncsu.edu/info/srms/survpamphlet.html
In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more.
(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

5
Telephone interviews
Advantages:
Less time consuming
Less expensive
Researcher has ready access to anyone who has a landline telephone.
Higher response rate than the mail questionnaire.
Can be fully automated using CATI (Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing) saving
data processing time.
Disadvantages:
The response rate is not as high as the face‐to‐face interview.
The sample may be biased as only those people who have landline phones are
contacted (excludes people who do not have a phone, or only have cell phones).
Face‐to‐face interviews (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Advantages:

4
 Enables the researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore
gain their cooperation.
Yields the highest response rates in survey research.
Allows the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow‐
up information.
Disadvantages:
Impractical when large samples are involved
Can be time consuming and expensive.
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but
instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand‐held
computer to enter the information directly into the database.
Advantages:
Saves time involved in processing the data.
Saves the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires.
Disadvantages:
Can be expensive to set up.
Requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills.
QUESTIONNAIRES
Questionnaires often make use of checklist and rating scales. These devices help simplify and
quantify people's behaviors and attitudes. A checklist is a list of behaviors, characteristics, or
other entities the researcher is looking for. Either the researcher or survey participant
simply
checks whether each item on the list is observed, present or true or vice versa. A rating scale
is
6
more useful when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a continuum. They are also known as
Likert scales. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Mail questionnaires
Advantages:
Can be sent to a large number of people.
Saves the researcher time and money compared to interviewing.

5
 People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial
issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous.
Allow the respondent to answer at their leisure.
Disadvantages:
In most cases, the majority of people who receive questionnaires don't return them.
Therefore:
o Over‐sampling may be necessary if doing a one‐time mail out in order to get
enough completed questionnaires to be generalizable to the population.
o Follow‐up reminders to participants encouraging them to complete the
questionnaire may be necessary, thereby increasing the time and cost to conduct
the study.
o May need to offer incentives to increase response rate.
Time – mail surveys take longer than other types of surveys.
Web‐based questionnaires:
A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based research. This would
mean receiving an e‐mail on which you would click on an address that would take you to a
secure web‐site to fill in a questionnaire.
Advantages:
This type of research is often quicker and less detailed.
Very cost effective.
Disadvantages:
Excludes people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a computer.
Need to have access to email addresses.
Many worksites have screening mechanisms in place blocking access to employee
emails.
The validity of such surveys may be in question as people might be in a hurry to
complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
(http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm)

6
 SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT – IV – Introduction to Communication Research – SVC1301

1
 IV.SAMPLING

Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of
interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the
population from which they were chosen. Let’s begin by covering some of the key terms in
sampling like “population” and “sampling frame.” Then, because some types of sampling rely
upon quantitative models, we’ll talk about some of the statistical terms used in sampling.
Finally, we’ll discuss the major distinction between probability and Nonprobability sampling
methods and work through the major types in each.
Sampling Terminology
As with anything else in life you have to learn the language of an area if you’re going to ever
hope to use it. Here, I want to introduce several different terms for the major groups that are
involved in a sampling process and the role that each group plays in the logic of sampling.
The major question that motivates sampling in the first place is: “Who do you want to
generalize to?” Or should it be: “To whom do you want to generalize?” In most social
research we are interested in more than just the people who directly participate in our study.
We would like to be able to talk in general terms and not be confined only to the people who
are in our study. Now, there are times when we aren’t very concerned about generalizing.
Maybe we’re just evaluating a program in a local agency and we don’t care whether the
program would work with other people in other places and at other times. In that case,
sampling and generalizing might not be of interest. In other cases, we would really like to be
able to generalize almost universally. When psychologists do research, they are often
interested in developing theories that would hold for all humans. But in most applied social
research, we are interested in generalizing to specific groups. The group you wish to
generalize to is often called the population in your study. This is the group you would like to
sample from because this is the group you are interested in generalizing to. Let’s imagine that
you wish to generalize to urban homeless males between the ages of 30 and 50 in the United
States. If that is the population of interest, you are likely to have a very hard time developing
a reasonable sampling plan. You are probably not going to find an accurate listing of this
population, and even if you did, you would almost certainly not be able to mount a national
sample across hundreds of urban areas. So we probably should make a distinction between
the population you would like to generalize to, and the population that will be accessible to
you. We’ll call the former the theoretical population and the latter the accessible population.
In this example, the accessible population might be homeless males between the ages of 30 and
50 in six selected urban areas across the U.S.
Once you’ve identified the theoretical and accessible populations, you have to do one more
thing before you can actually draw a sample – you have to get a list of the members of the
accessible population. (Or, you have to spell out in detail how you will contact them to assure
representativeness). The listing of the accessible population from which you’ll draw your
sample is called the sampling frame. If you were doing a phone survey and selecting names
from the telephone book, the book would be your sampling frame. That wouldn’t be a great
way to sample because significant subportions of the population either don’t have a phone or

2
have moved in or out of the area since the last book was printed. Notice that in this case, you
might identify the area code and all three-digit prefixes within that area code and draw a
sample simply by randomly dialingnumbers (cleverly known as random-digit-dialing). In this
case, the sampling frame is not a list per se, but is rather a procedure that you follow as the
actual basis for sampling. Finally, you actually draw your sample (using one of the many
sampling procedures). The sample is the group of people who you select to be in your study.
Notice that I didn’t say that the sample was the group of people who are actually in your
study. You may not be able to contact or recruit all of the people you actually sample, or some
could drop out over the course of the study. The group that actually completes your study is a
subsample of the sample – it doesn’t include nonrespondents or dropouts. The problem of
nonresponse and its effects on a study will be addressed when discussing “mortality” threats
to internal validity.
People often confuse what is meant by random selection with the idea of random assignment.
You should make sure that you understand the distinction between random selection and
random assignment.
At this point, you should appreciate that sampling is a difficult multi-step process and that
there are lots of places you can go wrong. In fact, as we move from each step to the next in
identifying a sample, there is the possibility of introducing systematic error or bias. For
instance, even if you are able to identify perfectly the population of interest, you may not have
access to all of them. And even if you do, you may not have a complete and accurate
enumeration or sampling frame from which to select. And, even if you do, you may not draw
the sample correctly or accurately. And, even if you do, they may not all come and they may
not all stay. Depressed yet? This is a very difficult business indeed. At times like this I’m
reminded of what Donald Campbell used to say (I’ll paraphrase here): “Cousins to the
amoeba, it’s amazing that we know anything at all!”
Statistical Terms in Sampling
Let’s begin by defining some very simple terms that are relevant here. First, let’s look at the
results of our sampling efforts. When we sample, the units that we sample – usually people –
supply us with one or more responses. In this sense, a response is a specific measurement
value that a sampling unit supplies. In the figure, the person is responding to a survey
instrument and gives a response of 4. When we look across the responses that we get for our
entire sample, we use a statistic. There are a wide variety of statistics we can use – mean,
median, mode, and so on. In this example, we see that the mean or average for the sample is
3.75. But the reason we sample is so that we might get an estimate for the population we
sampled from. If we could, we would much prefer to measure the entire population. If you
measure the entire population and calculate a value like a mean or average, we don’t refer to
this as a statistic, we call it a parameter of the population.

The Sampling Distribution

3
So how do we get from our sample statistic to an estimate of the population parameter? A
crucial midway concept you need to understand is the sampling distribution. In order to
understand it, you have to be able and willing to do a thought experiment. Imagine that
instead of just taking a single sample like we do in a typical study, you took three independent
samples of the same population. And furthermore, imagine that for each of your three
samples, you collected a single response and computed a single statistic, say, the mean of the
response. Even though all three samples came from the same population, you wouldn’t expect
to get the exact same statistic from each. They would differ slightly just due to the random
“luck of the draw” or to the natural fluctuations or vagaries of drawing a sample. But you
would expect that all three samples would yield a similar statistical estimate because they
were drawn from the same population. Now, for the leap of imagination! Imagine that you
did an infinite number of samples from the same population and computed the average for
each one. If you plotted them on a histogram or bar graph you should find that most of them
converge on the same central value and that you get fewer and fewer samples that have
averages farther away up or down from that central value. In other words, the bar graph
would be well described by the bell curve shape that is an indication of a “normal”
distribution in statistics. The distribution of an infinite number of samples of the same size as
the sample in your study is known as the sampling distribution.

We don’t ever actually construct a sampling distribution. Why not? You’re not paying
attention! Because to construct it we would have to take an infinite number of samples and at
least the last time I checked, on this planet infinite is not a number we know how to reach. So
why do we even talk about a sampling distribution? Now that’s a good question! Because we
need to realize that our sample is just one of a potentially infinite number of samples that we
could have taken. When we keep the sampling distribution in mind, we realize that while the
statistic we got from our sample is probably near the center of the sampling distribution
(because most of the samples would be there) we could have gotten one of the extreme
samples just by the luck of the draw. If we take the average of the sampling distribution – the
average of the averages of an infinite number of samples – we would be much closer to the
true population average – the parameter of interest. So the average of the sampling
distribution is essentially equivalent to the parameter. But what is the standard deviation of
the sampling distribution (OK, never had statistics? There are any number of places on the
web where you can learn about them or even just brush up if you’ve gotten rusty. This isn’t
one of them. I’m going to assume that you at least know what a standard deviation is, or that
you’re capable of finding out relatively quickly). The standard deviation of the sampling
distribution tells us something about how different samples would be distributed. In statistics
it is referred to as the standard error (so we can keep it separate in our minds from standard
deviations. Getting confused? Go get a cup of coffee and come back in ten minutes…OK, let’s
try once more… A standard deviation is the spread of the scores around the average in a
single sample. The standard error is the spread of the averages around the average of
averages in a sampling distribution. Got it?)
Sampling Error

4
In sampling contexts, the standard error is called sampling error. Sampling error gives us
some idea of the precision of our statistical estimate. A low sampling error means that we had
relatively less variability or range in the sampling distribution. But here we go again – we
never actually see the sampling distribution! So how do we calculate sampling error? We base
our calculation on the standard deviation of our sample. The greater the sample standard
deviation, the greater the standard error (and the sampling error). The standard error is also
related to the sample size. The greater your sample size, the smaller the standard error. Why?
Because the greater the sample size, the closer your sample is to the actual population itself. If
you take a sample that consists of the entire population you actually have no sampling error
because you don’t have a sample, you have the entire population. In that case, the mean you
estimate is the parameter.

The 68, 95, 99 Percent Rule

You’ve probably heard this one before, but it’s so important that it’s always worth
repeating… There is a general rule that applies whenever we have a normal or bell-shaped
distribution. Start with the average – the center of the distribution. If you go up and down
(i.e., left and right) one standard unit, you will include approximately 68% of the cases in the
distribution (i.e., 68% of the area under the curve). If you go up and down two standard units,
you will include approximately 95% of the cases. And if you go plus-and-minus three
standard units, you will include about 99% of the cases. Notice that I didn’t specify in the
previous few sentences whether I was talking about standard deviation units or standard
error units. That’s because the same rule holds for both types of distributions (i.e., the raw
data and sampling distributions). For instance, in the figure, the mean of the distribution is
3.75 and the standard unit is .25 (If this was a distribution of raw data, we would be talking in
standard deviation units. If it’s a sampling distribution, we’d be talking in standard error
units). If we go up and down one standard unit from the mean, we would be going up and
down .25 from the mean of 3.75. Within this range – 3.5 to 4.0 – we would expect to see
approximately 68% of the cases. This section is marked in red on the figure. I leave to you to
figure out the other ranges. But what does this all mean you ask? If we are dealing with raw
data and we know the mean and standard deviation of a sample, we can predict the intervals
within which 68, 95 and 99% of our cases would be expected to fall. We call these intervals
the – guess what – 68, 95 and 99% confidence intervals.

Now, here’s where everything should come together in one great aha! experience if you’ve
been following along. If we had a sampling distribution, we would be able to predict the 68, 95
and 99% confidence intervals for where the population parameter should be! And isn’t that
why we sampled in the first place? So that we could predict where the population is on that
variable? There’s only one hitch. We don’t actually have the sampling distribution (now this

5
is the third time I’ve said this in this essay)! But we do have the distribution for the sample
itself. And we can from that distribution estimate the standard error (the sampling error)
because it is based on the standard deviation and we have that. And, of course, we don’t
actually know the population parameter value – we’re trying to find that out – but we can use
our best estimate for that – the sample statistic. Now, if we have the mean of the sampling
distribution (or set it to the mean from our sample) and we have an estimate of the standard
error (we calculate that from our sample) then we have the two key ingredients that we need
for our sampling distribution in order to estimate confidence intervals for the population
parameter.

Perhaps an example will help. Let’s assume we did a study and drew a single sample from the
population. Furthermore, let’s assume that the average for the sample was 3.75 and the
standard deviation was .25. This is the raw data distribution depicted above. now, what would
the sampling distribution be in this case? Well, we don’t actually construct it (because we
would need to take an infinite number of samples) but we can estimate it. For starters, we
assume that the mean of the sampling distribution is the mean of the sample, which is 3.75.
Then, we calculate the standard error. To do this, we use the standard deviation for our
sample and the sample size (in this case N=100) and we come up with a standard error of .025
(just trust me on this). Now we have everything we need to estimate a confidence interval for
the population parameter. We would estimate that the probability is 68% that the true
parameter value falls between 3.725 and 3.775 (i.e., 3.75 plus and minus .025); that the 95%
confidence interval is 3.700 to 3.800; and that we can say with 99% confidence that the
population value is between 3.675 and 3.825. The real value (in this fictitious example) was
3.72 and so we have correctly estimated that value with our sample.
Probability Sampling
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random
selection. In order to have a random selection method, you must set up some process or
procedure that assures that the different units in your population have equal probabilities of
being chosen. Humans have long practiced various forms of random selection, such as picking
a name out of a hat, or choosing the short straw. These days, we tend to use computers as the
mechanism for generating random numbers as the basis for random selection.
Some Definitions
Before I can explain the various probability methods we have to define some basic terms.
These are:
N is the number of cases in the sampling frame
n is the number of cases in the sample
NCn = the number of combinations (subsets) of n from N
f = n/N is the sampling fraction
That’s it. With those terms defined we can begin to define the different probability sampling
methods.

6
Simple Random Sampling
The simplest form of random sampling is called simple random sampling. Pretty tricky, huh?
Here’s the quick description of simple random sampling:
Objective: To select n units out of N such that each NCn has an equal chance of being selected.
Procedure: Use a table of random numbers, a computer random number generator, or a
mechanical device to select the sample.
A somewhat stilted, if accurate, definition. Let’s see if we can make it a little more real.

How do we select a simple random sample? Let’s assume that we are doing some research
with a small service agency that wishes to assess clients’ views of quality of service over the
past year. First, we have to get the sampling frame organized. To accomplish this, we’ll go
through agency records to identify every client over the past 12 months. If we’re lucky, the
agency has good accurate computerized records and can quickly produce such a list. Then, we
have to actually draw the sample. Decide on the number of clients you would like to have in
the final sample. For the sake of the example, let’s say you want to select 100 clients to survey
and that there were 1000 clients over the past 12 months. Then, the sampling fraction is f =
n/N = 100/1000 = .10 (or 10%). Now, to actually draw the sample, you have several options.
You could print off the list of 1000 clients, tear then into separate strips, put the strips in a hat,
mix them up real good, close your eyes and pull out the first 100. But this mechanical
procedure would be tedious and the quality of the sample would depend on how thoroughly
you mixed them up and how randomly you reached in. Perhaps a better procedure would be
to use the kind of ball machine that is popular with many of the state lotteries. You would
need three sets of balls numbered 0 to 9, one set for each of the digits from 000 to 999 (if we
select 000 we’ll call that 1000). Number the list of names from 1 to 1000 and then use the ball
machine to select the three digits that selects each person. The obvious disadvantage here is
that you need to get the ball machines. (Where do they make those things, anyway? Is there a
ball machine industry?).

Neither of these mechanical procedures is very feasible and, with the development of
inexpensive computers there is a much easier way. Here’s a simple procedure that’s especially
useful if you have the names of the clients already on the computer. Many computer
programs can generate a series of random numbers. Let’s assume you can copy and paste the
list of client names into a column in an EXCEL spreadsheet. Then, in the column right next to
it paste the function =RAND() which is EXCEL’s way of putting a random number between 0
and 1 in the cells. Then, sort both columns – the list of names and the random number – by
the random numbers. This rearranges the list in random order from the lowest to the highest
random number. Then, all you have to do is take the first hundred names in this sorted list.
pretty simple. You could probably accomplish the whole thing in under a minute.
Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to explain to others. Because
simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample, it is reasonable to generalize the

7
results from the sample back to the population. Simple random sampling is not the most
statistically efficient method of sampling and you may, just because of the luck of the draw,
not get good representation of subgroups in a population. To deal with these issues, we have
to turn to other sampling methods.

Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes called proportional or quota random sampling,
involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple
random sample in each subgroup. In more formal terms:

Objective: Divide the population into non-overlapping groups (i.e., strata) N1, N2, N3, … Ni,
such that N1 + N2 + N3 + … + Ni = N. Then do a simple random sample of f = n/N in each
strata.

There are several major reasons why you might prefer stratified sampling over simple
random sampling. First, it assures that you will be able to represent not only the overall
population, but also key subgroups of the population, especially small minority groups. If you
want to be able to talk about subgroups, this may be the only way to effectively assure you’ll
be able to. If the subgroup is extremely small, you can use different sampling fractions (f)
within the different strata to randomly over-sample the small group (although you’ll then
have to weight the within-group estimates using the sampling fraction whenever you want
overall population estimates). When we use the same sampling fraction within strata we are
conducting proportionate stratified random sampling. When we use different sampling
fractions in the strata, we call this disproportionate stratified random sampling. Second,
stratified random sampling will generally have more statistical precision than simple random
sampling. This will only be true if the strata or groups are homogeneous. If they are, we
expect that the variability within-groups is lower than the variability for the population as a
whole. Stratified sampling capitalizes on that fact.

For example, let’s say that the population of clients for our agency can be divided into three
groups: Caucasian, African-American and Hispanic-American. Furthermore, let’s assume
that both the African-Americans and Hispanic-Americans are relatively small minorities of
the clientele (10% and 5% respectively). If we just did a simple random sample of n=100 with
a sampling fraction of 10%, we would expect by chance alone that we would only get 10 and 5
persons from each of our two smaller groups. And, by chance, we could get fewer than that! If
we stratify, we can do better. First, let’s determine how many people we want to have in each
group. Let’s say we still want to take a sample of 100 from the population of 1000 clients over
the past year. But we think that in order to say anything about subgroups we will need at
least 25 cases in each group. So, let’s sample 50 Caucasians, 25 African-Americans, and 25
Hispanic-Americans. We know that 10% of the population, or 100 clients, are African-
American. If we randomly sample 25 of these, we have a within-stratum sampling fraction of
25/100 = 25%. Similarly, we know that 5% or 50 clients are Hispanic-American. So our

8
within-stratum sampling fraction will be 25/50 = 50%. Finally, by subtraction we know that
there are 850 Caucasian clients. Our within-stratum sampling fraction for them is 50/850 =
about 5.88%. Because the groups are more homogeneous within-group than across the
population as a whole, we can expect greater statistical precision (less variance). And, because
we stratified, we know we will have enough cases from each group to make meaningful
subgroup inferences.

Systematic Random Sampling

Here are the steps you need to follow in order to achieve a systematic random sample:
number the units in the population from 1 to N
decide on the n (sample size) that you want or need
k = N/n = the interval size
randomly select an integer between 1 to k
then take every kth unit

All of this will be much clearer with an example. Let’s assume that we have a population that
only has N=100 people in it and that you want to take a sample of n=20. To use systematic
sampling, the population must be listed in a random order. The sampling fraction would be f
= 20/100 = 20%. in this case, the interval size, k, is equal to N/n = 100/20 = 5. Now, select a
random integer from 1 to 5. In our example, imagine that you chose 4. Now, to select the
sample, start with the 4th unit in the list and take every k-th unit (every 5th, because k=5).
You would be sampling units 4, 9, 14, 19, and so on to 100 and you would wind up with 20
units in your sample.

For this to work, it is essential that the units in the population are randomly ordered, at least
with respect to the characteristics you are measuring. Why would you ever want to use
systematic random sampling? For one thing, it is fairly easy to do. You only have to select a
single random number to start things off. It may also be more precise than simple random
sampling. Finally, in some situations there is simply no easier way to do random sampling.
For instance, I once had to do a study that involved sampling from all the books in a library.
Once selected, I would have to go to the shelf, locate the book, and record when it last
circulated. I knew that I had a fairly good sampling frame in the form of the shelf list (which
is a card catalog where the entries are arranged in the order they occur on the shelf). To do a
simple random sample, I could have estimated the total number of books and generated
random numbers to draw the sample; but how would I find book #74,329 easily if that is the
number I selected? I couldn’t very well count the cards until I came to 74,329! Stratifying
wouldn’t solve that problem either. For instance, I could have stratified by card catalog
drawer and drawn a simple random sample within each drawer. But I’d still be stuck
counting cards. Instead, I did a systematic random sample. I estimated the number of books
in the entire collection. Let’s imagine it was 100,000. I decided that I wanted to take a sample

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of 1000 for a sampling fraction of 1000/100,000 = 1%. To get the sampling interval k, I
divided N/n = 100,000/1000 = 100. Then I selected a random integer between 1 and 100. Let’s
say I got 57.

Next, I did a little side study to determine how thick a thousand cards are in the card catalog
(taking into account the varying ages of the cards). Let’s say that on average I found that two
cards that were separated by 100 cards were about .75 inches apart in the catalog drawer.
That information gave me everything I needed to draw the sample. I counted to the 57th by
hand and recorded the book information. Then, I took a compass. (Remember those from
your high-school math class? They’re the funny little metal instruments with a sharp pin on
one end and a pencil on the other that you used to draw circles in geometry class.) Then I set
the compass at .75", stuck the pin end in at the 57th card and pointed with the pencil end to
the next card (approximately 100 books away). In this way, I approximated selecting the
157th, 257th, 357th, and so on. I was able to accomplish the entire selection procedure in very
little time using this systematic random sampling approach. I’d probably still be there
counting cards if I’d tried another random sampling method. (Okay, so I have no life. I got
compensated nicely, I don’t mind saying, for coming up with this scheme.)

Cluster (Area) Random Sampling

The problem with random sampling methods when we have to sample a population that’s
disbursed across a wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a lot of ground
geographically in order to get to each of the units you sampled. Imagine taking a simple
random sample of all the residents of New York State in order to conduct personal interviews.
By the luck of the draw you will wind up with respondents who come from all over the state.
Your interviewers are going to have a lot of traveling to do. It is for precisely this problem
that cluster or area random sampling was invented.
In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:
 divide population into clusters (usually along geographic boundaries)
 randomly sample clusters
 measure all units within sampled clusters

For instance, in the figure we see a map of the counties in New York State. Let’s say that we
have to do a survey of town governments that will require us going to the towns personally. If
we do a simple random sample state-wide we’ll have to cover the entire state geographically.
Instead, we decide to do a cluster sampling of five counties (marked in red in the figure).
Once these are selected, we go to every town government in the five areas. Clearly this
strategy will help us to economize on our mileage. Cluster or area sampling, then, is useful in
situations like this, and is done primarily for efficiency of administration. Note also, that we
probably don’t have to worry about using this approach if we are conducting a mail or
telephone survey because it doesn’t matter as much (or cost more or raise inefficiency) where
we call or send letters to.

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Multi-Stage Sampling
The four methods we’ve covered so far – simple, stratified, systematic and cluster – are the
simplest random sampling strategies. In most real applied social research, we would use
sampling methods that are considerably more complex than these simple variations. The most
important principle here is that we can combine the simple methods described earlier in a
variety of useful ways that help us address our sampling needs in the most efficient and
effective manner possible. When we combine sampling methods, we call this multi-stage
sampling.

For example, consider the idea of sampling New York State residents for face-to-face
interviews. Clearly we would want to do some type of cluster sampling as the first stage of the
process. We might sample townships or census tracts throughout the state. But in cluster
sampling we would then go on to measure everyone in the clusters we select. Even if we are
sampling census tracts we may not be able to measure everyone who is in the census tract. So,
we might set up a stratified sampling process within the clusters. In this case, we would have a
two-stage sampling process with stratified samples within cluster samples. Or, consider the
problem of sampling students in grade schools. We might begin with a national sample of
school districts stratified by economics and educational level. Within selected districts, we
might do a simple random sample of schools. Within schools, we might do a simple random
sample of classes or grades. And, within classes, we might even do a simple random sample of
students. In this case, we have three or four stages in the sampling process and we use both
stratified and simple random sampling. By combining different sampling methods we are able
to achieve a rich variety of probabilistic sampling methods that can be used in a wide range of
social research contexts.
Nonprobability Sampling
The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that nonprobability
sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. Does that mean
that nonprobability samples aren’t representative of the population? Not necessarily. But it
does mean that nonprobability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability
theory. At least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we have
represented the population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic.
With nonprobability samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it will
often be hard for us to know how well we’ve done so. In general, researchers prefer
probabilistic or random sampling methods over nonprobabilistic ones, and consider them to
be more accurate and rigorous. However, in applied social research there may be
circumstances where it is not feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random
sampling. Here, we consider a wide range of nonprobabilistic alternatives.
We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or
purposive. Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually approach the
sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most important distinctions among these
types of sampling methods are the ones between the different types of purposive sampling
approaches.

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Accidental, Haphazard or Convenience Sampling
One of the most common methods of sampling goes under the various titles listed here. I
would include in this category the traditional “man on the street” (of course, now it’s
probably the “person on the street”) interviews conducted frequently by television news
programs to get a quick (although nonrepresentative) reading of public opinion. I would also
argue that the typical use of college students in much psychological research is primarily a
matter of convenience. (You don’t really believe that psychologists use college students
because they believe they’re representative of the population at large, do you?). In clinical
practice,we might use clients who are available to us as our sample. In many research
contexts, we sample simply by asking for volunteers. Clearly, the problem with all of these
types of samples is that we have no evidence that they are representative of the populations
we’re interested in generalizing to – and in many cases we would clearly suspect that they are
not.

Purposive Sampling
In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or
more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever run into people
in a mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are stopping various people
and asking if they could interview them? Most likely they are conducting a purposive sample
(and most likely they are engaged in market research). They might be looking for Caucasian
females between 30-40 years old. They size up the people passing by and anyone who looks to
be in that category they stop to ask if they will participate. One of the first things they’re
likely to do is verify that the respondent does in fact meet the criteria for being in the sample.
Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted
sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a
purposive sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your target population, but you are
also likely to overweight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible.
All of the methods that follow can be considered subcategories of purposive sampling
methods. We might sample for specific groups or types of people as in modal instance, expert,
or quota sampling. We might sample for diversity as in heterogeneity sampling. Or, we might
capitalize on informal social networks to identify specific respondents who are hard to locate
otherwise, as in snowball sampling. In all of these methods we know what we want – we are
sampling with a purpose.

Modal Instance Sampling

In statistics, the mode is the most frequently occurring value in a distribution. In sampling,
when we do a modal instance sample, we are sampling the most frequent case, or the
“typical” case. In a lot of informal public opinion polls, for instance, they interview a
“typical” voter. There are a number of problems with this sampling approach. First, how do
we know what the “typical” or “modal” case is? We could say that the modal voter is a person
who is of average age, educational level, and income in the population. But, it’s not clear that

12
using the averages of these is the fairest (consider the skewed distribution of income, for
instance). And, how do you know that those three variables – age, education, income – are the
only or even the most relevant for classifying the typical voter? What if religion or ethnicity is
an important discriminator? Clearly, modal instance sampling is only sensible for informal
sampling contexts.

Expert Sampling
Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or demonstrable
experience and expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a sample under the auspices of
a “panel of experts.” There are actually two reasons you might do expert sampling. First,
because it would be the best way to elicit the views of persons who have specific expertise. In
this case, expert sampling is essentially just a specific subcase of purposive sampling. But the
other reason you might use expert sampling is to provide evidence for the validity of another
sampling approach you’ve chosen. For instance, let’s say you do modal instance sampling and
are concerned that the criteria you used for defining the modal instance are subject to
criticism. You might convene an expert panel consisting of persons with acknowledged
experience and insight into that field or topic and ask them to examine your modal definitions
and comment on their appropriateness and validity. The advantage of doing this is that you
aren’t out on your own trying to defend your decisions – you have some acknowledged
experts to back you. The disadvantage is that even the experts can be, and often are, wrong.

Quota Sampling
In quota sampling, you select people non-randomly according to some fixed quota. There are
two types of quota sampling: proportional and non-proportional. In proportional quota
sampling you want to represent the major characteristics of the population by sampling a
proportional amount of each. For instance, if you know the population has 40% women and
60% men, and that you want a total sample size of 100, you will continue sampling until you
get those percentages and then you will stop. So, if you’ve already got the 40 women for your
sample, but not the sixty men, you will continue to sample men but even if legitimate women
respondents come along, you will not sample them because you have already “met your
quota.” The problem here (as in much purposive sampling) is that you have to decide the
specific characteristics on which you will base the quota. Will it be by gender, age, education
race, religion, etc.?
Non-proportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. In this method, you specify the
minimum number of sampled units you want in each category. here, you’re not concerned
with having numbers that match the proportions in the population. Instead, you simply want
to have enough to assure that you will be able to talk about even small groups in the
population. This method is the non-probabilistic analogue of stratified random sampling in
that it is typically used to assure that smaller groups are adequately represented in your
sample.

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Heterogeneity Sampling
We sample for heterogeneity when we want to include all opinions or views, and we aren’t
concerned about representing these views proportionately. Another term for this is sampling
for diversity. In many brainstorming or nominal group processes (including concept
mapping), we would use some form of heterogeneity sampling because our primary interest is
in getting broad spectrum of ideas, not identifying the “average” or “modal instance” ones. In
effect, what we would like to be sampling is not people, but ideas. We imagine that there is a
universe of all possible ideas relevant to some topic and that we want to sample this
population, not the population of people who have the ideas. Clearly, in order to get all of the
ideas, and especially the “outlier” or unusual ones, we have to include a broad and diverse
range of participants. Heterogeneity sampling is, in this sense, almost the opposite of modal
instance sampling.

Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion
in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know who also meet
the criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to representative samples, there are
times when it may be the best method available. Snowball sampling is especially useful when
you are trying to reach populations that are inaccessible or hard to find. For instance, if you
are studying the homeless, you are not likely to be able to find good lists of homeless people
within a specific geographical area. However, if you go to that area and identify one or two,
you may find that they know very well who the other homeless people in their vicinity are and
how you can find them.

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 SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT – V – Introduction to Communication Research – SVC1301

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 IV. Classification and Tabulation

After the collection of data is completed, it is prepared for analysis. As the data is raw, it
needs to be transformed in such a way, that it is appropriate for analysis. The form of data,
highly influences the result of analysis and so, to get positive results, the data preparation
should be proper. There are various steps of data preparation, which include editing, coding,
classification, tabulation, graphical representation and so on. • For a layperson, classification
and tabulation are same, but the fact is they are different, as the former is a means to sort
data, for further analysis while the latter is used to present data.
CLASSIFICATION
Classification is that the process of classifying data into groups

TABULATION
Tabulation is the act of presenting data in tabular form, for better interpretation.
DEFINITION OF CLASSIFICATION
• Classification refers to a process, wherein data is arranged based on the characteristic
under consideration, into classes, or groups, as per resemblance of observations.
Classification puts the data in a condensed form, as it removes unnecessary details that helps
to easily comprehend data. • The data collected for the first time is raw data and so it is
arranged in haphazard manner, which does not provide a clear picture. The classification of
data reduces the large volume of raw data into homogeneous groups, i.e. data having common
characteristics or nature are placed in one group and thus, the whole data is bifurcated into a
number of groups. there are four types of classification: • Qualitative Classification or
Ordinal Classification • Quantitative Classification • Chronological or Temporal
Classification • Geographical or Spatial Classification DEFINITION OF TABULATION •
Tabulation refers to a logical data presentation, wherein raw data is summarized and
displayed in a compact form, i.e. in statistical tables. In other words, it is a systematic
arrangement of data in columns and rows, that represents data in concise and attractive way.
One should follow the given guidelines for tabulation. • A serial number should be allotted to
the table, in addition to the self explanatory title. • The statistical table is required to be
divided into four parts, i.e. Box head, Stub, Caption and Body. The complete upper part of
the table that contains columns and sub-columns, along with caption, is the Box Head. The
left part of the table, giving description of rows is called stub. The part of table that contains
numerical figures and other content is its body. • Length and Width of the table should be
perfectly balanced. • Presentation of data should be such that it takes less time and labor to
make comparison between various figures. • Footnotes, explaining the source of data or any
other thing, are to be presented at the bottom of the table.
Significance of Report Writing In general, reporting writing is very helpful for making the
record of documentation. With the help of reports, we can easily recognize our work. For
example, reports play a vital role in schools and colleges for knowing how many students have
joined in this year. Report writing also helps the director of the industry, business or any

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organization in order to make quick decisions and planning of anything. The importance of
report writing is that it also helps to communicate within the company that is workers, to
discuss the problems of the business and to give investor details of everyday running. A report
can be good when it can be written in the manner of proper communication and written
communication. SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING • Easy Tool for Making
Decision • Analysis • Evaluation • Quick Source • Improvement of Skill • Explain Facts •
Professional Improvements • Fully Control • Easy Tool • Handle Complex Situation • Skills
You Need!
EASY TOOL FOR MAKING DECISION In this modern world, huge companies need a large
number of information. The only solution to manage this is to make reports. With the help of
report writing, necessary judgments can be made in business. Report writing provides easy,
updated and helpful details in a document. ANALYSIS Report is very important because
whenever any issue occurs, a group of committees try to find the reason for that issue and
provide the whole scenario and results with or without the suggestion in the shape of report
writing. EVALUATION A company that is based on a large scale are involved in many
different activities. Due to this reason, it is impossible for the management to keep an eye on
every one of what everybody is doing. Therefore, the management finds an easy way and
writes a report to highlight the acts of every department. QUICK SOURCE It is a fact that
marketing managers require details in order to make a quick decision. In this case, sometimes
a senior manager seems to be very busy for many reasons that’s why it requires authentic
sources to get information. These types of sources can be in the form of report writing.
IMPROVEMENT OF SKILL Report writing helps you to improve the skills of designing,
judgments, and means of communication. Therefore, these skills make a way to promote you.
EXPLAIN FACTS Facts can be considered in a way that can be obtained naturally. That is
why this type of presentation is verified with the help of a report because it examines and
explores, calculates and many other things about any fact. PROFESSIONAL
IMPROVEMENTS Report writing is very important if we talk about the advancement and
improvement of the professional. For example, in a company, if anyone is selected for
promotion, so before this, you have to make report writing document in which you will write
about the position, performance satisfaction and level of working, with the help of all these
points you can be able to make a report and submitted to the manager so that promotion can
be given to that particular person fulfilling all the requirements areas. FULLY CONTROL
No matter, the activities are fully achieved in accordance with the plan or not. That is why in
order to control such activities it depends mainly on report writing. EASY TOOL Many of
the reports make an easy way of activities for the managers. In order for planning, promoting,
controlling and managing. No doubt a report writing plays a vital role to help a manager as
the report refers to as a source of information. HANDLE COMPLEX SITUATION In an
organization that is based on a large scale, there might always have a problem of labor which
may result in complex conditions. In order to handle this situation, managers make a report.
SKILLS YOU NEED! If you are looking for some extra help and want new ideas? A firm
named, Best Assignment Writers gives you help in any kind of field of study that you
currently need. You can submit all your work to online report writers in order to get high-
quality results that your teacher will surely surprise and amazed. You must feel free to get
any information regarding your assignment topic and can contact us at any time! This is quite
helpful for students to get free from any problematic report and assignment writing.

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TYPES OF REPORTS • Types of reports include • memos, meeting minutes, • expense
reports, • audit reports, • closure reports, • progress reports, • justification reports, •
compliance reports, • annual reports, • feasibility reports.