An Industrial Training Report on

33/11 KV SUB STATION, PERAVALLI

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
DIPLOMA
in
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Submitted by
B.V.SURYA NARAYANA
(21243-EE-005)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Mr. D.DHANA PRASAD, M.Tech, (Ph.D)
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SRI VASAVI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(2nd Shift Polytechnic)
(Recognized by SBTET, A.P.Vijayawada, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
Pedatadepalli, Tadepalligudem-534101, W.G.District, A.P, India
2021-2024
 SRI VASAVI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(2nd Shift Polytechnic)
(Recognized by SBTET, A.P., Vijayawada, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
Pedatadepalli, Tadepalligudem-534101, W.G.District, A.P, India

DEPARTMENT OFELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the industrial training report entitled “33/11kV SUBSTATION
PERAVALI” is a bonafide work done B.V.SURYA NARAYANA (21243-EE-005) submitted in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the DIPLOMA in Electrical & Electronics
Engineering, during the academic year 2021-2024. The industrial observation enclosed in this
report have been verified and found satisfactory.

Mr.D.DHANA PRASAD,M.Tech, (Ph.D) Dr. D.SUDHA RANI,ME,Ph.D

(Internal Guide) (Head of the Department)

Mr.G.RAMPRADSAD,M.Tech
(In-charge Of Polytechnic Courses) EXTERNAL EXAMINER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Dr. G.V.N.S.R. Ratnakara Rao, B.E,M.E, Ph.D,and Principal of our college
for his constant support throughout the Industrial Training.

I would also like to thank Dr.D. Sudharani, M.E,Ph.D Head of the department of Electrical &
Electronics Engineering for supporting us to do our Industrial Training.

I would also like to thank Mr. G. Ramaprasad, M.Tech, In charge of Polytechnic Course for
permitting me to do my Industrial Training.

I would also like to thank our guide Mr.D. Dhana Prasad, M.Tech, Ph.D, Asst. Prof in EEE
department of our college for his constant support throughout he Industrial Training.

I would also like to thank Mr.D.David Nichell, Assistant Engineer of 33/11 KV Sub Station
Peravali for his constant support throughout he Industrial Training.

I would also like thank my family for always being there for me. Their love, constant support and
encouragement to achieve my goals.

Finally, we would also like to thank all those who directly or indirectly helped me during this
Industrial Training.

B.V.SURYA NARAYANA
(21243-EE-005)
 ABSTRACT
A substation receives electrical power from generating station via incoming transmission line and
delivers electrical power through feeders and this is used for controlling the power on different routes.
Substations are integral part of a power system and form important part of transmission and distribution
network of electrical power system. Their main functions are to receive energy transmitted at high voltage
from the generating stations, reduce the voltage to a value appropriate for local distribution and provide
facilities for switching some substation are simply switching stations different connections between
various transmission lines are made. Others are converting sub-stations, which either convert AC into DC
or vice versa or convert frequency from higher to lower or vice-versa. The various circuits are joined
together through these components to a bus bar at substation. Sub-station consists of power transformers,
circuit breakers, relays, isolators, earthing, switches, current transformers, voltage transformers,
synchronous condensers/ capacitor banks etc. This mini project covers the important equipment& amp;
their function in a sub- station. In addition, an attempt is made to cover the general maintenance of
substation and checks the observations to be made by shift engineer.

B.V.SURYA NARAYANA
(21243-EE-005)
 INDEX
CONTENTS

Chapters Page numbers

1 INTRODUCTION 1-4
1.0.Substation 1
1.1 Operation of substation 1
1.2 Classification of substation 2
1.2.1. According to service requirement 2
1.2.2. According to constructional features 2
1.3. Single line diagram for 33/11kv ss peravali 2-3

2 TRANSFORMERS 5-13
2.0 About transformer 5
2.1 Working principle of transformer 6
2.2 Emf equation of transformer 6-8
2.3 Classification of transformer 8
2.4 Parts of transformer & their functions 9
2.4.1. Laminated core 9
2.4.2Windings 10
2.4.3Insulating material 10
2.4.4Transformer oil 10
2.4.5Buchholz relay 10
2.4.6Tap changer 11
2.4.7Oil conservator 11
2.4.8Breather 11
2.4.9Explosion vent 11
2.4.10Radiator & fans 12
2.5. Specification of PTR 1 12
2.6.Specification of PTR 2 13
3 EQUPIMENT OF 33/11 KV SUB STATION 14-31
3.0 Bus bar 14
3.1 Single bus bar arrangement 14
3.1.1Single bus bar arrangement with bus sectionalisation 15
 3.1.2Main & transformer bus arrangement 16
3.2 Circuit breaker 18
3.3 Isolators 18
3.4 Types of isolator’s 18
3.5 Lightning arrester 19
3.5.1Working of lightning arrester 19
3.6 Types of lightning arrester 20
3.6.1Thyrite lightning arrester 21
3.6.2Metal oxide surge arrester 22
3.7 Wave traps 23
3.8 Capacitive voltage transformer 24
3.9 Insulators 24
3.10 Pin insulator 25
3.11 Suspension insulator 26
3.12 Strain insulator 26
3.13 Stay insulator 27
3.14 Shackle insulator 27
3.15 Types of conductors 28
3.16 Instrument transformer 28
3.16.1Current transformer 28
3.16.2Potential transformer 29
3.17 Capacitor bank 30-31
4 PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 32-49
4.0 Circuit breaker 32
4.1 Working principle of circuit breaker 32
4.2 Arc phenomenon 32
4.3 Different types of circuit breaker’s 32
4.3.1Based on voltage 32
4.3.2By installation of location 33
4.3.3Based on external design 33
4.3.4By interrupting mechanism 33
4.4 Relays 34
4.4.1Definition of relay 34
4.5 Relays for transmission & distribution line protection 36
4.6 Transformer protection & different type of relays 37
4.6.1Differential relays 37
 4.7 Differential protection scheme in a power transformer 37
4.7.1Principle of protection 37
4.7.2Percentage of differential relay 38
4.7.3Working function of percentage different production 39
4.7.4Characteristics of percentage relay 40
4.7.5Philosophy of protective relaying 40
4.8 Earthing 40
4.8.1Pipe earthing 41
4.8.2Plate earthing 43
4.9 Maintenance of schedules 44
4.9.1Transformers & reactors 44
4.9.2Circuit breakers 46
4.9.3Current transformer 46
4.10 4.9.4 Potential transformers /capacitance voltage
transformer/coupling 47
4.9.5 Protection system 48-49
5 Conclusion 50
 LIST OF FIGURES
CONTENTS

Chapters Page numbers

1 Figure: 1.1 Single line diagram of 33/11 kv sub station 3

2 Figure:2.0 Single phase transformer 5
Figure :2.1 Diagram of transformer core 6
Figure :2.2 Sinusoidal wave form 7
Figure :2.3 Power transformer 1 12
Figure :2.4 Power transformer 2 13
3 Figure :3.0 Bus bar 14
Figure :3.1 Schematic diagram of bus bar arrangement 15
Figure :3.1.1Schematic diagram of single bus bar arrangement
with bus sectionalisation 16
Figure :3.1.2Schematic diagram of main & transfer bus
arrangement 17
Figure :3.2 Circuit breaker 18
Figure :3.3 Isolator 18
Figure :3.4 Classification of isolator 19
Figure :3.5 Characteristics of voltage 20
Figure :3.6 Characteristics of current 20
Figure :3.7 Valve type of lightning arrester 21
Figure :3.8 Thyrite of lightning arrester 22
Figure :3.9 Metal oxide surge lightning arrestors 23
Figure :3.10 Wave traps 24
Figure :3.11 Capacitive voltage transformer 24
Figure :3.12 Pin insulator 25
Figure :3.13 Suspension insulator 26
Figure :3.14 Strain insulator 27
Figure :3.15 Stay insulator 27
Figure :3.16 Shackle insulator 28
Figure :3.17 Current transformer 29
Figure :3.18 Potential transformer 30
Figure :3.19 Capacitor bank 31
4 Figure :4.0 Principle of differential protection 38
Figure :4.1 Percentage differential relay or based differential
protection 39
Figure :4.2Characteristics of percentage relay 40
Figure :4.3 Pipe earthing 41
Figure :4.3.1Schematic diagram of pipe earthing 42
Figure : 4.4 Schematic diagram of plate earthing 43
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.0 SUBSTATION:

A substation is the part if an electrical generation transmission and distribution system

.Substation transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse or perform any of several other
important functions.

The present day electrical power system is A.C .i.e, electrical power is generated
transmitted & distributed in the form of the alternating current. The electric power is produced at
power plant stations, which are located at favourable places generally quite away from the
consumers. It is delivered to the consumers through a large network of transmission 7
distribution. At many places in the power system, it may be desirable and necessary to change
some characteristics e.g. voltage, ac to dc, frequency, power factor etc. of electric supply. This
accomplished by suitable apparatus called substation. For example, generation voltage (11kv or
33kv) at the power station is set up to high voltage (say 220kv or 132kv) for transmission of
electric power. The assembly of apparatus (e.g. transformer etc.) used for this purpose in the
substation similarly near the consumer’s localities; the voltage may have to be step down to
utilization level. Suitable apparatus called substation accomplishes this job.

1.1 OPERATION OF SUBSATION

Substation may perform the following operations.

 Switching operation
To switch on and off the power line.
 Power converting operation
To change ac power into dc power and vice versa.
 Frequency changing operation
To change the supply frequency level i.e. from high level to low level or vice versa.
 Power factor correction operation
To improve the power factor of the system using static capacitors, synchronous
Condensers or phase advancer

1.2 CLASSIFICATIONOFSUBSTATIONS
The substation may classify into several ways .The two important ways of classifying the
substations areas follows.

1
 1.2.1. According to service requirement
In accordance with the service performed, substations are classified as

 Switching substation
 Transformer substation
 Converting substation
 Industrial substation
1.2.2. According to constructional features
In accordance with the constructional features substations are classified as

 Indoor substation
 Outdoor substation
 Pole mount substation
 Plinth mount substation

1.3. 33/11KVSS PERAVALI

The 33kv substation Peravali, which was commissioned on18-08-1982. The main bus
33kv is connected to grid located at 132/33KV,” TANUKU” Now the transmission line
first parallel connected with lighting arrestor to diverge, followed CVT connected parallel.
CVT measures voltage and step down at 110v. A.C. for control Panel, a current
transformer is connected in series with line, which measure current, and Step down current
at ratio 200:1 for control panel. Transformer step-downs voltage from 33KV to 11KV. A
step down transformer of 11kv/440v is connected to control panel to provide supply to the
equipment of the substation. Capacitor bank is connected to main Bus of 11kv.It is
provided to improve power factor &voltage profile.
The main equipment in Substation are

1. Power transformers (PTR)

2. Circuit breakers
3. Current transformers (CT’s)
4. Potential transformers (PT’s)
5. Relay circuits
6. Isolators
7. Lightening arresters
8. Capacitor bank
9. Capacitive voltage transformer

2
 1.3.1. SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF 33/11 KV SS PERAVALI

33kv Incoming supply (Penugonda)

33kv AB Switch

33 kv Alternating supply (Tanuku)

33kv AB Switch

33kvbreaker

33kv AB Switch 33kv Bus Bar

33kv AB Switch

33kv HG Fuse

8MVA 33/11 kv Step-down Transformers 5MVA

LV-I LV-II

11kv AB Switch AB Switch DTR 11kv AB Switch

PT
11kv Bus Bar

11kv AB Switches 11kv AB Switches 11kv AB Switches

Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit

Breaker Breaker Breaker Breaker Breaker Breaker

CT CT CT CT CT CT

\ 11kv AB Switches 11kv AB Switches 11kv AB Switches

MALLESWARAM MUKKAMALA TEEPARRU PERAVALLI KHANDAVALLI KAKARAPARU

Figure: 1.1:Single diagram of 33/11kv Substation

3
33/11kv SS Peravali Six feeders
1. Malleswaram (630 A)
2. Mukkamala (1250 A)
3. Teeparru(1250 A)
4. Kakarparru(1250 A)
5. Khandavalli(1250 A)
6. Peravali Town(630 A)

 Malleswarm feeder is connected to malleswaram rural village. For this feeder

agriculture motors and house loads are connected.
 Mukkamala feeder is connected to mukkamala rural village. For this feeder
agriculture motors and house loads are connected.
 Teeparru feeder is connected to teeparru rural village. For this feeder house loads are
connected.
 Kakarparru feeder is connected to kakarparru rural village. For this feeder house
loads are connected.
 Khandavalli feeder is connected to khandavalli rural village. For this feeder house
loads are connected.
 Peravali feeder is connected to peravali town. For this feeder house loads are
connected.

4
 CHAPTER-2

TRANSFORMERS
2.0. ABOUT TRANSFORMER

Figure: 2.0 Single-phase transformer

A transformer is a static device .Which transfer’s electrical energy from one circuit to the
other circuit without changing frequency, while doing so the voltage may be increased or
decreased with a corresponding decrement or increment of current.

A transformer consists of two windings. The winding connected to the supply is called
primary winding and the winding connected to the load is called the secondary winding. In an
ideal transformer the induced voltage in the secondary winding (vS) is in proportional to the
Primary voltage (VP) and is given by the ratio of number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the
number of turns in the primary (NP) as follows.
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
= ……… (1)
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating

current (A.C) voltage to be step up by making Ns greater than Np, or step down by making Ns
less than Np.

Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed.
The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

5
2.1. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER

Figure: 2.1: Diagram of transformer core

The basic principle behind working of a transformer is the phenomenon of mutual induction
between two windings linked by common magnetic flux. The transformer consists of two inductive
coils; primary winding and secondary winding the coils are electrically separated but magnetically
linked to each other. When, primary winding is connected to a source of alternating voltage
alternating magnetic flux is produced around the winding. The core provides magnetic path for the
flux, to get linked with the secondary winding. Most of the flux gets linked with the secondary
winding which is called as 'useful flux' or main 'flux', and the flux which does not get linked with
secondary winding is called as 'leakage flux'. As the flux produced is alternating (the direction of it
is continuously changing), EMF gets induced in the secondary winding according to Faraday's law
of electromagnetic induction. This emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the frequency of
mutually induced emf is same as that of supplied emf. If the secondary winding is closed circuit,
then mutually induced current flows through it and hence the electrical energy is transferred from
one circuit (primary) to another circuit (secondary).

2.2. EMF equation of a transformer

Transformation Ratio In a transformer, source of alternating current is applied to the primary
winding. Due to this, the current in the primary winding (called as magnetizing current) produces
alternating flux in the core of transformer. This alternating flux is linked with the secondary winding,
and because of the phenomenon of mutual induction, an emf gets induced in the secondary winding.

6
Magnitude of this induced emf can be found by using the following EMF equation of the transformer.
EMF equation of the Transformer

Let,

N1 = Number of turns in primary winding

N2 = Number of turns in secondary Winding

∅𝑚 = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (𝐵𝑚 = 𝐴)

f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)

Figure: 2.2 Sinusoidal waveform

As, shown in the figure.The flux rises sinusoidal to its maximum value Φmfrom zero. It
𝑇
reaches to the maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e I sec (where, T is time period of the
4
1
sin wave of the supply = 𝐹).

Therefore,

∅𝑚 ∅𝑚
Average rate of change of flux = 𝑇 = 1 ………… (1)
4 4𝑓

Therefore, average rate of change of flux = 4f ∅𝑚 , (Wb/s)

Now, Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn .………(2)

Therefore, average emf per turn = 4f Φm, (Volts).

RMS VALUE
Now, we know, Form factor = Average value ...………..(3)

Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 × 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒emf per turn.

7
As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidal, form factor of a sine wave is 1.11

Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn =1.11 × 4𝑓∅𝑚 = 4.44f∅𝑚 ……(4)

RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1) = 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 ×
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

E1 = 4.44f𝑁1 ∅𝑚 …….(5)

Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E2)can be given as

E2 =4.44f𝑁2 ∅𝑚 ,……(6)

From the above equations 5and 6,

𝐸1 𝐸
= 𝑁2 = 4.44𝑓∅𝑚 …….(7)
𝑁1 2

This is called the emf equation of transformer, which shows, emf / number of turns is same
for both primary and secondary winding.

For an ideal transformer on no load,𝐸1 = 𝑉1 and 𝐸2 = 𝑉2 .

Where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding

V2= terminal voltage of secondary winding

Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

As derived above,
𝐸1 𝐸2
= =𝐾
𝑁1 𝑁2

Where, K = constant this constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

▪ If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1, then the transformer is called step-up transformer.

▪ If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1, then the transformer is called step-down transformer.

2.3. Classification of Transformers

Transformers are classified into four types. They are

8
 1. Power transformer
a. Step up transformer
b. Step down transformer
2. Distribution transformer
3. Instrument transformer
a. Current transformer
b. Potential transformer
4. Welding transformer

2.4. Parts of Transformer and their Functions

Following are the various parts of transformer:
1. Laminated core
2. Windings
3. Insulating material
4. Tank
5. Terminals and bushings
6. Transformer oil
7. Tap changer
8. Buchholz relay
9. Oil conservator
10. Explosion vent
11. Breather
12. Radiator and fans
2.4.1. Laminated Core
Laminated core is the most important part of transformer, used to support the windings of
the transformer. It is made up of laminated soft iron material to reduce eddy current loss and
hysteresis loss. Nowadays in the core of the transformer, laminated sheets are used to minimize eddy
current losses, and CRGO steel material is used to minimize hysteresis losses. The composition of
the core material depends on the voltage, current, and frequency of supply to the transformer.

9
2.4.2. Windings
In a transformer always, two sets of windings are placed on a laminated core and these are
insulated from each other. Winding consists of several no of turns of copper conductors that are
bundled together and connected in series. The main function of windings is to carry current produce
working magnetic flux and induce mutual EMF for transformer action. Windings are classified in
two ways. There are
a. Based on the input and output of the supplyb. Based on the voltage level of the supply
2.4.3. Insulating Material
Insulation is required between each turn of windings, between windings, winding, and core,
and all current-carrying parts and the tank of the transformer. The main function of insulating
material is to protect the transformer against short circuits by providing insulation to windings so
that it does not come in contact with the core and any other conducting material. The
insulating material of the transformer should have high dielectric Properties and also good
mechanical strength and temperature withstand capability. Synthetic material, papers, cotton cloth,
etc. are used as insulating material in transformers.
2.4.4. Transformer Oil
The function of transformer oil is to provide insulation between windings as well as cooling
due to its chemical properties and very good dielectric strength. It dissipates the heat generated by
the core and windings of a transformer to the external environment. When the windings of the
transformer get heated due to the flow of current and losses, the oil cools down the windings by
circulating inside the transformer and transferring heat to the external environment through its
cooling tubes. Hydro-carbon mineral oil is used as transformer oil and acts as a coolant. It is
composed of aromatics, paraffin, naphthenic, and olefins.
2.4.5. Buchholz Relay
Buchholz relay is the most important part of a power transformer rated at more than 500kVA.
It the function of the Buchholz relay is to protect the transformer from all internal faults such as short
circuit faults, inter-turn faults, etc. When a short circuit occurs in winding it generates enough heat
to decompose transformer oil into. These gases move toward the conservator tank through a
connecting pipe, and then due to these gases, the Buchholz relay gets activated. It sends a signal to

10
trip and alarm circuits and activates it. Then circuit breaker disconnects the transformer from the
supply.
2.4.6. Tap Changer
The main function of the tap changer is to regulate the output voltage of the transformer by
changing its turn ratio. There are two types of tap changers.
1. On-Load Tap Changer: In an on-load tap changer, tapping can be changed without isolating
the transformer from the supply. Hence it is capable of operating without interrupting the
power supply.
2. Off-Load Tap Changer: In the off-load tap changer, the transformer needs to isolate from
the supply to change its tapping (turns ratio).
2.4.7. Oil Conservator
The function of the oil conservator tank is to provide adequate space for the expansion and
contraction of transformer oil. It is a cylindrical drum-type structure installed on the top of the main
tank of the transformer. It is connected to the main tank through a pipe and a Buchholz relay mounted
on the pipe. A level indicator is also installed on the oil conservator to indicate the quantity of oil
inside the conservator tank. It is normally half-filled with transformer oil.
2.4.8. Breather
The breather is a cylindrical container filled with silica gel and directly connected to the
conservator tank of the transformer. The main function of the breather is to supply moisture-free
fresh air to the conservator tank during the expansion and contraction of transformer oil. In a
breather, the silica gel crystal absorbs when air passes through silica gel the moisture present in the
air and hence moisture-free dry air is supplied to the conservator tank. Thus, we can also say that
the breather is acting as an air filter for the transformer.
2.4.9. Explosion Vent
An explosion vent is a metallic pipe with a diaphragm at one end and installed on the main
tank slightly above than conservator tank. The main function of the explosion vent is to protect the
power transformer against explosion during excessive pressure build-up in the main tank due to
severe internal faults. It acts as an emergency exit for oil and hot air gases inside the main tank of
the transformer.

11
2.4.10. Radiator and Fans
The main function of cooling tubes or radiators is to transfer heat generated by the core and
windings to the environment by circulating heated oil throughout the cooling tubes. In a large power
transformer, forced cooling is achieved with the help of cooling fans fitted on the radiator.
2.5. Specifications of PTR-1(8MVA)

Figure: 2.3: Power transformer 1

Make - APEX
Rating - 8MVA
Voltage (HV) - 33kv
voltage (LV) - 11kv
Rated load current - 139. 96A
Rated load current - 419.89A
Frequency - 50 HZ
Impedance voltage - 8.35%
Mass of Core& Oil - 9500kg
Mass of tank& fitting - 6000kg
Mass of oil - 4500kg
Total mass - 20000kg

12
2.6. Specifications of PTR- II (5MVA)

Figure: 2.4: Power transformer 2

Make - APEX
Rating - 5 MVA
Voltage (HV) - 33kv

voltage (LV) - 11kv

Rated load current - 87.5A

Rated load current - 262.4A

Frequency - 50 HZ

Impedance voltage - 7.535%

Mass of Core - 41.30kg

Mass of tank& fitting - 5300kg

Mass of oil - 26200kg

Total mass - 15220kg

13
 CHAPTER-3

EQUIPMENTS OF 33/11KV SUBSTATION

3.0. BUS BAR

An electrical bus bar is defined as a conductor or a group of conductor used for collecting electric
power from the incoming feeders and distributes them to the outgoing feeders. In other words, it is
a type of electrical junction in which all the incoming and outgoing electrical current meets. Thus,
the electrical bus bar collects the electric power at one location.

Figure:3.0: Bus bar

The most common of the bus-bars are 40×4mm (160 mm2); 40×5 mm (200 mm2) ; 50×6 mm
(300mm2) ; 60×8 mm (480 mm2) ; 80×8 (640 mm2) and 100×10 mm (1000 mm2).

The various types of bus bar arrangement are used in the power system. The selection of the bus bar
is depended on the different factor likes reliability, flexibility, cost etc.
 The bus bar arrangement is simple and easy in maintenance.
 The maintenance of the system did not affect their continuity.
 The installation of the bus bar is cheap.
3.1. Single Bus-Bar Arrangement

The arrangement of such type of system is very simple and easy. The system has only one bus
bar along with the switch. All the substation equipment like the transformer, generator, and the
feeder is connected to this bus bar only. The advantages of single bus bar arrangements are

14
  It has low initial cost.
 It requires less maintenance
 It is simple in operation

Figure: 3.1: scehemetic diagram of bus bar arrengement

Drawbacks of Single Bus-Bars Arrangement

 The only disadvantage of such type of arrangement is that the complete supply is disturbed on
the occurrence of the fault.
 The arrangement provides the less flexibility and hence used in the small substation where
continuity of supply is not essential.
3.1.1. Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with Bus Sectionalized

In this type of bus bar arrangement, the circuit breaker and isolating switches are used. The
isolator disconnects the faulty section of the bus bar, hence protects the system from complete
shutdown. This type of arrangement uses one addition circuit breaker, which does not much increase
the cost of the system

15
 Figure: 3.1.1. Schematic diagram of Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with Bus Sectionalized

Advantage of single Bus-bar Arrangement with Bus Sectionalisation

The following are the advantages of sectionalized bus bar.

 The faulty section is removed without affecting the continuity of the supply.
 The maintenance of the individual section can be done without disturbing the system supply.
 The system has a current limiting reactor, which decreases the occurrence of the fault.

Disadvantages of Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with Sectionalisation

 The system uses the additional circuit breaker and isolator which increases the cost of the
system
3.1.2. Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement
Such type of arrangement uses two type of bus bar namely, main bus bar and the auxiliary
bus bar. The bus bar arrangement uses bus coupler, which connects the isolating switches and circuit
breaker to the bus bar. The bus coupler is also used for transferring the load from one bus to another
in case of overloading. The following are the steps of transferring the load from one bus to another.

16
 Figure :3.1.2 schemetic diagram ofMain and Transfer Bus Arrangement

 The potential of both the bus bar kept same by closing the bus coupler.
 The bus bar on which the load is transferred is kept close.
 Open the main bus bar.

Thus, the load is transferred from the main bus to reserve bus.

Advantages of Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement

 The continuity of the supply remains same even in the fault. When the fault occurs on any of
the buses the entire load is shifted to the another bus.
 The repair and maintenance can easily be done on the bus bar without disturbing their
continuity.
 The maintenance cost of the arrangement is less.
 The potential of the bus is used for the operation of the relay.
 The load can easily be shifted on any of the buses.

Disadvantages of Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement

 In such type of arrangements, two bus bars are used which increases the cost of the system.
 The fault on any of the bus would cause the complete shutdown overall substation

17
3.2. Circuit Breaker
Circuit breakers are used to open and close circuits. They can be operated manually to
perform maintenance or will automatically trip if a short circuit occurs. This function in the power
system is similar to that of the fuses or breakers in a household distribution panel.

Figure:3.2: circuit breaker

3.3. Isolators
Isolator is a manually operated mechanical switch that isolates the faulty section of
substation. It is used to separate faulty section for repair from a healthy section in order to avoid the
occurrence of severe faults. It is also called disconnect or disconnecting switch.

Figure:3.3: Isolator

3.4. Types of Isolators

 Based on the no poles.(single&3pole)

18
  Based on their service (indoor & outdoor)
 Isolators for earthing
 Single break &double break isolators.

Figure: 3.4: Classification of isolator

Applications of Isolator
The applications of isolator include the following.
 High Voltage Devices: Isolators are used in High Voltage devices.
 Isolator in Substation: When a fault occurs in a substation, then isolator cuts
out a portion of a substation.
 Signal Isolation: Isolators can be used for isolation of signal.

3.5. Lightning Arrester

The device, which is used, for the protection of the equipment at the substations against
travelling waves, such type of device is called lightning arrester or surge diverter. In other words,
lightning arrester diverts the abnormal high voltage to the ground without affecting the continuity of
supply. It is connected between the line and earth, i.e., in parallel with the equipment to be protected
at the substation

3.5.1. Working of Lightning Arrester

When a travelling wave reaches the arrestor, its sparks over at a certain prefixed voltage as
shown in the figurer below. The arrestor provides a conducting path to the waves of relatively low
impedance between the line and the ground. The surge impedance of the line restricts the amplitude
of current flowing to ground.

19
 Figure: 3.5.Characteristics of voltage Figure: 3.6. Characteristics of current

The lightning arrester provides a path of low impedance only when the travelling surge
reaches the surge diverter, neither before it nor after it. The insulation of the equipment can be
protected if the shape of the voltage and current at the diverter terminal is similar to the shape shown
below

3.6. Types of Lightning Arrestors

Valve Type Lightning Arrester

The valve type arrester consists of a multiple spark gap assembly in series with the resistor
of nonlinear element. The each spark gap has two elements. For non-uniform distribution between
the gaps, the non-linear resistors are connected in parallel across the gap.

20
 Figure :3.7: valve type lightning arrester

3.6. 1.Thyrite Lightning Arrester

A lightning arrester may be a spark gap or may have a block of a semiconducting material
such as silicon carbide or zinc oxide Thyrite arrester is most common and is mostly used for the
protection against high dangerous voltages. It consists the thyrite, which is an inorganic
compound of ceramic material. The resistance of such material decreases rapidly from high value
to low value and for current from a low value to high value. When the lightning takes place, the
voltage is raised, and breakdowns of the gaps occur, the resistance falls to a very low value, and
the wave is discharged to earth. After the surge has passed the thyrite, again come back to its
original position.

21
 Figure: 3.8: .Thyrite Lightning Arrester

3.6.2. Metal Oxide Surge Arrester

The arrester, which uses zinc oxide semiconductor as a resistor material, such type of arrester,
is known as a metal oxide surge arrester or ZnO Diverter. This arrester provides protection against
all types of AC and DC over voltages. It is mainly used for overvoltage protection at all voltage
levels in a power system.

22
 Figure: 3.9: Metal oxide surge arrester

Benefits of Lightening Arrester testing

 Lightning protection testing would make sure that all structures, key electrical and
electronic installations are safe from the effect of lightning strike.
 The financial benefits are determined as follows: how does the total annual cost for a
lightning protection system compare to the costs of potential damage without
aprotectionsystem?Thecostevaluationisbasedontheexpendituresfortheplanning,assembly,a
ndmaintenanceofthelightning protection system
3.7. Wave Traps
High frequency waves above 50 Hz are captured using a wave trap or line trap. A wave trap
is used to produce a high impedance to prevent high-frequency carrier waves from entering
undesirable locations, usually substations. All communication in carrier wave technology is sent at
a frequency between 150 kHz and 800 kHz.

23
 Figure: 3.10: wave traps

3.8. Capacitive Voltage Transformer

The capacitive voltage transformer step-down the high voltage input signals and provide the
low voltage signals, which can easily measure through the measuring instrument. The Capacitive
voltage transformer (CVT) is also called capacitive voltage transformer

Figure: 3.11: capacitive voltage transformer

3.9. Insulators
Insulators will generally be used in substations to separate and support electrical conductors
while not letting electrical currents flow through themselves. When electrical materials including
cables are wrapped in insulate material, this is referred to as insulating them.

24
Properties of Insulators
 It has large resistance and specific resistance.
 Large di-electric strength.
 High mechanical strength.
 Resisting high temperature.
 May not get change in nature due to temperature.
 It should not absorb water.
 Can be made to any shape.
 Cannot get fire simply.
Thereare5typesofinsulatorsusedintransmissionlinesasoverheadinsulation:
 Pin insulator
 Suspension insulator
 Strain insulator
 Stay insulator
 Shackle insulator
Pin, suspension, and strain insulators are used in medium to high voltage systems.While stay and
shackle insulators are mainly used in low voltage applications.

3.10. Pin Insulator

A pin insulator is a device that isolates a wire from a physical support such as a pin (a wooden
or metal dowel of about 3 cm diameter with screw threads) on a telegraph or utility pole. It is a
formed, single layer shape that is made out of a non-conducting material, usually porcelain glass.

Figure:3.12: Insulator

Advantages of Pin Insulator

25
  It has high mechanical strength.
 The pin type insulator has good creep age distance.
 It is used on the high voltage distribution line.
 The construction of the pin type insulator is simple and requires less maintenance.
 It can be used vertically as well as horizontally.
Disadvantages of Pin Insulator
 It should be used with the spindle.
 It is only used in the distribution line.
 The voltage rating is limited, i.e., up to36kV
 The pin of the insulator damaged the insulator thread.

3.11. Suspension Type Insulator

A suspension-type insulator protects an over headed transmission line like a conductor.
Generally, it is made up of porcelain material that includes a single or a string of insulating discs
hung over a tower. It operates at above 33KV and overcomes the limitation of pin-type insulators.
In higher voltage, beyond 33kv, it becomes uneconomical to use pin insulator because size, weight
of the insulator become more. Handling and replacing bigger size single unit insulator is quite
difficult task. For overcoming these difficulties, suspension insulator was developed.

Figure: 3.13: SUSPENSION TYPE INSULATOR

3.12. Strain Insulator

When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load of conductor it is referred
as string insulator. When there is a dead end or there is a sharp corner in transmission line, the line

26
has to sustain a great tensile load of conductor or strain. A strain insulator must have considerable
mechanical strength as well as the necessary electrical insulating properties

Figure: 3.14: STRAIN INSULATOR

3.13. Stay Insulator

A stay insulator is a type of low voltage insulator designed to fasten and counterweight the
dead-end pole by connecting with a stay wire or guy grip, it is also called a stay type insulator or
egg insulator.

Figure:3.15 : STAY INSULATOR

3.14. Shackle Insulator

The shackle insulator (also known as a spool insulator) is usually used in low voltage
distribution network. It can be used in both the horizontal or vertical positions. The use of such
insulator has decreased recently after increasing the using of underground cable for distribution
purpose. The tapered hole of the spool insulator distributes the load more evenly and minimizes the
possibility of breakage when heavily loaded. The conductor in the groove of shackle insulator is
fixed with the help of soft binding wire

27
 Figure :3.16 :SHACKLE INSULATOR

3.15. Types of Conductors

1. AAC : All Aluminium Conductor
2. AAAC: All Aluminium Alloy Conductor
3. ACSR: Aluminium Conductors Steel- Reinforced
4. ACAR: Aluminium Conductors Alloy- Reinforced
5. IACS: International Annealed Copper Stand
 The panther conductor is of (30+7)/3.00mm at 33/11 KV SS PERAVALI
 The 33kv bus of single panther conductor at 33/11 KV SS PERAVALI
The following sizes have now been standardized by CEA for transmission lines of different
voltages
 For 132kv lines: panther ACSR having 7- strands of steel of dia 3.00mm and 30-strands of
aluminium of dia3.00mm.
 For 220kv lines: “zebra” ACSR having 7-strands of steel of dia 3.18 mm and 54-strands of
aluminium of dia3.18mm.
 For 400kv lines : twin “moose” ACSR having 7-strands of steel of dia 3.53 mm and 54-
strands of aluminium of dia 3.53m
3.16. Instrument Transformer
Types Of Instrumenrt Transformer
3.16.1. Current Transformer (Ct)
A current transformer is designed to maintain an accurate ratio between the currents in its
primary and secondary circuits over a defined range. The alternating current in the primary produces
an alternating magnetic field in the core, which then induces an alternating current in the secondary.

28
 Figure: 3.17: Current transformer

The ratio of the primary current and the secondary current is known as a current transformer
ratio of the circuit. The current ratio of the transformer is usually high. The secondary current ratings
are of the order of 5A, 1A and 0.1A. The current primary ratings vary from 10A to 3000A or more.
The symbolic representation of the current transformer is shown in the figurer above.
3.16.2. Potential Transformer
A potential transformer (PT) or a Voltage Transformer (VT) is an Instrument Transformer
used to measure voltage. It is specially designed to maintain the correct voltage phase angle reference
between the Instrument Transformer's source and output and excellent voltage regulation to obtain
precise voltage measurements. Potential transformers are step-down transformers, i.e., they have
many turns in the primary winding while the secondary has few turns. The figurer shows a typical
potential transformer for the measurement of high alternating voltage. From the figure, it is clear
that a P.T. is a well-designed step down transformer.

Figure: 3.18: potential transformer

29
 The stepped down voltage by the Potential transformer can be measure using a low range
AC voltmeter. The potential transformer has shell type construction of its magnetic core for better
accuracy. One end of the secondary winding of the potential transformer is grounded to provide the
proper protection to the operator.
The primary winding of the potential transformer is connected across the high voltage power
line whose voltage is to be measured and a low-range AC voltmeter (usually 0-110V) is connected
across the secondary winding of the P.T.

3.17. Capacitor Bank

Capacitor banks are usually installed at specific points in the system, such as substations or
feeders, where they can provide the optimal amount of reactive power compensation for the load or
network conditions. Capacitor banks are generally used for improving power factor of electricity
consumed by bulk consumers e.g. industry. Usually the electrical power supply companies impose
a penalty, if the average power factor over a stipulated period falls below a certain value. A large
part of load of bulk consumers is inductive in nature because of use of induction motors. This causes
low power factor (lagging because of predominately-inductive loads). Capacitors, on the other hand,
constitute leading power factor load; thus compensating a major part of the inductive loads and result
in power factor close to unity but still lagging in nature. This improvement of power factor fulfils
the requirements of the supply company. Loads with low power factor draw more current from
supply than same active load with high power factor and hence cause increased power loss in supply
line. This increase of power loss is a waste for the supply company. Further supply companies need

30
to install higher size transmission / distribution equipment to supply the additional load current
because of the low power factor. To prevent these, the penalty for low power factor is imposed.

Figure: 3.19: Capacitor bank

31
 CHAPTER-4
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS

4.0. Circuit Breaker (C.B)

A.C.B is a piece of equipment, which can
1. Make or break an electrical circuit either manually or by remote control under normal
conditions.
2. Break a circuit automatically under fault conditions.
3. Make a circuit either, manually or by remote control under fault conditions
4.1. Working Principle of Circuit Breaker
Circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts. These contacts are touching
each other and carrying the current under normal conditions when the circuit is closed. When the
circuit breaker is closed, the current carrying contacts, called the electrodes, engaged each other
under the pressure of a spring.
During the normal operating condition, the arms of the circuit breaker can be opened or
closed for a switching and maintenance of the system. To open the circuit breaker, only a pressure
is required to be applied to a trigger.
Whenever a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coil of the breaker gets energized
and the moving contacts are getting apart from each other by some mechanism, thus opening the
circuit
4.2. Arc Phenomenon
When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated, there is a luminous electric discharge
between these two contacts known as ‘Arc’. This arc may continue until the discharge ceases. The
production of arc may delay the current interruption process and generate enormous heat which may
cause serious damage to system or to circuit breaker itself. Therefore, the main problem in a circuit
breaker is to extinguish the arc within the shortest possible time.
4.3. Different Types of Circuit Breakers
4.3.1. Based on Voltage
 High voltage circuit breakers: These breakers are rated for use at voltages greaterthan 2
kV. High voltage circuit breakers are further subdivided into transmission class breakers

32
  Low voltage circuit breakers: These breakers are rated for use at low voltages up to 2 kV
and are mainly used in small-scale industries
Those which are rated 123 kV and above
Medium voltage class (lesser than 72 kV) circuit breakers
4.3.2. By Installation Location
 Indoor circuit breakers: These are designed to use inside the buildings or in weather
resistant enclosures. They are typically operated at a medium voltage with a metal clad
switchgear enclosure
 Outdoor Circuit breakers: You can use these breakers outdoors without any roof due to
their design. Their external enclosure arrangement is strong compared to the indoor breakers
and can withstand wear and tear.
4.3.3. Based on External Design
 Dead tank circuit breakers: The breakers whose enclosed tank is at ground potential are
known as dead tank circuit breakers
 .Their tank encloses all the insulating and interrupting medium. In other words, the tank is
shorted to ground or it is at dead potential.
 Live tank circuit breakers: These breakers have a tank housing interrupter that is at a potential
above the ground. It is above the ground with some insulation medium in between
4.3.4. By Interrupting Mechanism
Air circuit breaker-This breaker uses air as an insulating and interrupting medium. The
breaker is sub-classified into two types
1. Low voltage circuit breaker whosevalueliesbelow1000V
2. High voltage circuit breaker whose value is1000Vandabove.It is further classified into oil
circuit breakers and the oil-less circuit breaker
 Oil circuit breaker-It uses oil as an interrupting and insulating medium. These breakers
are divided into two types based on the pressure and amount ofoilused.
 Vacuum circuit breakers-These breakers use vacuum as theinterrupting medium due to
its high dielectric and diffusive properties.
 MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)-The current ratings for this breaker are less than 100A
and has only one over-current protection built within it. The trip settings are not adjustable

33
 in this circuit.
 MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breakers)-Current ratings for these breakers are higher
than 1000A. They have earth fault protection along with current protection. The trip
settings of the Moulded Case Circuit Breaker can be adjusted easily.
 Single pole circuit breaker-This breaker has one hot wire and one neutral wire that
operate at 120 V. When there is a fault, it will interrupt just the hotwire.
 Double pole circuit breaker-This is used for 220 V. There are two hotwires and both
the poles need to be interrupted.
 GFI or GFCI circuit breaker (Ground fault circuit interrupter)-These are safety
switches that trip on ground fault current. The GFCI breaker interrupts the electrical
circuit when it detects the slightest variance between phase and neutral wires.
 Arc Fault circuit interrupter (AFCI) -The AFCI breaker interrupts thecircuit during
excessive arc conditions and prevents fire. Under the normal arcing condition, this
breaker will be idle and will not interrupt the circuit.
4.4 Relays
4.4.1. Definition of Relay:
A relays is a sensing device, which is used to detect the faults in an electrical circuit and trip
circuit breaker. Over load
Definition of protective relay:
A relay is automatic device, which senses an abnormal condition of electrical circuit and
closes its contacts. These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil circuit
hence make the circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the electrical circuit
from rest of the healthy circuit .Now let’s have a discussion on some terms related to protective
relay.
Pickup level of actuating signal:
The value of actuating quantity (voltage or current) which is on threshold above which the
relay initiates to be operated .If the value of actuating quantity is increased, the electromagnetic
effect of the relay coil is increased, and above a certain level of actuating quantity, the moving
mechanism of the relay just starts to move.

34
Reset Level:
The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts and comes in original
position.
RELAY FAMILY

ELECTRO MAGNETIC STATIC NUMERICALMECHANICAL

Based on Time character

1. Thermal
Based on Actuations 1. Define time relays a) OT Trip
b) WT trip
1. Current relays 2. Inverse time relays with c) Lamp trip etc.
define minimum time 2. Float Type
2. Voltage relays (IDMT) a) Buchholz
3. Frequency relays b) OSR
3. Inverse with d.mt and
instantaneous element c) PVR
d) Water level
controls

Auxiliary relays Inclusive of logic

1. Annunciate relays 1. Differential

2. Inter trip relays 2. Unbalance

3. Multi contactor 3. Neutral displacement

D.C operated relays 4. Directional

4. Time delay relays
5. Restricted earth fault
5. Fuse failure relays
6. Over fluxing
6. Trip circuit
supervision relays, etc 7. Distance schemes

8. Bus bar protection

35
Reset time of relay:
The time, which elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity becomes less than
the reset value to the instant when the relay contacts return to its normal position.
Reach of relay:
A distance relay operates whenever the distance seen by the relay is less than the pre
specified impedance. The actuating impedance in the relay is the function of distance in a distance
protection relay. This impedance or corresponding distance is called the reach of relay. Power system
protection relays can be categorized into different types of relays.
Operating time of relay:
Just after exceeding pickup level of actuating quantity the moving mechanism (for example
rotating disc) of relay starts moving and it ultimately closes the relay contacts at the end of its
journey. The time, which elapses between the instant when actuating quantity exceeds the pickup
value to the instant when the relay contacts close. Now let us have a look on which different
protective relays are used in different power system equipment protection schemes.

4.5. Relays for transmission & distribution lines protection

Sl.NO Lines to be protected Relays to be used

1 400 KV transmission line Main-I: non switched or numerical distance scheme

main-ii: non switched or numerical distance scheme
2 220 KV transmission line Main-I : non switched distance scheme (fed from bus pts)
Main-ii: switched distance scheme (fed from line CVTS)
with a changeover facility from bus pt. to line CVT and vice
versa.
3 132 KV transmission line Main protection: switched distance scheme (fed from bus
pt.). Backup protection: 3 nos. Directional IDMT o/l relays
and 1 no. Directional IDMT e/l relay
4 33 KV lines Non-directional IDMT 3 o/l and 1 e/l relays.
5 11 KV lines Non-directional IDMT 2 o/l and 1 e/l relays.

36
4.6. Transformer protection –different types of relays
1. Buchholz relay
2. Earth fault relay
3. Over current relay
4. Differential relay
5. Digital relay
4.6.1. Differential relay
Generally, differential protection is provided in the electrical power transformer rated more
than 5mva.The differential protection of transformer has many advantages over other schemes of
protection.
The faults occur in the transformer inside the insulating oil can be detected by buchholz relay.
However, if any fault occurs in the transformer but not in oil then it cannot be detected by buchholz
relay. Any flash over at the bushings are not adequately covered by buchholz relay. Differential
relays can detect such type of faults. Moreover, buchholz relay is provided in transformer for
detecting any internal fault in the transformer but differential protection scheme detects the same in
faster way.
The differential relays normally response to those faults, which occur inside the differential
protection zone of transformer.
4.7. Differential protection scheme in a power transformer
4.7.1Principle of differential protection
Principle of differential protection scheme is one simple conceptual technique. The
differential relay actually compares between primary current and secondary current of power
transformer, if any unbalance found in between primary and secondary currents the relay will actuate
and inter trip both the primary and secondary circuit breaker of the transformer. Suppose you have
one transformer, which has primary rated current in, and secondary current is. If you install CT of
ratio in/1a at the primary side and similarly, CT of ratio is/1a at the secondary side of the transformer.
The secondary of these both CT's are connected together in such a manner secondary currents of
both CT is will oppose each other.
In other words, the secondary’s of both CT’s should be connected to the same current coil of a
differential relay in such an opposite manner that there will be no resultant current in that coil in a

37
normal working condition of the transformer. But if any major fault occurs inside the transformer
due to which the normal ratio of the transformer disturbed then the secondary current of both
transformers will not remain the same and one resultant current will flow through the current coil of
the differential relay, which will actuate the relay and inter trip both the primary and secondary
circuit breakers. To correct phase shift of current because of star-delta connection of transformer

Figure: 4.0Principle of differential protection

Winding in the case of three-phase transformer, the current transformer secondary should be
connected in delta and star as shown here.
At maximum through fault current, the spill output produced by the small percentage unbalance may
be substantial. Therefore, differential protection of transformer should be provided with a
proportional bias of an amount, which exceeds in effect the maximum ratio deviation.

4.7.2. Percentage differential relay or biased differential protection:

Generally differential protection relay means the relay operates when the phase difference
between the two or more electrical quantities exceed the pre-set value. The electrical quantity may
be voltage or current. However, mostly voltage-based relays are not preferred. We use to prefer
current based differential protection, but it has some limitations such as both CT should be identical
ct ratio, identical burden, extension cable resistance nuisance trip etc. In order to avoid these,
percentage differential protection can be used.
The percentage differential relay is designed to operate the differential current in terms of its
fractional relation with actual current flowing through the circuit. It is used to protect the system

38
under current transformer saturation, unequal CT ratios, nuisance trip etc. It increases the stability
of the differential protection relays.

Figure: 4.1: Percentage differential relay or biased differential protection

4.7.3. Working function of percentage differential protection:

Two coils are there in the relay. One is operating coil and another one is restraining coil.
Here restraining coil produce force or torque, which will oppose the operating coil of the relay. Let
us take n is the number of turns in the operating coil and nr is the number of turns in the restraining
coil. The connection is made as shown in the figure. In this, two coils are placed and the operating
coil k carries the differential current, which means 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 and another one coil is restraining coil r
(𝐼1 +𝐼2 )
carries the current proportional to because of the coil k is connected in midpoint the
2
𝑁𝑟
restraining coil. Normally current 𝐼1 flows in the restraining coil in parts, the 𝐼2 current flows
2
𝑁𝑟
another parts. Hence, the effective ampere-turnsare...
2
(𝐼1 𝑁𝑟 +𝐼2 𝑁𝑟 ) 𝑁𝑟
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑓 = = (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) …………(1)
2 2
(𝐼1 +𝐼2 )
That is why we have taken the total current through the restraining coil as
2
Under normal condition, the force produced by the restraining coils is greater than the force
produced by the operating coils. Therefore, relay does not operate.
Hence

39
 𝑁𝑟
(𝐼 −𝐼 )
𝑁0 1 2
(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) ≥ ………(2)
2
During fault condition the operating force become higher than the restraining force, due to
this the operating coil trips the mechanism.
𝑁𝑟
(𝐼 −𝐼 )
𝑁0 1 2
(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) ≥ +I pickup………(3)
2
Thus, the ratio of differential current to average restraining current is always a fixed
percentage. Therefore, it is called as percentage differential relay.

4.7.4. Characteristics of percentage relay:

Figure: 4.2. Characteristics of percentage relay

4.7.5. Philosophy of protective relaying:

Function of protective relaying is to cause prompt removal from service of any element of a
power system when it suffers a short circuit or when it starts to separate in any abnormal manner
that might cause damage or otherwise interfere with the effective operation of the rest of the system.
4.8. Earthing
In an electrical installation, an earthing system or grounding system connects specific parts
of that installation with the earth's conductive surface for safety and functional purposes. The point
of reference is the earth's conductive surface. The choice of earthing system can affect the safety and
electromagnetic compatibility of the installation. Regulations for earthing systems vary considerably
among countries, though most follow the recommendations of the international electro technical

40
commission. Regulations may identify special cases for earthing in mines, in patient care areas, or
in hazardous areas of industrial plants.
In addition to electric power systems, other systems may require grounding for safety or
function. Tall structures may have lightning rods as part of a system to protect them from lightning
strikes. Telegraph lines may use the earth as one conductor of a circuit, saving the cost of installation
of a return wire over a long circuit. Radio antennas may require particular grounding for operation,
as well as to control static electricity and provide lightning protection.
1. Pipe earthing
2. Plate earthing
4.8.1. Pipe Earthing:
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed vertically
in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of earthing. The size
of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The dimension of the pipe
is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for ordinary soil or greater for dry and
rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the length of the pipe to be buried but usually it
should be 4.75m (15.5ft).

Figure: 4.3: Pipe Earthing

41
Figure: 4.3.1: schematic diagram of pipe earthing

42
4.8.2. Plate earthing:
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 3.18mm
(i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (gi) of dimensions 60cm x 60cmx
6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x ¼ in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should not be less than 3m
(10ft) from the ground level

Figure4.4:schematic diagram of plate earthing

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Max. Value of earth resistance to be achieved
Equipment to be earthed Max. value of the earth resistance to be
achieved in ohm
1. Large power station 0.5
2. Major substation 1.0
3. Small substation 2.0
4. Factories substation 1.0
5. Lattice steel tower 3.0
6. Industrial machine and equipment 0.5

The earth resistance depends upon the moisture content in the soil
4.9. Maintenance of schedules
4.9.1. Transformers and reactors:
Without shutdown activities:
Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance
1 Checking of bushing oil level Monthly
2 Checking of oil level in conservator Monthly
3 Checking of oil level in OLTC conservator Monthly
4 Checking of the leaks Monthly
5 Manual actuation of cooler oil pumps and fans Monthly
6 Checking conditions of silica gel in breather Monthly
7 Checking of oil level in seal of breather Monthly
8 Testing of oil for DGA and other oil parameters 6 Monthly
9 Vibrations measurements (for shunt reactors only) 2 Monthly

Shut down activities:

Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance
1 BDV, PPM of OLTC diverter switch compartment oil (less Yearly
frequently if operations are not more)
2 External cleaning of radiators Yearly

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 3 Cleaning of all bushings Yearly
4 Checking of auto starting of cooler pumps and fans Yearly
5 Marshalling boxes of transformer/reactors Yearly
1.cleaning of marshalling boxes of transformers/reactors and Yearly
OLTC
2.lightening of terminations Yearly
3. Checking of contractors, space heaters, illuminations, etc. Yearly
6 Maintenance of OLTC driving mechanism Yearly
7 Checking of all remote indication (wti and tap position Yearly
indicator) and top up oil in pockets, if required
8 Electrical checking /testing of pressure relief device Yearly
,buchholz relay, OLTC surge relay / checking of alarm/trip
9 Checking/testing of buchholz
and checking/replacement relay byofoilthedraining
of gaskets terminal box Yearly
10 Frequency response analysing SOS(as and when
required)
11 Tan measurement of bushing Yearly
12 Recovery voltage measurement SOS

 Minimum oil circuit breakers:

Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance

1 Checking of oil leak from grading capacitors Monthly

2 Checking for oil leakage /oil level and n2 pressure Monthly

(if applicable)
3 Testing of oil for BDV Monthly

4 Maintenance of breather and changes of silica gel Monthly

 Spring operated mechanism:

Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance
1 Oil leakages from close and open dashpots, replace the Yearly
same if leakage observed

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 2 Greasing/lubrication of gears and various latches in the Yearly
operating mechanism
3 Maintenance of spring charging motors ,cleaning of Yearly
carbon brushes and contactors
4 Checking of play of gaps in catch gears Yearly
5 Replacement of oil in dashpot SOS

4.9.2. Circuit breakers:

SF6 circuit breakers:
 Vacuum circuit breakers:
Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance

1 Cleaning of control cubicle and checking for loose Quarterly

connections
2 Checking of on/off indicator, spring indicator and Half yearly
checking manual and electrical operation
3 Checking vacuum of interrupter by application of high Yearly
voltage by disengaging with operating mechanism
4 Checking erosion of contacts by erosion mark on Yearly
operating rod or measurement of gap specified in
5 Checking tightness
closed position of foundation bolts
of contacts(wherever provided) Yearly
6 Replacement of vacuum interrupter SOS

4.9.3. Current transformers:

Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance
1 Checking of below expansion Monthly
2 Visual inspection of CT for oil leakage and crack Monthly
in insulators, etc.
3 Thermo vision scanning of CT Yearly
4 Checking of oil leakage in terminal box Yearly
5 Checking of primary connection strips , if Yearly
provided externally

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 6 N2 pressure checking 2 Yearly
7 Measurement of tan and capacitance 2 Yearly
8 IR measurement (DAR) 2 Yearly
9 Checking of primary connection strips ,if SOS
provided internally
10 Measurement of CT secondary resistance SOS
11 Magnetization characteristics SOS
12 Ct ratio test SOS
13 DGA and testing of other parameters of oil SOS
14 Checking of burden on the secondary winding SOS

4.9.4. Potential transformers/capacitance voltage transformers/coupling

capacitors:
Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance
1 checking of oil leaks Monthly
2 Measurement of voltage at control room panel Half yearly
3 Visual checking of earthing HF point (in case it is Yearly
not being set for PLCC)
4 Checking of any breakage or cracks in cementing Yearly
joint
5 Cleaning of CVT capacitors stacks and tightness Yearly
of terminal connections
6 Thermo vision scanning of capacitors stacks Yearly
7 Capacitors and tan measurement 3 Yearly
8 Testing of emu tank oil for BDV (if oil found SOS
discoloured)
9 Checking for rust and painting SOS
*To be repeated before 1 year from commission and then as per schedule .this test is not possible
to be conducted at site if isolated of neutral of intermediate pt. is not possible at site.

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4.9.5. Protection systems:
Distance protection:
Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance
1 Reach check for all 4 zones Yearly
2 Time measurement Yearly
3 Power swing blocking check Yearly
4 Switch on the fault(soft) check Yearly
5 Level detectors of PPS Yearly
6 Fuse failure check Yearly
7 Polarization check Yearly
8 Negative phase sequence(NPS) detectors check Yearly
9 CVT fuse failure checking Yearly

Differential relays:
Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance
1 Pick up current at the fixed /selected setting Yearly
2 Operation of high set element/ instantaneous unit Yearly
at the fixed /selected setting
3 Operation of the relay at the selected restraint Yearly
features
4 Checking of 2nd harmonic current restraint feature Yearly
5 Operation of alarm and trip contacts Yearly
6 Through current stability checks on the existing Yearly
load

 Under voltage relay:

Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance

1 Starting and pick up of the relay as per plug Yearly

2 setting
Relay operating time as per relay characteristics Yearly

3 Operation of alarm and rip contacts Yearly

4 Verification of input voltage on relay terminals Yearly

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Over voltage relay

Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance

1 Staring and pick up of the relay Yearly

2 Relay operating time as per relay characteristics Yearly

3 Operation of high set element/instantaneous unit at Yearly

voltage setting .if applicable
4 Operation of alarm and trip contacts Yearly

5 Verification of input voltage on relay terminals Yearly

Over current and earth fault relay:

Sl. NO Checking of the equipment Maintenance

1 Staring and pick up of the relay as plug setting Yearly

2 Time of operation as per relay characteristic Yearly

3 Operation of high set element/instantaneous unit at Yearly

current setting ,if applicable
4 Operation of alarm and trip contacts Yearly

5 Verification of input currents Yearly

6 Verification of directional features, if applicable Yearly

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 CHAPTER-5

CONCLUSION

Now from this report one can conclude that electricity plays an important role in our life at
the end of the training. I came to know about the various parts of substation and how they are
operated .also I learnt about how transmission is done in various parts of East Godavari district. As
evident from the report, a substation plays a very important role in the distribution system. That’s
why various protective measures are taken to protect the substations from various faults and its
smooth functioning .APEPDCL takes such steps so that a uniform and Supply of electricity can
reach in every part of this state.

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