Property of Mrs.

Jhulie-ann Calimuhyan-Cabalza
BSE major in English CSU- Andrews Campus
LITERARY GENRES:

 FICTION
A creative literary work in the form of prose that describes imaginary events and people or characters.
“Untrue” account/s. A make-believe or invented stories. It stands on its own with its elements like characters, and settings
no matter how close they resemble to real people. This literary work may be a short storiy, fable, vignette, play, or novels.
Although writers may base a character on people they have met in real life, the characters and the experiences that the
character faces in the story are not real.

Elements of Fiction

Setting- the physical location and time of the story. It is where and when the story takes place. It includes the following:
The immediate surroundings of the characters such as props in a scene: trees, furniture, food, inside of a house or car, etc.

- The time of day such as morning, afternoon, or night.

- The weather such as cloudy, sunny, windy, snow, or rain, etc.
- The time of year, particularly the seasons: fall, winter, summer, spring.
- The historical period such as what century or decade the story takes place.
The geographical location including the city, state, country, and possibly even the universe, if the writer is writing science
fiction.

Setting can function as a main force that the characters encounter, such as a tornado or flood, or a setting can play a minor
role such as setting the mood. Often times, the setting can reveal something about the main character as he/she functions
in that place and time period.

Writers write about places they are familiar with. If they aren’t familiar with the place, then they need to research it in
order to be accurate about the place.

Characters- The ones who play/perform the actions in the story. They may either be major or the protagonist, and minor,
antagonist or an observer. May be complex (a round or three-dimensional character-There are shifts of character / fully
developed fictional lives) or simple (a flat or two-dimensional character- They do not change much from the start to the
end / has a weak kind of character.
As E. M. Forster, an English novelist, explains, Flat characters do not play important roles in the stories. They often
have only one or two traits with little description about them. A flat character may even be a stock character, which is a
stereotypical figure that is easily recognized by readers, for example, the mad scientist or the evil stepmother.

On the other hand, the Round characters play an important role, often the lead roles in stories. They are complex,
dimensional, and well-developed. The stories are about them; therefore, pages of writing will be about them. They often
change by going through a life-changing experience as the story unfolds.

When discussing stories with other readers and writers or when writing an analysis of a story, fictional characters can be
described as static or developing. Static means the character stays the same throughout the story. They do not change.
Developing, also called dynamic, means the character changes. The change may impact the character’s beliefs, attitudes,
or actions. The change may be small or large. This change occurs because the character experiences an epiphany, an
insight about life.

If writers write about characters outside their own culture, they need to do research so as not to misrepresent a particular
culture. The same is also true of characters, who have illnesses. The writer may need to research the illness and treatment
for it in order to be accurate about it.

Point of View- It is the angle or perspective from which a story is told.

There are three primary points of view.

First-person POV- The narrator tells the story from his own perspective/ the “I” POV.
This means that one of the characters in the story will narrate–give an account of the story. The narrator may be the
protagonist, the main character. Writing in first-person point of view brings the readers closer to the story. They can read
it as if they are the characters because personal pronouns like I, me, my, we, us, and our are used.

The Second person POV- extremely rare in literature. Uses the pronoun “you”.

Third-person POV- The “He”, “She” POV.

This means that the narrator is not in the story. The third-person narrator is not a character.
Third-person point of view can be done two ways:
Third-person limited- (author sticks closely to one character but remains in third person.)
Third-person omniscient- (narrator knows everything about the story and its characters and can enter anyone’s
mind.) This means that the narrator has unlimited ability to be in various character’s thoughts.
The third-person point of view removes readers from the story because of the pronouns he,
she, it, him, her, his, hers, they, them, and theirs.
Property of Mrs. Jhulie-ann Calimuhyan-Cabalza
BSE major in English CSU- Andrews Campus

Plot or narrative- The series/sequence of events in the story that form a significant pattern of fiction.
The plot usually follows a particular structure called Freytag’s Pyramid. Gustav Freytag, a German playwright who lived
during the 1800s, identified this structure.
Freytag’s Pyramid has five parts: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and denouement, also known as
resolution.

Exposition is an introduction to the characters, time, and the problem. At the point where exposition moves into
rising action a problem, sometimes called an inciting incident, occurs for the main character to handle or solve. This
creates the beginning of the story.

Rising action includes the events that the main character encounters. Each event, developed in separate scenes,
makes the problem more complex.

Climax is the turning point in the story. Usually, it is a single event with the greatest intensity and uncertainty.
The main character must contend with the problem at this point.

Falling action includes the events that unfold after the climax. This usually creates an emotional response from
the reader.

Denouement or resolution provides closure to the story. It ties up loose ends in the story.

Conflict is the struggle between two entities. The clash that exists within a character or among characters; the clash that
exists with the environment, and with the supernatural; that creates challenges in a story.

The conflict may be one of six kinds:

- Character vs. God

- Character vs. himself or herself
- Character vs. character/Man
- Character vs. nature or natural forces
- Character vs. society or culture
- Character vs. machine or technology

Theme

It is the central idea, the underlying truth that is being conveyed in the story or text. Themes can be universal, meaning
they are understood by readers no matter what culture or country the readers are in. It could be what the reader thinks
about, based on the circumstances present and implied in the writing or it could be what the subject of the text says. The
theme may not be conveyed directly. The reader figures it out by analyzing the different elements of the text like,
imagery, figures of speech, tone, mood diction, syntax, characters, setting, events in the story, etc. Common themes
include coming of age, love, sacrifice, circle of life, prejudice, greed, good vs. evil, beating the odds, and many others.
Property of Mrs. Jhulie-ann Calimuhyan-Cabalza
BSE major in English CSU- Andrews Campus

COMMON FIGURES OF SPEECH

A figure of speech is a rhetorical device that achieves a special effect by using words in a distinctive way.
A word or group of words used to describe, express, and emphasize a meaning or meanings aside from their literal meaning and or
original meaning(s) to make a description or an expression more emphatic, meaningful, colorful and sometimes humorous.
Examples: "falling in love," "racking our brains," and "climbing the ladder of success" are all metaphors
Using original figures of speech in our writing is a way to convey meanings in fresh, unexpected ways.

1. Alliteration: The repetition of an initial consonant sound.

2.Anaphora: The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or verses.
3. Apostrophe: Directly addressing a non-existent person or an inanimate object as though it were a living being.
4. Irony: The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. Also, a statement or situation where the
meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea.
5. Assonance: Identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words.
6. Hyperbole: An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened
effect.
7. Metaphor: An implied/direct comparison between two dissimilar things that have something in common.
8. Onomatopoeia: The use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to.
9. Paradox: A statement that appears to contradict itself.
10. Oxymoron: A means of putting two contradictory terms together in order to create a dramatic effect to speech and
sometimes to achieve comedic effect.
11. Personification: A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is endowed with human qualities or
abilities.
12. Simile: A stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as") between two fundamentally dissimilar things that
have certain qualities in common.
13. Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole.
14. Metonymy: A means of replacing the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely
related or associated.

15. Allusion: An expression designed to call something to mind without mentioning it explicitly.

: An indirect reference to add poetic color and simplify complex ideas and emotions.

COMMON FIGURES OF SPEECH (With Examples)

A figure of speech is a rhetorical device that achieves a special effect by using words in a distinctive way.
A word or group of words used to describe, express, and emphasize a meaning or meanings aside from their literal
meaning and or original meaning(s) to make a description or an expression more emphatic, meaningful, colorful and
sometimes humorous.
Figurative language is often associated with literature and with poetry in particular and whether we are conscious of it or
not, we use figures of speech every day in our own writing and conversations.
For example, common expressions such as "falling in love," "racking our brains," and "climbing the ladder of success" are
all metaphors—the most pervasive figure of all. Likewise, we rely on similes when making explicit comparisons ("light as
a feather") and hyperbole to emphasize a point ("I'm starving!").
Using original figures of speech in our writing is a way to convey meanings in fresh, unexpected ways. Figures can help
our readers understand and stay interested in what we have to say.

1. Alliteration: The repetition of an initial consonant sound.

Examples:

 She sells seashells by the seashore.

 Lanie read a book by the babbling brook.
 The child bounced the ball at the backyard barbeque.
 The barbarians broke through the barricade.
 He acts silly at times, but he was blessed with a brilliant brain.

2. Anaphora: The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or verses.
Examples:
 Unfortunately, I was in the wrong place at the wrong time on the wrong day.
 I am awake. I am strong. I am ready.
 Mom, we will not run. We will not scream. We will not be late.
 I came. I saw. I conquer.

3. Apostrophe: Directly addressing a non-existent person or an inanimate object as though it were a living
being.
Examples:
 "Oh, you stupid car, you never work when I need you to," Bert sighed.
 Oh, rose, how sweet you smell and how bright you look!
 Car, please get me to work today.
 Oh, trees, how majestic you are as you throw down your golden leaves!
Property of Mrs. Jhulie-ann Calimuhyan-Cabalza
BSE major in English CSU- Andrews Campus
 Dear love, please don't shoot me with your Cupid's bow!

4. Assonance: Identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words.

Examples: How now, brown cow?
 The light of the fire is a sight. (repetition of the long I sound)
 Go slow over the road. (repetition of the long o sound)

5. Hyperbole: An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or
heightened effect.
Examples:
 I have a ton of things to do when I get home.
 My father drives 1,000,000 miles per hour!
 Mom, if I don't get some dinner soon, I will starve to death!
 I’ll catch a grenade for you.
 I’d cross the Atlantic Ocean in a minute just to see you smile.

6. Irony: The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. Also, a statement or situation where
the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea.

Examples:
 "Oh, I love spending big bucks," said my dad, a notorious penny pincher.
 Looking at her son's messy room, Mom says, "Wow, you could win an award for cleanliness!
 On the way to school, the school bus gets a flat tire and the bus driver says, "Excellent! This day couldn't start any
better!"

7. Metaphor: An implied/direct comparison between two dissimilar things that have something in common.
Examples:
 "All the world's a stage."
 That child is a bear when he is sleepy.
 The dancer was a graceful eagle taking flight.
 This pie is heaven! You are my sunshine!
 The book was an addiction-I couldn't put it down.

8. Onomatopoeia: The use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to.
Examples:
 The clap of thunder went bang and scared my poor dog.
 Buzz-The bee buzzed in my ear.
 Tick tock- The tick tock of the clock was heard in the midst of silence.
 Meow-The cat meowed for some milk.
 Swish-The basketball swished off through the hoop.

9. Paradox: A statement that appears to contradict itself.

Examples:
 This is the beginning of the end.
 I know one thing that I know nothing.
 Buy me anything but a sweet mango shake in a jar.
 Deep down, I am really shallow.

10. Oxymoron: A means of putting two contradictory terms together in order to create a dramatic effect to
speech and sometimes to achieve comedic effect.
Examples:

 Jaycen got into a fine mess again.

 The comedian was seriously funny.
 The jumbo shrimp is yummy.
 She gave him a bitter sweet hug.
 The dark days ruined her ambition.
 The deafening silence echoed inside my head.

11. Personification: A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is endowed with human
qualities or abilities.
Examples:
 That kitchen knife will take a bite out of your hand if you don't handle it safely.
 The grease jumped out of the pan.
 The curtains danced in the breeze.
 The tree branch scratched and clawed at my window sill, trying to break into the house.
 During the night, the blanket crept up until it was snuggled under my chin and my feet were bare.
Property of Mrs. Jhulie-ann Calimuhyan-Cabalza
BSE major in English CSU- Andrews Campus
 The mother duck scolded her young, encouraging them to walk in a line.
 The diving board taunted me, daring me to approach.

12. Simile: A stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as") between two fundamentally dissimilar
things that have certain qualities in common.
Examples:
 Roberto was white as a sheet after he walked out of the horror movie.
 He runs like a horse.
 Her dancing was a smooth as a flowing river.She was as cool as a cucumber under pressure.
 I turned as white as a ghost when you jum
 ped out at me.
 That little girl is as sweet as sugar

13. Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole.
Examples:
 Tina is learning her ABC's in preschool.
 I bought her a new wheels on her birthday.
 I’d be willing to offer you a hand to finish your work.
 Dear friends, lend me your ears.

14. Metonymy: A means of replacing the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is
closely related or associated.
Examples:

 Let me ask the help of the Malacañang Palace.

 The White House issued a statement.
 The pen is mightier than the sword.

15. Allusion: An expression designed to call something to mind without mentioning it explicitly.
: An indirect reference to add poetic color and simplify complex ideas and emotions.

Examples:

 This place is a garden of Eden.

 I heard we have a new Newton in class.
 The new Mother Theresa of the modern world gain fame instantly.

 POETRY
A form of writing and an artistic expression which uses aesthetic, rhythmic, and metrical qualities to convey ideas and
emotions in a heightened language. It is a wisdom language because it relates the experiences and observations of human
life and the universe around us.
It is “a kind of Language that says more and says it more intensely than does ordinary language. (Perrine 1977,4).”
It is said as the highest form of talk. (Bertrand Russell)

Four characteristics of poetry (Stephen Minot, 19880)

 Line length-how short and long are the lines
 The heightened use of sound- more intense than usual
 Use of pattern-use of metrical lines/repeated design and distinguished rhyme scheme
 Compression-carefully choosing words to fit desired meaning

Poems also manifest in various forms such as the following:

 Concrete poetry – also known as pattern poetry/effect is conveyed partly or wholly by using patterns of words or
letters.
 Epigram – a brief/concise, interesting, witty humorous poem with a single thought ending with an ingenious turn
of thought
 Epitaph – a statement in memory of someone who is deceased
 Haiku – a Japanese form of poetry consisting of three unrhymed lines of five, seven, five (5,7,5) syllables.
 Sonnet – a fourteen line in poem in iambic pentameter with prescribed rhyme scheme. Famous forms are
Shakespearean, Italian or Petrarchan and Spenserian sonnet.
 Elegy – expresses lament and mourning of the dead.

In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in terms of different genres and subgenres. A poetic
genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary
characteristics.
Property of Mrs. Jhulie-ann Calimuhyan-Cabalza
BSE major in English CSU- Andrews Campus

Aspects to consider in Poetry:

Poetic expression is hard to define and even harder to label since it can comprise so many styles, ideas, lengths and forms
in itself but here are few important things to consider.

- Idea and Emotion

- Type and Form
- Style of the Line
- Concise Word Choice

Idea and Emotion

Poetry usually comes from an emotional response to an image, an event or experience, or a memory.

Just like what Robert Frost says, “A poem begins with a lump in the throat; a home-sickness or a love-sickness. It is a
reaching-out toward expression; an effort to find fulfillment. A complete poem is one where an emotion has found its
thought and the thought has found the words.”

Idea- Some poets begin writing a poem because they are inspired by something they have experienced.
Emotion- Some poets begin writing a poem for an emotional release.
What does a poem need to look like and contain to be a poem?
Things to think about in your answer:

- Do most poems rhyme?

- Are poems about emotions?
- Are poems a certain length?
- What is the goal of a poem?
- Can poets ignore grammar rules like capital letters and punctuation?
- Can poems be funny?
- What types of word choice or language do you see in poems?
Type and Form

-There are many different types or forms of poems. Some fit a specific format and some fit a specific theme.

Some examples of format poems:

Acrostic: It is a word or set of words written horizontally and each letter is usually taken to form the initial word/phrase.

Sonnet: It is made up of 14 lines with a specific rhyme scheme and intro/conclusion style. ( Sonnet 18 - Shakespeare)

English/Shakespearean sonnet- follows the iambic pentameter, with an ABAB CDCD EFEF GG rhyme scheme.

Italian/Petrarchan sonnet- The 14 lines are divided into 2 sections: Octave (8-line stanza, ABBA ABBA);

Sestet (6-line Stanza, CDCDCD or CDECDE).

Sestina: It is made up of 6 stanzas, each stanza having 6 lines followed by a three-line stanza at the end. A succeeding
stanza must use the same end word of the prior stanza to end the first line of the next stanza. (A Miracle for Breakfast - E. Bishop)

Free verse: also known as “open form poetry”. It is verse in lines of irregular length and line. It has no predetermined
structure/metrical pattern, or no prescribed length. Poetic effects such as rhythm and rhyme has no fixed pattern if there
are.

Other Known Formats:

Haiku- A three-line Japanese poem with specific syllable count of 5-7-5.

Tanka- Japanese short poem (generally known as waka) with five lines following a syllable count of 5-7-5-7-7.
Limerick- It consists of five lines arranged in one stanza. 1st ,2nd ,5th lines end in rhyming words while the 3rd &
4th must rhyme (AABBA). Intended to be humorous or silly in nature.

Villanelle- A 15-line poem broken up into 3-line stanzas, with the 6th stanza of for lines.
Pantoum – A poem compose of 4-line stanzas in which the 2nd and 4th lines of each stanza serve as the 1st and 3rd
lines of the next stanza. The last line is often the same as the first.
Property of Mrs. Jhulie-ann Calimuhyan-Cabalza
BSE major in English CSU- Andrews Campus

Haiku: The old Pond

By Matsuo Basho

An old silent pond…

A frog jumps into the pond,

Splash! Silence again.

Limerick:

There once a man from Nantucket,

Who kept all his cash in a bucket,

But his daughter named Nan, Ran away with the man,

And as for the bucket, Nantucket.

Sonnet 29

By George Santayana

What riches have you that you deem me poor,

Or what large comfort that you call me sad?

Tell me what makes you so exceeding glad:

Is your earth happy or your heaven sure?

I hope for heaven, since the stars endure

And bring such tidings as our father had.

I know no deeper doubt to make me mad,

I need no brighter love to keep me pure.

To me the faiths of old are daily bread;

I bless their hope, I bless their will to save,

And my deep heart still meneath what they said.

It makes me happy that the soul is brave,

And, being so much kinsman to the dead,

I walk contented to the peopled grave.

Main Forms of Poetry:

Narrative Poetry- A poem with a plot or which tells a story.

Epic- A long story which tells the heroic ideals of a particular hero/society. Example is Beowulf.
Ballad- A poem similar to a folktale which uses a repeated refrain. Tells a story about a particular
event of interest. Today, it is used more to form music.

Idyll- A poem about either an idolized country scene or about the heroes of the past in a way that they
should be idolized. Example, George Washington
Lay- A long poem sung by the medieval minstrels about the news of the day or historical facts they
wished to passed along through the country side.

Lyric Poetry- an emotional writing focusing on thought and emotion-can consist of a song-like quality.
Intended to be sung.
Elegy- A poem expressing grief over the death of someone or the theme of human mortality.

Ode- A serious or thoughtful poem celebrating anyone or anything of importance offering praise and
reflection.
Property of Mrs. Jhulie-ann Calimuhyan-Cabalza
BSE major in English CSU- Andrews Campus
Examples are, Sonnets of w. Shakespeare and the works of Sappho.

Dramatic Poetry- A poem also known as dramatic verse, meant to be recited or performed by actors in front of
an audience.
Closet Drama- A drama suited primarily for reading. (Samson Agonistes, 1671- John Milton)
Dramatic Monologues- written in the form of a speech of an individual character.
Examples are, Paradise Lost of John Milton & The Seven Ages of Man of W. Shakespeare.

Types of poems written based on themes:

Examples:

Metaphor: The whole poem is a metaphor

Object Obsession: A poem written about an object
Narrative: A poem that tells a story
Prose: A poem written more like a paragraph

Style of the Line

Style refers to the many choices a poet makes about the structure and language of a poem.

The style of the line of a poem can be referred to the meter used in the poem. It can refer to the author’s way in using
meter. One essential element of a poem is repetition which reinforces pattern through rhythm while variation invites
interest. One of the common fundamentals of poetry is the recurrence of sounds, syllables, words, phrases, lines and
stanzas. The arrangement of lines in the entire poem contributes to a poet’s style.

Word choice

The poet also pays close attention to his/her linguistic selections. Poetic Diction or word choice is critical for the poet. The
poet must select each word with care according to the poem’s content and tone. The poet considers the arrangement of
words into a fitting syntax. The poet may incorporate the use of figurative language, like simile, metaphors and a distinct
figurative language use of his own choice as needed. All of these contribute to the poem’s style.