ELECTROMAGNETISM

Maxwells Euations
The electromagnetic field is due to quasi-stationary currents and charges. Maxwell established a
set of valid equations known as Maxwell's equations These comprises a set of partial differential equations
describing the sources and relationships of the electromagnetic field vectors. Maxwells equations in
differential form are given below :
(1) Gauss' law applied to electrostatics
∇ . D=ρ D - dielectric displacement
(2) Gauss' law for magnetic field ρ - charge density
∇. B=0 B - magnetic induction
(3) Faraday's law of induction
∂B
∇ ×E= −
∂t
(4) Ampere's law for magnetomotive force
∇ × H = J or ∇ × B = µ0 J

All the quantities in these equations are point functions. Electric and magnetic fields can't be
increased in magnitude indefinitely in a material medium, because such a medium would breakdown at
high fields. However, no such limitation exists in the vacuum.
In material media we have two vector fields D and H related to E and B respectively by,
D = ε E, B = µ H and J = σ E .

Equation of continuity
Since current is simply charge in motion, the total current flowing out of some volume must be
equal to the rate of decrease of charge within the volume assuming that the charge can't be created or
destroyed.
Consider a closed surface s enclosing a volume V in which electric charge is distributed. The total
electric current passing out through the surface.

z
I = J.ds =
S
z J.ds where J is current density..

Since charge is conserved the current I is equal to the time rate of decrease of charge within the
volume.

I=−
∂
∂tzρ dv

∴ z
S
J ⋅ ds = −
∂
∂tzρ dv

According to divergence theorem z z

S
J.ds = ∇. J dv . Therefore the above equation can be written
V

as z
V
∇.J dv = −
∂
∂tzρ dv If this equation holds good for any arbitrary volume, then,

−∂ρ ∂ρ
∇ ⋅J = or ∇ ⋅J + = 0. This equation is known as equation of continuity, which is of fundamental
∂t ∂t
importance and expresses the law of conservaion of charge. In the steady state

1
∂ρ
= 0, ∴ ∇ . J = 0 or div J = 0
∂t

ρ
(1) ∇ . D = ρ (Coulomb's law) or ∇ . E =
ε0
Gauss theorem is a direct consequence of Coulomb's law. Gauss theorem states that the total flux over
1
a closed surface is equal to times the total charge enclosed by the closed surface or the total normal
ε0
electric induction over a closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed inside the surface. Thus

z
S
E.ds =
Σqi
ε0
=
Q
ε0
or z
S
D.ds = Σ q i = Q [ Q D = Eε 0 ---------(1)

If the charge is not confined to a point, but is distributed over a region of space, it is possible to consider
it as a continuous quantity and talk about a charge density or charge per unit volume

ρ = dvlim
qi FG IJ
H K
→ 0 dv . If we assume that each volume element dv contains a “point charge” ρdv ;
then, for the entire volume

z z qi =
v
ρdv or Q= z ρdv --------(2)

It is to be noted that Σqi = zv

qi . From Eqs (1) and (2), we get

zS
E.ds =
1
ε0 z V
ρdv

In vector calculus we define the divergence of a vector A as

div A = dvlim
→0
z
S
A. ds
dv

Where S is the surface enclosing the volume element. Integrating over a finite volume, we have

zV
div Adv = A.ds zS
--------(4)

Using this theorem, we can write zV

div Edv = E. ds zS
--------(5)

Eq (3) can now be written as z V

div Edv =
1
ε0 z
V
ρdv

FG div E − ρ IJ dv = 0
or z
V H ε K 0

ρ
This is true for any arbitrary volume. ∴ div E − = 0
ε0

ρ
or divE = -------(6)
ε0

2
(2) ∇ · B = 0 (The laws of Magnetostatics - Biot - Savart’s law). The expression for the magnetic field
can be expressed Biot-Savart’s law as
→ →
B=
4π z
µ0 i dl × r
r3
-------(7)

→ →
Here r is the position vector drawn from the element dl of wire carrying current i to the field point,
where B is taken. By taking the divergence of B, we get
→ → F I
div B =
µ0 i
4πV
div z
dl × r
r3
GG
H
JJ
K
-------(8)

using the identity

FG→ → IJ
∇ ⋅ A × B = B ⋅∇ × A − A ∇ × B
H K
µ0
z
dl × r FG IJ
We have ∇ ⋅B = i ∇ ⋅
4π V r3 H K
F →r I →r →
∇ ⋅ G dl × J r
We can write = ∇ × dl − dl ∇ ×
GH r JK r 3 3
r 3

F → →r I →r →
div G dl × J r
or = curl dl − dl curl
GH r J
K r
3 3
r 3

At the field point dl is independent of the co-ordinates, so curl dl = 0.

F→ → I →
∴ div G dl JJ
r r
× 3 = dl curl 3
GH r
K r

FG 1IJ
= − dl • ∇ × ∇
Hr K
=0
Hence ∇ · B = 0 -------(9)

∂B
(3) ∇ × E=− (Faraday’s law) Magnetic field can be produced by electric charges in motion.
∂t
Faraday found the converse effect i.e., the production of electric field by a moving magnet. Faraday’s
laws of electromagnetic induction formulated as a result of large number of experiments. We have,
according to Faraday’s law,
dφ
E=− , where E is the induced emf -------(10)
dt
The induced emf is equal to the line integral of the induced electric field E around the coil i.e.,

E = z E. dl -------(11)

The magnetic flux through the coil is equal to

3
 φ = z
s
B ⋅ ds --------(12)

Equation (10) be written as

z E.dl = −
d
dt z
s
B ⋅ ds

Since the surface S does not change its shape nor position with time, we can write the above equation
as

z E.dl = z
s
−
d
dt
B ⋅ ds -------(13)

This is the integral form of Faraday’s law. We have from Stoke’s theorem, z E.dl = zb
s
g
∇ × E ⋅ ds i.e.,

The line integral of a vector E around any closed curve is equal to the surface integral of curl E taken
over any surface of which the curve is boundry.

∴ zb
s
g
∇ × E ⋅ ds = − zs
dB
dt
⋅ ds ⇒ z FGH
s
∇ × E+
dB
dt
IJ ⋅ ds = 0
K -------(14)

The total time derivative has been replaced by partial derivative as we are only concerned with the changes
in the field B with time at the fixed position of the elemental area ds. Since Eq(14) holds good for any
arbitrary surface.
dB
∇ × E = −
dt

(4) ∇ × H = J or ∇ × B = µo · J (Ampere’s circuitallaw)

Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of B around a path enclosing a current i is equal to µoi

z B.dl = µ0 i But i = z
s
J ⋅ ds -------(15)

Where J is the current density and i is the total current through the surface S. Thus :

z B.dl = µ 0 J ⋅ ds z -------(16)

According to Stoke’s theorem z B.dl = z

s
(∇ × B)⋅ ds
i

∴ z
s
(∇ × B)⋅ ds = µo z
s
J ⋅ ds S

dl
Since this is true for any surface, we have
∇ × B = µo · J i.e., curl B = µo · J -------(17)
Since B = µo H, we get ∇ × H = J -------(18)
Taking the divergence of both sides of Eq(18) we have
∇ . (∇ × H) = ∇ . J = 0 -------(19)
This, indeed, is true for steady state phenomena. However, when the currents are changing with time,
the result is incompatible with the principle of conservation of charge, reflected in the equation of continuity

4
 dρ dρ
∇⋅ J + = 0 or ∇ ⋅ J = − -------(20)
dt dt
Maxwell noticed this inconsistancy and suggested a way out. He realised that the equation
∇ × H = J is incomplete and it should be modified. Accordingly, a term Jd must be added to the
conduction current density J . i.e.,
∂D
∇ × H = J + Jd = J + -------(21)
∂t
The law in this form is valid for steady-state phenomena and is also compatible with the equation of
continuity for time dependent fields. The term J is generally called ‘conduction current density’. The
∂D
second term arises from the varition of electric displacement with time is called ‘displacement current
∂t
∂E
density’. Since D = ε 0 E, Eq (21) becomes ∇ × H = J + ε0 -------(22)
∂t
Displacement Current
The displacement current does not have the significance of a current in the sense being the motion
of charges. It can be vividly demonstrated by considering a simple circuit as shown in the figure. It
shows that a charged capacitor plates are joined by a conducting wire. The current flowing in the wire
dq
is equal to the rate of change of charge on the plates, i.e., i = -------(23)
dt
where q is the charge on the +ve plate of the capacitor. The charge on the plates is related to the field
in the capacitor by the relation
σ q
E = = , where A-area of each plate -------(24)
ε0 ε0 A

∂E ∂D
∴ i =
dq
dt
=
d
dt
b g
ε0 A E = ε 0 A
∂t
= A
∂t
i ∂D ∂E
i.e., = = ε0 --------(25)
A ∂t ∂t
i ∂D
Now gives the current density. Hence, the quantity can be interpreted as
A ∂t
the density of some current which corresponds to the current, This current must flow in the space - even
in vaccum between a pair of plates of the capacitor when the charged plates are connected by a wire,
thus completing the conduction current.

Electromagnetic Waves - Wave Equation

Maxwell’s equations provide us with all the information that can be drawn from the classical theory
of electric and magnetic fields. He showed that the fields generated by the moving charges can leave
the source and travel through space in the form of wave. This is one of the important features of Maswell’s
equations.
Let us consider one of the Maxwell’s equation.
∂B ∂B
∇ × E = − or curl E = −
∂t ∂t
Taking the curl on both sides of the above equation, we get
∂B ∂
∇ × ∇ × E = −∇ ×
∂t
= −µ
∂t
b
∇ ×H g
Using a well known vector identity to transform LHS
5
 ∂
∇ (∇ ⋅ E) − ∇ 2 E = − µ
∂t
∇ ×H b g [curl curl V = grad div V – ∇2 V ]

∂E
Since ∇ · E = 0 and ∇ × H = J + ε , the above equation becomes :
∂t

−∇ 2 E = −µ
∂ FG
J+ε
∂E IJ ⇒ ∇2 E = µ
∂J ∂ 2E
+ µΕ 2
∂t H ∂t K ∂t ∂t
Since J = σE , we have

∂ ∂ 2E ∂ 2E ∂E
∇2E = µ
∂t
b g
σE + µΕ 2 ⇒ ∇2E = µE 2 + µσ
∂t ∂t ∂t

∂ 2E ∂E
or ∇2E − µΕ − µσ =0 -------(27)
2 ∂t
∂t
For a non conducting medium the term involving σ can be neglected, thus Eq(27) becomes :

∂ 2E ∂ 2E
∇2E − µΕ =0 or ∇2E = µE -------(28)
∂t 2 ∂t 2
Exactly in the same manner, we can write the equation for H

∂ 2H ∂ 2H
∇2E − µΕ or ∇2E = µE -------(29)
∂t 2 ∂t 2
These equations are of the type of wave equtions

∂ 2ψ ∂2 ψ ∂2 ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ 2 1 ∂2 ψ
+ + = or ∇ ψ = -------(30)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 v 2 ∂t 2 v 2 ∂t 2

1
Comparison of (28) and (29) with (30) gives us εµ = -------(31)
v2

1 1
In vacuum it becomes ε οµο = ⇒v= µo εο -------(32)
v2
It is to be noted that E and H waves don’t exist independently but are propagated together as
electromagnetic waves. Equations (28) and (29) are the wave equations of an electromagnetic wave. In
free space ε ο = 8.85 × 10–12 Fm–1 and µο = 4π × 10–7 Hm–1 . Thus, the velocity in free space is
1
b
V = εο µο g−
2 = 3 × 10 8 m/s. This velocity is the same as the velocity of light in free space. We are, thus
led to conclude that light is simply a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays, UV, IR, Microwave and
Radiowave are all electromagnetic radiations, differing only in the order of magnitude of their wavelengths.
The direct verification of electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell was obtained in the experiments
of Hertz who was among the first to demonstrate the existence of waves generated by the oscillatory
spark discharge and to show that they possessed many of the familiar properties of light such as reflection,
refraction, interference and polarization.
The phase velocity of electromagnetic waves in a material medium is written as
1 1 c
v= = =
bε µ g 1
2 bε ο µο εr µr g 1
2 bε µ g
r r
1
2 ------(33)

If v is the velocity of the waves in the dielectric medium, then the refractive index of the medium ‘n’ is
defined by

6
 n=
c
v
b
= εr µr g 1
2 --------(34)

This relation holds good only if n, µr , ε r are determined at the same frequency.

Relation between Electric and Magnetic Vectors

∂ 2E ∂ 2H
The electromagnetic equations∇2 E = µ ε are vector equations. We and ∇2 H = µ ε
∂t 2 ∂t 2
assume plane wave solutions to these equations, since the plane waves are good approximations to
actual waves in many situations. The plane wave constitutes a wave front, which advances with a velocity
v in a direction normal to itself. We may choose a co-ordinate system in such a way that the direction of
propagation coincides with, say x-axis. Since the wave function in this case does not depend on y and
z, the wave equation takes one dimensional form such as

∂ 2ψ 1 ∂2 ψ
= -------(35)
∂x 2 v2 ∂t 2
This has a general solution.
FG x IJ
iω t −
ψ(x i t) = ψ 0e H υK -------(36)

where ψ is a vector standing for E or H. If we take ψ as a functioning x, y, z, then

∇× ψ = i
FG ∧ ∂ + ∧j ∂ + ∧k ∂ IJ × ψ . Since ψ is a function of x and t but not of y and z
H ∂x ∂y ∂z K
F ∧ ∂ IJ ∧ ∂ψ iω G t − J
∧ LM F xI O
PP
ψο e H v K
∂
∇× ψ = G i × ψ = i× = i×
H ∂x K ∂x ∂x MN Q
FG x IJ i ω FG x IJ
∧ iω t −
H υ K RS− UV ∧ FG − i ω IJ ψ e i ω t−
H vK
= i ψ οe
T v W= i
H vK ο

FG iω IJ
= − H v
i × ψ
K ------- (37)

FG x IJ
iω t −
where ψ = ψ0 e H vK
F xI
∂ψ ∂ iω G t − J
H v K = ψ e i ω t − x (i ω ) = i ω ψ FG IJ
Also = ψο e
∂t ∂t
ο
v H K -------(38)

∂H
From Maxwell’s equation : ∇ × E = −µ
∂t

FG iω IJ ∧ ∂H iω FG IJ ∧i × E= µ i ω H
∴ −
H v K i ×E = − µ
∂t
⇒
v H K
∧
or i × E= µvH -------(39)
∂E
From Maxwell’s equation : ∇ × H= ε
∂t

7
 ∧ ∧
b g
∴ − i ω i × H = ε i ω E ⇒ i × H= − ε v E ------(40)

∧
Eq(39) shows that H is perpendicular to the plane of i and E, i.e., to the plane containing the direction
of propagation and E. Eq(40) shows that
E is perpendicular to the direction of Y
propagation and H. These two results are
satisfied simultaneously only if E, H and the E H
direction of propagation are mutually
perpendicular. In otherwords, electro-
magnetic waves are transverse waves, with X-axis
E and H at right angles to each other. If E
is along y-axis, H will be z-axis. Eq(39)
H E
shows that H is zero when E is zero and Z
Eq(40) shows that E is zero when H is zero.
Thus the vectors E and H are in phase. We also find that in space there cannot be a E wave only (with
H = 0), or a H wave only (with E = 0) but E and H are propagated together and hence the name
electromagnetic wave. We now obtain the ratio between the magnitudes of E and H. We have from
∧ ∧
Eq(39) i × E = µ v H. Using the result that i , E and H are mutually perpendicular, and taking the
magnitudes of these quantities.
E=µvH

E µ µ 1
Hence the ratio H = µv = =
ε
Q v =
εµ εµ

µ E µο
Since is a constant for a given medium, H is proportional to E. In free space = . This ratio
ε H εο
is referred to as the intrinsic impedance of free space. Thus, a monochromatic plane wave alsways has
E and H in phase and with a ratio of amplitudes at any instant.

Electromagnetic Waves in a Conducting Medium

Let us consider the propagation of EM waves in a homogeneous and isotropic conducting medium.
In this case, Maxwell’s equations become :
∇ ⋅E = 0 ------(41)

∇ ⋅H = 0 ------(42)

∂H
∇ × E = −µ ------(43)
∂t
∂E
∇×H= σ E + ε ------(44)
∂t
Let us take the curl on both sides of Eq(44)
∂
b g
∇ × ∇ × H = ∇ × σE+ ε
∂t
( ∇ × E)

∂
i.e., b g
∇ ∇•H − ∇ 2 H = σ∇ × E+ ε
∂t
( ∇ × E)

Using Eq(42) and (43), the above Eq. becomes ;

8
 0 − ∇2 H = σ −µ
FG ∂HIJ ∂ FG
∂H IJ
H ∂t K
+ε
∂t
−µ
H
∂t K
∂E ∂ 2E
−∇ 2 H = − µσ − µε 2
∂t ∂t

∂H ∂ 2H
or ∇2 H = µσ + µε 2 -------(45)
∂t ∂t
Let us now take the curl on both sides of Eq.(43).
∂
∇ × ∇ × E= −µ
∂t
b∇ ×H g
Using Eq.(42) and (44) the above Equation becomes

Ο − ∇2E = − µ
∂ FG σE + ε ∂EIJ
∂t H ∂t K

∂E ∂ 2E
or ∇2E = µσ + µε 2 -------(46)
∂t ∂t
Eqs(45) and (46) contain damping terms proportional to the conductivity of the medium. The plane
wave solutions of Maxwell’s equations for a conducting medium are expressed as :
E (r, t) = E0 εi (k r − ω t ) ------(47)

H (r, t) = H0 εi (k r − ω t ) ------(48)
substituting Eq(47) in Eq(46), we get
I2 k 2 E (r, t) = µ σ ( −i ω ) E + µ ε( −i ω )2 E

I2 k 2 E (r, t) = −i µσωE +i2 µεω2E i 2 = −I

− k2 E (r, t) = −i µσωE − µεω2E ⇒ k2E = iµσωE+ µεω2E

k2 = εµω2 1+
LM i σ OP
N ε ωQ
i.e. k = ω εµ
LM1+ i σ OP 1
2
--------(49)
N ε ωQ
The first term corresponds to the displacement current and the second to the conduction current.
For any wave there is a functional relationship between the wave number k and wave frequency ω.
This relation is known as dispersion relation. For electromagnetic waves in vacuum, the dispersion relation
is
ω
k= --------(46)
v
1
If σ = 0 (i.e., free space) k = ω εµ , where εµ = . In a conducting medium, the propagation vector k
v

9
is complex, for convenience, we may expreess it as
k = α + iβ -------(50)
Where α and β are constants. Squaring Eq(50) and comparing with (49)

k2 = α 2 – β2, and k2 = εµω2 1 +

LM iσ OP
= εµω2 bQ σ = 0g
N εω Q
∴ α 2 − β 2 = εµω2 and 2αβ = σµω ------ (51)
Thus, the solution of Eq(47) becomes :

E = E 0 e mb g
i α+i β r − ωt r =E eib αr− ωt g e− βr ------ (52)
0

H = H0 e mb
similarly g
i α+i β r − ωt r=H ei b αr −ωt g e− βr ------ (53)
0
These equaions indicate that a plane wave cannot propagate in a conducting medium without attenuation.
When a plane wave is propagating in a conducting medium, the oscillating electricfield in the wave sets
up currents. Work must be done to drive the currents and some of the energy is dissipated as heat in the
medium. This results in to the attenuation of the wave. The quantity β is called the absorption coefficient
FG 1IJ times
and is a measure of this attenuation. The depth of penetration at which the amplitude falls to
H eK
its initial value is called the skin depth.

The skin effect

∂E
In equation (49) the term iσµω arises from the term involving in equation (46), i.e., from the
∂t
∂ 2E
conduction current; while the term εµω arises from the term involving
2
in the same equation, i.e.,
∂t 2
from the displacement current. In almost all conducting media the conduction current dominates the
displacement current, and hence, it is a good approximation to neglect the middle term in equation (46).
Thus, for a good conducting medium
∂E
∇2E = σµ ------(54)
∂t
The attenuated solution of this equation is

E = E 0e −βrei(αr−ωt) ------(55)

σ
For a good conductor, if the frequency is not too high >> 1.
εω

1
We put α = β = and δ =
2 FG IJ 1
2

δ µωσ H K
r FG r −ωtIJ
e Hδ K
− i
∴ E = E0 e δ ------(56)

1
If r = δ, then the amplitude decreases in magnitude to times its value at the surface. The quantity δ,
e
therefore, is a measure of the distance of penetration of an electromagnetic wave into a good conductor,
1
before its magnitude drops to times its value at the surface. The distance δ is called the skin depth.
e
10
Transport of energy by an electromagnetic wave - Poynting’s theorem
Let us consider the energy associated with the fields E and B. The amount of energy per unit
volume in the field is given by
1 1
WE = ε0E 2 (for electric field) and WB = µ 0H2 (for Magnetic field) ------(57).
2 2
A travelling wave carries energy with it. When an electromagnetic wave propagates through space from
their source to distant receiving points, there is a transfer of energy from the source to the receivers.
There is a simple relation between rate of the energy transfer and the amplitudes of electric and magnetic
intensities of the electromagneti wave. This relation is embedied in poynting theorem which can be
stated as follows :
Poynting theorem states that vector product of electric field E and magnetic field strength H at any
point is a measure of the rate of energy flow per unit area at that point.
Mathematically the theorem can be expressed as P = E × H
∂D
From Maxwell’s equations, we have ∇ × H= J+
∂t
∂E
Since D = ε E, we can write ∇ × H= J+
∂t

∂E
or J= ∇ × H − ε ------(58)
∂t
Multiply Eq(58) by E to convert it from the dimension of current density to power per unit volume, we
have
δE
E.J=E.∇×H–ε E. -------(59)
δt
From a vector identity, we know that
∇ . (A × B) = B . (∇ × A) – A . (∇ × B)
Replacing A by E and B by H, we get
∇ . (E × H) = H . (∇ × E) – E . (∇ × H)
or E . (∇ × H) = H . (∇ × E) – ∇ . (E × H)
Putting this value of E . (∇ × H) in Eq.(59), we get
∂E
E . J = H . (∇ × E) – ∇ . (E × H) – ε E
∂t

∂H
From Maxwell’s equation we have ∇ × E = – µ
∂t

∂H ∂E
E.J=–µH –εE – ∇ . (E × H)
∂t ∂t

µ ∂H2 ε ∂E2
or E.J=– − − ∇ . (E × H)
2 ∂t 2 2 ∂t 2
Integrating over volume V, we have

F µH I
z
v
E ⋅ Jdv = −
∂
∂t z
v
GH 2
2
+
εE2
2 JK z
dv − ∇ . (ε × H) dv
v

11
But by divergence theorem
z v
z
∇ . (E × H) dv = (E × H) dv
s

Therefore, z
v
E ⋅ Jdv = − z FGH
∂ µH2 εE2
∂t v 2
+
2
dv − (E × H)ds
s
I
JK z ------(61)

The physical interpretation of this expression (Eq.61) is as follows :

i) z
v
E ⋅ Jdv represents the instantaneous power dissipated in the volume V..

ii) −
∂
∂tz FGH
v
1 2 1 2
2
IJ
µH + εE dv represents the rate at which the stored energy (magnetic and electric
2 K
field) in the volume V is decreasing.
From the law of conservation of energy, we know that rate of energy dissipation in a volume = the
rate at which the stored energy in volume V is decreasing + the rate at which the energy is entering the

z
volume from outside. Thus, − (E × H)ds represents the rate of flow of energy inward through the
s

surface of the volume. Then, z

s
(E × H)ds represents the rate of flow of energy outward through the

surface S enclosing the volume V.

By poynting theorem, the vector product of electric field E and magnetising field H is another
vector product P. This vector P is called Poynting Vector. This Poyning vector P measures the rate of
flow of energy or the intensity of the wave as it travels along. The Poynting vector points along the
direction of flow of radiation.
i.e., P = E × H

Momentum
Just as the field has energy, it will have a certain momentum per unit volume. Let us call that
momentum density g. Since the momentum has various possible directions, it must be a vector. Field
momentum can be shown as follows :
The force on a region containing both charges and currents is

z
F = (ρE + J × B)dv ------(62)
If P is the sum of momenta of all the particles
dp
dt
= zb
v
ρE + J × B dv g ------(63)

From Maxwell’s equations ∇ ⋅D = ρ

∂D ∂D
∇ ⋅H = J + ⇒ J = ∇ × H−
∂t ∂t

∴
dP
dt
= z RSTb
v
g FGH
∇ ⋅ D E+ ∇ × H −
∂B
∂t
IJ UV
× B dv
K W
= z RSTb
v
g
∇⋅ D E+B × ∇⋅ H − B × b g ∂D
∂t
UV
dv
W
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 ∂ ∂ B ∂D ∂D ∂ ∂B
Since
∂t
b
D ×B =D ×
∂t
+g∂t
×D⇒
∂t
×B=
∂t
D ×B − D ×
∂t
b g
dP
dt
= z RSTb
v
g
∇ ⋅ D E+B × ∇ × H − b g LMN ∂∂t bD × Bg − D × ∂∂Bt OPQUVW dv
From vector algebra, we have A×(B×C)=B(A. C) – C(AB)
.
∴ B×(∇×H)=∇(B.H) – H(B.∇)

dp
dt
= z RSTb
v
g
∇ ⋅ D E+B × H × H − b g ∂∂t bD × Bg − D × b∇ ⋅ EgUVW dv
∂B
where ∇ × E= −
∂t
Because ∇ ⋅ B = 0 , addition of (∇ ⋅ B ) H does not alter the result. The above equation can be rewritten
as :

dP ∂
+
dt ∂t zb
v
D × B dv = g zb
v
g b g
∇⋅ D E+B × ∇ × H − D × ∇ × E dv b g ------(64)

It is to be noted that the integral in the second term of the left-handside represents momentum.
Since it is not associated with the mass of particles and consists only of fields, we identify it as
electromagnetic momentum P field. The vector g = D × B is called electromagnetic momentum density.
RHS of Eq.(64) can be converted into a surface integral and identified as momentum flow. We conclude
from Eq.(64) that the total momentum of the closed system consisting of a field and particles is conserved.
It may be noted that the momentum densiy vector g is related to the Poynting vector P.
p
g = [D × B] = [ε E × µ H] = µ ε[E × H] = µ ε or g= .
C2

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