TOPIC 9:

PRINCIPLE OF SOUND
 Content
9.1 Nature theory and propagation.

Wave motion, velocity of sound, frequency of sound, quality of sound,

resonance.

9.2 Sound Levels.

Sound power, sound intensity, sound pressure, threshold levels,

decibels, measurements and calculations, sound level meter and
weighing scales.

9.3 Sound Attenuation.

Factors affecting attenuation in open air – absorption, temperatures,

wind and ground attenuation.
 Introduction to Sound
Sound can be described as:

 “A vibration transmitted through elastic medium such as gas, liquid

or solid, which travels in waves, spreading outwards from the source
of the sound.
or

 Sensation produced by rapid fluctuations of air pressure affecting

the ear mechanism.
or

 Air molecules movement – vibrations transmitted through air, elastic

medium (gas, liquid, solid)
or
 Mechanical wave
 Nature theory and propagation.
Wave motion
The movement of a distortion of a material or medium,
where the individual parts or elements of the material only
move back-and-forth, up and down or in cyclical pattern
 Types of sound wave

Longitudinal Wave Transverse Wave

Pressure wave
 Sound wave
 Wavelength (λ), unit: metre (m)

Distance between any two repeating points on a wave

 Amplitude, unit: Decibel (dB)

Maximum displacement of sound vibration

 Frequency, unit: Hertz (Hz)

Number of complete cycles of vibration per second,

or the number of vibrations which an individual particle makes per unit of

time.

 Velocity , unit: m/s

Speed of sound wave refers to the distance which the disturbance travels
per unit of time, or

The speed of a sound wave refers to how fast the disturbance of a particle
(from rest condition) is passed from particle to particle.
 Example 1 - Frequency
FREQUENCY (ƒ) is the number of cycles of vibration per
second. UNIT : Hertz (Hz)

Example:

If a particle of air undergoes 1000 longitudinal vibrations in 2 seconds,

then the frequency of the wave
would be 500 vibrations per second.
1 Hertz = 1 vibration/second
= 1000/2
= 500 Hertz
If an object that produces sound waves vibrates 100 times a second,
then the frequency of that sound wave will be 100 Hz.
Example 2 - Period
Period - The amount of time it takes for
one complete cycle

T =1
f

Where,
T = period (s/cycle)
f = frequency (cycles / s or Hz)
Q: The period of a pendulum is 4.5s. Determine the frequency of this
pendulum.

A: The period means that it will take 4.5 seconds for the pendulum to swing
back and forth once. So,
T = 1 , f =1,
f 4.5
f = 0.22 Hz
 Frequency & Pitch

•Higher frequencies have shorter wavelength (high pitch)

•Lower frequencies have longer wavelength (low pitch)
Frequencies = pitch (low Hz = low pitch)
 Audible range of hearing
 Hearing : frequency of 20 – 20,000 Hz (hertz or cycle per
second)

 Infrasound : Frequency below the audible range (less

than 20 Hz)

 Ultrasound : Frequency higher than audible range (>20,

000 Hz)
 Quality of sound
 Pure tone- a pure tone is sound of only one frequency,
such as that given by a tuning fork or electrical signal
generator.

 Overtones and harmonics- are the frequencies equal to

whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency.

 Resonance- Every object has its natural frequency

depends on shape, density and stiffness. Resonance
occur when the natural frequency of an object
coincides with the natural frequency of any vibration
applied to the object.
 Velocity
One person A stands on a cliff with a gun.
Another person stands on the cliff B with a
stopwatch. The distance between A and B is
known. When the gun is fired by A, there is
first a flash of light and then the sound. This
is because the speed of light is 3 x 108m/s,
many orders of magnitude larger than the
speed of the sound. B starts his stopwatch
when he sees the flash of light and stops his
stopwatch when he hears the sound. The
time measured by the stopwatch is the time
taken by the sound waves to travel distance
AB. Dividing the distance between A and B
by the time, we will get the velocity of sound.
 Example 3: Velocity

Distance AB= 10m, time= 3s, what is the sound

velocity?

= 10/3
Velocity = 3.33 m/s
 Characteristic of sound velocity:
•The velocity of sound is affected by the properties of the material
through which it is traveling.
•There are two types of properties which affect wave speed:
1) Inertial properties.
Properties that related to the material’s tendency to be sluggish(slow
moving) to change in it’s state of motion (e.g. gases). /kecenderungan benda
untuk mempertahankan keadaannya (diam/bergerak). Sound travel at different rate in
nitrogen and oxygen. Sound velocity increases as temp. and humidity
increases.
2) Elastic properties
Properties that related to the tendency of a material to maintain its
shape and not deform whenever a force or stress is applied on it (e.g.
steel). Sound travel faster in solid and liquid than it does in air because
the densities and elasticites of those materials are greater.
SOUND PROPAGATION

Outward from source spherical wavefront

 Factors affect the propagation &
attenuation of sound

1. Geometric spreading
2. Atmospheric effects
3. Surface effects
(1.a) Spherical Geometric
Point Source of sound

The sound intensity from a point

source decreases in inverse proportion
to the square of the distance from the
source (Inverse Square Law).

The ratio of any two intensities is given

by the formula
IA= dB2
IB dA2

Where IA is the sound intensity

measured at distance dA from the
source and IB is the sound intensity
measured at distance dB from the
source.
(1.b) Cylindrical spreading
Line source of sound

d
A 2
A
Line
sourc
e

2 Cylindrical
d surfaces

Surface area increases in proportion to the distance.

Intensity decreases in inverse proportion to the
distance.
The sound wave from a line source spreads out in the shape of a
cylinder, as shown in previous figure. The surface area of a cylinder
increases in simple proportion to its radius. Sound intensity from a line
source therefore decreases in simple inverse proportion to the distance
from the source. The attenuation from a line source in a free field can be
shown by general relationship:

I α 1/d

Where I is the sound intensity measured at distance d from the source.

The ratio of any two intensities is given by the following formula:

I1/I2 = d2/d1

Where I1 is the sound intensity measured at distance d1 from the source

and I2 is the sound intensity measured at distance d2 from the source.
 (2) ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS

(i)Air absorption (ii)Wind and Temperature

Gradients
 Acoustic energy is absorbed
by the atmosphere -
molecular relaxation and
viscosity effects
 (3) SURFACE EFFECTS

(1) Ground Absorption (2) Attenuation Due to Barriers

and Trees
 Sound reflection
 Convex surfaces => dispersed reflections
 Concave surfaces => concentrated reflections
Source of sound

Surfaces e.g Walls, floors

 Sound diffraction

Obstruction
Source
of sound
 SOUND LEVELS
SOUND POWER (P) is the rate at which sound
energy is produced at the source.

UNIT : watt (W)

Sound measurement:

1. Sound intensity (I)

2. Sound pressure (p)
 INDICATOR FOR SOUND LEVEL
MEASUREMENT
In the measurement of sound levels the decibel
ratios is always made with reference to the
standard value for the threshold of hearing:

1.Threshold of hearing - the weakest sound

the average human ear can detect
I = 1 x 10-12 W/m2 or p = 20 x 10-6 Pa

2.Threshold of pain - the strongest sound

that the human ear can tolerate
I = 1 W/m2 or p = 200 Pa
 Threshold of
pain

Threshold
of hearing
 (1) Sound intensity (I)
The sound power distributed over unit area.
UNIT : watts per square metre (W/m2)

I = P
4πr2
P = sound power of the source (W)
r = distance from the source (m)
I = intensity at distance (W/m2)

The unit used in calculating the sound level when measured

as intensity (based on threshold of hearing) is as following:

I 0= 1 x 10-12 W/m2
 (2) Sound pressure (p)
the average variation in atmospheric pressure caused by
the sound

UNIT : pascal (Pa)

The unit used in calculating the sound level when

measured as pressure (based on threshold of hearing)
is as following:

p0 = 20 x 10-6 Pa
 SOUND MEASUREMENT
For practical measurements of sound strength, it is convenient
to use a decibel scale based on constant ratios, a scale which
is also used in some electrical measurements.

Unit: Decibel (dB), logarithmic ratio of two quantities

N = 10 log10 I2 = N = 10 log10 p2 2

I1 p1

N = number of decibels
I1 and I2 are the two intensities being compared
or
p1 and p2 are the two pressures being compared
 CALCULATION OF SOUND
LEVEL
(1) Sound Intensity LeveL
If the sound strength is considered in terms of intensity
then a sound intensity level (SIL) is given by the formula:

SIL = 10 log10 I
I0
Where,
I = the intensity of the sound being measured (W/m2)
I0 = the intensity of the threshold of hearing (1 x 10-12 W/m2
 WORKED EXAMPLE
Calculate the change in sound level when the intensity of a sound is
doubled.
Let I = initial intensity, so 2 I = final intensity.
Let L1 = initial sound level and L2 = final sound level.

L2 – L1 = 10 log10 2I - 10 log10 I
I0 I0

= 10 log10 2I x I0 (by the rules of logarithms)

I0 I

= 10 log10 2I
I
= 10 log 2
= 10 x 0.3010
= 3.010
Change in SIL = 3 dB
***The Four Basic Properties of Logs

1.logb(xy) = logbx + logby.

2.logb(x/y) = logbx - logby.

3.logb(xn) = n logbx.

4.logbx = logax / logab.

 CALCULATION OF SOUND
LEVEL
(2) Sound Pressure Level
Most practical instruments measure sound by responding to
the sound pressure. The sound pressure level (SPL) is then
given by the formula: :

SPL = 20 log10 p
p0
Where,
p = the RMS pressure of the sound being measured
p0 = the RMS pressure of the threshold of hearing taken as
20 x 10-6 Pa
 WORKED EXAMPLE
A sound has a pressure of 4.5 x 10-2 Pa when measured
under certain conditions. Calculate the sound pressure level
of this sound. Threshold of hearing pressure = 20 x 10-6 Pa.
p = 4.5 x 10-2 Pa, p0 = 20 x 10-6 Pa, SPL = ?

SPL = 20 log10 (p/p0 )

= 20 log (4.5 x 10-2/ 20 x 10-6 )
= 20 log (2250)
= 67.04 dB

SPL = 67 dB
 COMBINATION OF SOUND LEVELS

• If two different sounds arrive at the same time then the ear is
subject to two pressure waves.

• Decibel scale is logarithmic in origin so the simple addition

of sound levels in decibels does not give the sound level of
the combined sounds.

BUT
• Intensities or the squares of pressures can be added

I = I1 + I2 (when measured as intensity) , or

p = √(p12 + p22) (when measured as pressure)

 WORKED EXAMPLE
1. Calculate the total sound level caused by the combination of sound
levels of 95 dB and 90 dB. Threshold of hearing intensity = 1 x 10-12 W/m2.
Let I1 = intensity of 95dB, I2 = intensity of 90dB, and I3 = intensity of
combined sounds.
I3 = I1 + I2 (combine sound level when measured as intensity)

SIL = 10 log10 I
I0
-12
SIL = 10log (I1/1*10 )
-12
95 = 10log (I1/1*10 )
-12
9.5 = log (I1/1*10 )
-12
Antilog 9.5 = (I1/1*10 )
-12 9
(1*10 ) (3.16 * 10 ) = I1
-3 =
3.16 * 10 I1
 -12
SIL = 10log (I2/1*10 )
-12
90 = 10log (I2/1*10 )
-12
9 = log (I2/1*10 )
-12
Antilog 9 = (I2/1*10 )
-12 9
(1*10 ) (1 * 10 ) = I2
-3
1 * 10 = I2

I1 + I2 = I3
-3 -3
(3.16 * 10 ) + (1*10 ) = I3
-3
4.16 * 10 = I3

-3 -12
SIL = 10log(4.16*10 /1*10 )
SIL = 10 (9.6)
SIL = 96dB
2. Calculate the total sound pressure level caused by the combination of
sounds level of 80 db and 85 db. Threshold of hearing pressure = 20 x 10-
6 Pa.

SPL = 20 log10 (p/p0 )

80 = 20 log (p1/ 20 x 10-6 )
antilog 4 = (p1/ 20 x 10-6 )
(1*10 3) (20 x 10-6 ) = p1
0.2 = p1

SPL = 20 log10 (p/p0 )

85 = 20 log (p2/ 20 x 10-6 )
antilog 4.25 = (p2/ 20 x 10-6 )
(17.78) (20 x 10-6 ) = p2
0.356 = p2
 p3 = √(p12 + p22)

p3 = √(0.2 2 + 0.356 2)

p3 = 0.41
SPL = 20 log10 (p/p0 )
SPL = 20 log (p3/ 20 x 10-6 )
SPL= 20 log(0.41/ 20 x 10-6 )
= 20 log (20500)
= 20 (4.31)
= 86.2dB
=86dB
 SOUND ATTENUATION
Spreading of sound - amplitude decreases and the
sound level drops
The combined effect of scattering and absorption is
called attenuation.
Free field - no objects in the sound path
Object in the sound path - Reflect, Absorb and Transmit
sound

**Relates with sound propagation

 WORKED EXAMPLE
A microphone measures sound at a position in a free field
5m from a point source. Calculate the change in SPL if the
microphone is moved to a position 10m from the source.
Let L1 = SPL at distance d1 = 5m, and L2 = SPL at distance
d2 = 10m
Using L1 – L2 = 10 log I1 , and I1 = d22
I2 I 2 d12

L1 – L2 = 10 log d22 = 10 log 102

d12 52
= 10 log 100/25 = 10 log 4
= 10 x 0.6021 = 6.021

Change in SPL = 6 dB decrease

 NATURE OF HEARING
• The sense of hearing involves the ear and the brain and
the effect of sound can therefore vary from person to person.

OUTER EAR MIDDLE EAR INNER EAR

Eardrum

Auditory nerve
Auditory canal Malleus
Incus

Stapes Cochlea
Outer ear
Outer ear collects the sound waves and funnels them to the ear drum, a
membrane which vibrates when sound waves fall upon it.

Middle ear
The middle ear is an air-filled cavity, connected to the throat which passes the
vibrations of the ear drum to the inner ear.
This transfer is achieved by means of the three small bone levers.
The mechanical link between the bones amplifies the vibrations to adjust for the
difference between the air of the middle ear and the fluid of the inner ear.

Inner ear
The cochlea in the inner ear converts the mechanical vibrations of sound into electrical
impulses which are transmitted to the brain by auditory nerve.
The cochlea is a hollow coil of bone, filed with liquid, in which the sound waves vibrate.
Dividing the cochlea along its length is the basilar membrane which contains
approximately 25 000 nerve endings.
The fine hairs attached to these nerves detect the sound vibrations in the fluid and the
information is transmitted to the brain by the auditory nerve.
The inner ear is situated near the three semi-circular canals which contain fluid and are
associated with the sense of balance.
 DEAFNESS
Middle ear deafness
This deafness is a result of a stiffening of the system of
connecting bones caused by various infections or by a
broken ear drum.
The resulting deafness affects the transmission of low
tones rather than high tones and can usually be cured
by drugs or by surgery.

Nerve deafness
Nerve deafness is a result of damage to the nerve
endings in the inner ear or to the nerve carrying
information to the brain which can be caused by
infections, head injuries or by exposure to high levels of
noise.
EFFECTS FOF DEAFNESS
TEMPORARY THRESHOLD SHIFT (TTS) is a
temporary loss of hearing which recovers in 1-
2 days after the exposure to noise.

PERMANENT THRESHOLD SHIFT (PTS) is

a permanent loss of hearing caused by longer
exposure to noise.