~ states;that during an interaction, energy can change from one form to anoth EUNDAMENTALS OF THERMODYNAMICS EC 122/108 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMIC: Thermodynamics is a subject that deals with energy and its transiormation The word ‘thermodynamics’ originates from the Greek word “Thermo” (hi dynamics (power), that is, it is the means of converting heat energy from available tion) into sources (natural gas, petroleum, coal, hydro-electric and nuclear re mechanical work. ‘One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy princt; bu destroyed tofalrasnount-of energy remains constant, i.e. energy cannot be created or ‘The chonge in the energy content of a body-or any other systems is equal to the ference between the energy input and the energy output. ie. energy balance : B= Ein —Eoue set rt aes energy in the form a from above, you will discovered that thermBdyfuimics is common J ‘peta 16 allsiengineering isinclep's to Satiidy- and understand the pines nti ‘energy transformation (ie. thermodynamics) therefore other aspect of life, It is LL, DEFINITIONS: = withiethe transformation of energy from dae form to another as well relatioiiship between the various physical.quantities and prop: afsuts qTheimodynamics can*be defined as the science that d © vihichiare irivolved in the transformation.12 APPLICATION 1, 13 “& thermodynamics system or system: is a region in space ee Ty ee ae 4 MP es AREAS OF THERMODYNAMICS: 'e Heart: the heart is Constantly pumping blood to all parts of the hu: body, various energy conversion occurs in the body cells and the heat Benes is Constantly rejected to the environment Many ordinary household utensils and appliances such as electric or gas cook; heating and air-conditioning systems, the refrigerator, the Pressure cookc; water heater, the shower, the iron, humidifier, TV etc eo * Thermodynamics plays a major part in the design and analysis of automcii: engines, rockets, jet engines, solar collectors’ power plants, and the design o; vehicles from ordinary cars to air planes. y The size, location and the power input of the fan of computer are: after an analysis that involves thermodynamics. The energy-efficient home is designed on the basis of ‘minimizing winter and heat gain in summer. j THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM. matter within prescribed and identifiable boundaries, A system, ~ Surroundings: - surrounding . ‘thes region ouside: ixing substance (fluid) within the cylinder hi ‘cad, walls, and the piston crown y be considered as a system | Walls of an oven insulated with different materials can also be re; garded as ‘om whose conditions are bding under studied can be treated as a system, ine used for power generation can be modeled as a system A working fluid is a gas or liquid that primarily transfers force, 1F mechanical energy. In pneumatics, the Working fluid is air or which transfers force between pneumatic components such as vacuum pumps, pneumatic cylinders, and pneumatic motors DYNAMICS PROCESSES: A process is any change undergone by a n its conditions are changed from one equilibrium state to another e.g. the compression of a gas or the Conversion of water into steam. €s of states through which a system passes during a process is called Processes. ; 2state 2 who Process Path Property BY; _ Each repeated Sequence of events is called a cycle. And when a system R0€s thr, a thermodynamics cycle, the final States of the system and their initial States identical, State: - the state Of a thermodynamic System is the overall condition of System at a given point in time. The state of a system is Specified or describe by Properties e.g. Pressure, volume, temperature and energy. 14 CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEM:- There are three (3) types of system” (1) Open system (2) closed System and (3) isolated system, 1. Open System: ~ in an pen system or a contro! volume, there is mass flo: across the boundary, heat and work transfers are also allowed ACrOss the boundaries. It ig 4 properly selected tegion in space and the boundaries can be real or iniaginary in nature. These boundaries of an open System are called Control surface, i can cross the boundary of a contro! volume, Example of an open system may include @ Agas expanding from a container tatrhs anozzle, ‘ee (ii) Steam flowing through a turbine: Gil) Water entering a boiler and leaving as steam, % (Gv) Compressor. € i (¥) Internal combustion engine. : (vi) Flow of water through a Pipe. (vii) The blower. 3 = in a closed system or a control mass, the quantity of matter estigation remains within the region throughout the Process. That is cons fixed amount of mass, No mass can enter or leave a closed systemG) A Piston assumed to fit tightly within the cylinder accordingly; the mass of gas is not allowed to ‘cross the boundary, s ee It ‘an isolatedPROPERTIES OF THERMODINAMIC SYSTEM Any observable characteristic of a system is called a properly. E.g. Pressur Temperature T, volume V, Mass M Viscosity etc The properties of'a thermodynamic are classified into two major classes. 1. Intensive properties 2. Extensive properties e Intensive Properties: - They are properties which are independent of the m of the system. Examples are pressure, Temperature and density. cs Extensive Properties: - They are properties which depend on the mass of t system. Examples are internal energy, volume, entropy and concentration 1. INTENSIVE PROPERTIES a. Pressure: - The pressute of a system is the farce exerted on a system per uni area of its boundary. This pressure is known as absolute Pressure and has th: units N/m’, bar or Pascal, Pressure is measure with a barometer Pressure in a liquid and gas Fouage = Pavs — Patm Prac = Patm — Paps Absolute pressure = Pay, = P, + pgh . Where; : Paps = absolute pressure Poae = vaccum pressure 1 ; Pam = Atmospheric pressure , ge = Guage pressureThe actual pressure at a given Position is called the absolute Pressure, The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure is called the gauge pressure. Pressures that are below atmospheric are called vacuum Pressure Pvacu, 4 Example 1 Determine the liquid Pressure exerted by the leaded tank with a total mass Of 85kg rest on surface area of 0.24m? (g=9.81 m/s’) Solution given m=85kg, g=9.81m/s? A=0.24m? pressur 4 e=— A mass x acc. due to gravity Serene Ue CO ar aviey ieee ®) Surface area ¢ (fig 7) a ye Me f 85x 9.81 0.24 i = 3474.38N/m? - 1 bar = 10°N/m? = 105Pa ; 1 atm = 101,325Pa = 1.01325 bars TEMPERATURE: Temperature is a scalar quantity (magnitude, no director) and it is a thermodynamic property. Temperature being the degree of hotness and coldness of matter is a property of a system or substance since it can be possessed by it.'The difference in temperature of two bodies is the evidence of the flow of heat between the two surfaces in contact. Temperature is the meastire of the intensity of heat energy ina system. The thermodynamic temperature scale is independent on the properties of' any substances, In S.I unit it is the Kelvin scale .the Kelvin is the absolute temperature scale for the Celsius, the-Fahrenheit and the Rankine scales. It is also known as the thermodynamic temperature scale. The conversion between the scales is given by: Between the Kelvin scale and the Celsius scale, we have Ff T(k) = T(°C) + 273.15 Between the Rankine scale & Fahrenheit scale we have 7 K fT(R) = TF) + 459.67 Between Rankine scale & Kelvin scaleT(R) = 1.87(K) And between the Fahrenheit and Celsius T CF) = 1.87°C +32 Density: Density is defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume. Some objec; heavier than other objects, even though they are the same size. For example, a | and a loaf of bread are about the same size, but a brick is heavier (ie itis more ¢, ). Among metals, aluminum is less dense than iron. It is denoted by rho () mass volume = e138 The unit is Kg/m3, Examples; A tank is filled with oil whose density (¢) is 850kg /m’, if the volume the tank is 2m, Determine the amount of mass in the tanks, Solution: 850Kg/m? = 2S Mass \(m) = 2m3x850Kg/m? = 1700Kg Volume: Volume of any substance involves the measurement of its area a ‘The expression of volume varies from solid to liquid substance. Specific volume: The specific volume is the reciprocal of density and is define as 1! volume per unit mass. This is expressed is y = Vwolume) _ 2 “Tn Mass Pp Measurement of volume can be done by the aid of standardized instruments like, measuring flask, pipette and burettes. Modern volume measuring instruments like digital fes and measuring flask are near readily available to measure out volum: of substant a very high precision for laboratory and industrial analysis,m® = 10001 = 10%em3 STORED ENERGY ‘The total stored energy E isa Property of a system and refers to the sum of various forms of energy Which can be stored in or Forms of stored energy are: Cig Internal energy QQ Potential energy @) , Kinetic energy @ Chemical cnergy, magnetic, ie. The total stored energy E Possessed by a system at a particular state. surface tension, and nuclear energy. SU+P.E+K.E = mu + mgh + 3%? eit ore ener per nit man * e=i moutght= $c?(intensive property) POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY: Kinetic anergy: The Kinetic Energy K.E of a body is the energy it possesses as a result of its motion and is expressed as KE => *mc?(/) Where m = mass of the body, c = velocity j ‘The Kinetic Energy per unit mass, an oie property, is given by: KE= erg) Potential Energy: Potential energy is the energy possessedby a system by virtue of its position relative to some reference level. P.£ = mgh (J) — Itis an extensive property Potential energy per unit mass is given as P.E = ghJ/Kg-Itis intensive property INTERNAL ENERGY OF GASmatically, nge in this intrinsic the fluid energy per unit mass is known as specific internal U therefore, the internal energy for a mass of fluid in is given by U=mu (orks) ‘energy is a property, the change in internal energy is written as; f..2.3) the First law equation from @—W = U;~U; t0Q=Uy —U; of a reversible constant pressure process, the work done is given as | Pdv therefore W = P(V, -V4)... -(:5) the first law expression equation (1.land 1.2) we have State that (in a close system) the heat transfer for a constant $ equal the change in intemal energy the charge in the enthalpy of the s ; Qeonstvot = Us — Us (KJ) * Qconstpressure = Hz — H, (KJ) u ly, for the processes above the heat transfer per unit mass is given while for a constant pressure Taam ge U2 — us (KJ/Kg) and Qconse pressure = hz — hy (KJ/Kg)a. ‘% Example: A gas is compressed from an initial volume of 5.40 liter to final vo), 1.23 Titer by an external pressure of 1.00 atm. During the compression ; releases 1281 of heat. What isthe change in the internal energy of the gas? Solution: The intemal energy of a gas is expressed as ie.AU=Q+Worl,-U,=Q+W Since the gas is compressed, the work is expressed as: Work = —pressure x change in volume since W is—W =—px Av,= ~latm x (1.234 - 5.4), = 4.17 Lar, since 1J = 0.09871, atm, Then Work 4 wae = 42.25) SoAU=Q+w Coy But due to compression AU =-128+ 42.25], = —85,75) ENTHALPY i \ - i , Enthalpy is a properly thet combines.some other properties, and gi the summa: Of the internal energy and the product of the pressure and wile and expressed as $ t 5 : Dy HeU+PvG~y & «And for the specitic enthalpy we have BD h=utpv : ‘ ‘S Where: U~ integral ete, ’ = Specific intemal energy ' P= Pressure v= Specific volume h = specific enthalpychange in enthalpy is given by: OH =H, —H, ence represented the heat transfer in the process Ha Hy = QQ) haha = ay (2 2— hy 42 (jr): with Qy2 = mqy2 stale HEATS FOR PERFECT GASES ideal) gas is any gas that obeys both Boyle’s law and Charles law. It ‘be deseri b ibed as any gas whose Properties (temperature, pressure) are (IX) : a ri Soleda ‘heat capacity is the heat required to raise a unit mass bitte or liquid k WERSet caviciisi c= Quantity of heat Q Mass ofsubstance (m)x temp. diff (dt) =o OF AQ = MCUE eee cec ve seve EXX) ‘specific heat capacity isJ/Kg.k. ‘heat capacity of water is 418//Kg°C “that 4187 joules of heat energy would be required to change the if 1Kg of water by 1°C," gas, two types of specific heat capacities can be defined. yecific heat capacity at constant volume (Cy) ecific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cy) specific heat capacity at constant volume comes into play when there is tion of internal energy with temperature of the gas leading to the expression. 13dit = Cy (T) dE ose XXX) a Hence, Gy = Ge and for a change in specific internal energy au AU, - U, = G(T, - 7), wu IXXXX) i For specific heat capacity at constant pressure the variation is between, , specific enthalpy and temperature, leading to the expression dh = Cp(T)ar + (2X) therfore Cp Similarly for a change in Specific AA 4h = hy — hy = Cpt, = Ty... ei fe But mu = U and mh = H, therfore u = mrandh ee hence, Uz ~ U, = mC,(T> — T:) similarly, Hy — Hy = mCp(Tz -T,) Recall that for ¢ non-flow process Q-W=,-4, Applying the constant volume energy equation above, we have Q—W = my (Ty — Ty) sas ne (2KXX) But W = 0 (Constant Volume Process) Q=m6,( -T) ws (2XXXX) The difference between the two Specific heat capacities above leads to the Specific gas constants expressed as RE Cy ~ CoKI/RG-K) sre nee (3X) This implies that for every ideal gas the C p must be greater than the C\. The ratio of the tWo specific heat capacities leads to an ‘other property called specific heat ratio K G K =. (3xx), Cy fromR = c, Substitute for Value of C > Gy therefore G =R+6, 0... (3XXX)This implies that K is always greater than one, The C, can be easily derived from Combining the two equations of specific heat capacities i Op = Koo = from = Be z, The ratio is also referred to 08 the Adiabatic index deno ted by gamma y yR ¢ Hencey = Prana Cp= TABLE OF SPECIFIC HEATS FOR SOME GASES Name of gas CyHITEGK) | CC /keghe) oo) ONAL ENERGY: energy refers to any form of nergy which is transferred between a surroundings. Both heat and work are forms of transitional energy because each of them is an interaction between a system and its surroundings, = Heat is not a property but it is energy in transit which cannot be possessed or Stored in @ system, however, can be converted to Some other form of energy after crossing the boundary of the system. It is a form of energy which flows from one Mee 5 rin to another by virtue of only a temperature difference. Heat can only be eo -_ . Beye ae | supplied or removed from a system. It is directional in nature, as Such, ti, convention for heat flow is as follows: Heat flow into or supplied to a system is positive Heat flow from or rejected by a system is negative. Heat as a form of energy, has energy unit, Joule (J) and is denoted as ( the amount of heat transferred during the process) The quantity of heat transfer per unit mass is designated as q beg =Sy/kg The rate of heat transfer or flow (i.e. the amount of heat transferred Per unit tim denoted by Q f J The dot stands for “per unit time” Since heat transfer is not a property, the magnitude of heat transfer dur: Particular process can only be known if the path of the process is specified, tha heat is a path function. The heat transfers during a specific process, ie from staté-] to state 2 is denoted by Qi 2 O12 = fag The value of this integral cannot be written as Qs — Q; since heat is not a proper! “ hence the system does not possess a Property yalue of Q; or Q, at either state | state 2. Works Work is energy transferred between a system and its surrounding, Work is not 2 quantity which can be observed when a system is in a particular stat: hence like heat work is not a property of the system it is energy in transit and is neve possessed by the System. The magnitude of the work done W is the product of the foree and the distance through which the boundary is moved in the direction oth: \ force. 1 ie = Fxd (Nm)Newton-meter also called the Joules (J) 16 1Work per unit mass is designated by the symbol w, and is measured in Joules per kilogram (J/kg). ‘The magnitude of the work done depends on the path of the process between two given states. The work done by the action of a force in moving the boundary of a system is called mechanical work. A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system boundaries arc all associated work interactions. Work, like heat, is directional in nature. As such, in any thermodynamic process, Work done by the system on the surroundings e.g. when a system expands within a piston-cylinder assembly and Pushes the piston outwards, the work is said to be positive (i.e. work output) altematively, work done on the system by the Surroundings, ¢.g. when a force is applied to a piston to compress the system inside the cylinder, the work is said to be negative (i.e. work input) Work transfer could be modeled using the piston-cylinder mechanism shown below. Fig (1) Piston — cylinder Mechanism Let P= Pressure of the fluid on the piston faves and is constant for reversible process. A = Cross sectional area of the piston " F= Force exerted by the fluid, Recall: p=e F=PA And Workdone = Force (F)x distance travelled (dx) P.dx = PAdx iuay_ But Adx = dv = small element of volume jul dW =Pdv~ | The total amount of work done W)2 by the fluid during the expansion process state 1 to state 2 is obtained by integrating the above equation 4 Z [aw= | pav ai 1 2 Wa = [ pdv 1 ‘Bxample: A fluid in a cylinder is at a pressure of 700KN/m?. It is expanded ) Constant pressure from a volume of 0.28m° to a volume of 1.68m? determine work done. work done =W = f* pdv = PW — V4) = 700x 103x(1.63 — 0.28) = 7x105x 1.4 = 9.8x105NM = 9.8x1057 = 980K/ = 0.98my Quasi-static work: When a Process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times A quasi-static process refers to an idealized or imagined process where and with the environment, Flow Work: Flow work is the work required to Push mass over the system boundaries, 18Now we compute flow work, The boundary is, Power required to push mass over the system as always, the force required times the velocity. The force is the local Pressure times the cross section, thus W' flow =~ (pA) V=—p m/p Worki: is done to the ‘system when mass is entering, then W’ f low must be negative. qT ‘he system does work to push leaving mass out, then W’ f low must be positive. Zeroth law of Thermodynamics The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal ‘equilibrium with each other. In other word it can be stated as “when two bodies are each equal in temperature to a third body, then they are equal in temperature to each other”. Zeroth law of the thermodynamic serves as a basis for the validity of temperature measurement. The zeroth law of thermodynamic is also called the principle of thermal equilibrium, Heat continues to flow across the two surfaces until the two bodies rest at a uniform temperature. At that point state of thermal is reached. That state of temperature uniformity and equality is the condition for the thermal equilibrium ‘The first law of thermodynamics, or the law of conservation of energy: The first law of thermodynamics is a confirmation of the principle of conservation of energy which states that “energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be only changed from one form to another. This means the total energy in a system remains constant. This is energy balance in thermodynamics. * In mathematical form. Total energy entering the system — Total energy leaving the system = Change ak in the total energy of the system. 1. 2. Bin — Four = AEsystem 19Every cyclic operation obeys this energy balance. First law of thermodynami, ‘ stated thus: “When a closed system is taken through a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat supplied to the system from its surroundings is equal to the net work 4, the system on its surroundings” _ faa = [aw mee The law could also be stated that “when a closed system undergoes a thermody; cycle, then the net heat supplied to the system from its surrounding plus the input to the system from the Surroundings must equal zero Sede » Where the symbol f means cyclic integral or the summation round the cycle. equation (2) above can be illustrated by considering a cycle composed of { Processes as shown in fig (1) below ee Property Property Y Fig (1): a thermodynamic cycle. We can write: sum of net heat transfer for the cycle i is equal to the algebraic sum the network transfer for cycle £0 Qiz + Qas + Ons + Q4i = Wyo + Was + Woy + Wax For gentgass m of the systems we have 2 + 23 + a4 + M41 = Wrz + Wes + Wag + War ort. changes from state 1 to state 2 while 40Kj of heat is added and 60 of work is done by the system. As the system is returned to state 35kJ of work done on it. What is the heat transfer during process 2 — 1? Vz ¥ 20, Qoy Heat trans f. during frocess 2 — 1 Given Q,. = +40kj (heat supplied) Wr= +60kj (work done by the system) W2, =-35 (work donedythe system) Qui =? Heat transfer during process 2~ 1 x i Qh + Qaa = Wye + Way 404 Q, = 60-35 Q2 = 15K) "roperty ¥ Note:the negative sign means heat is rejected to the Surrounding during process 2-1 Example: 0.45kg of gas contained in a cylinder piston combination has an initial intemal energy of 64kj. 13.6kj of héat is added while it docs 35kj of work to the surroundings. Determine the final internal energy of the gas per unit mass Solution | given: Q1z = 13.6K], W,2 = 35K), U, = 64KJ,m = 0.45Kg, Uz =? from Qiz~ Wy, = Uz, —U, 13.6 - 35 =U, — 64, Uz = 64 + 13.6 -35 = 42.6K) Uz, 42.6K; but U;= mu, therefore: u, =—* ee 94.67K]/Kg m 045Kg The second law of thermodynamics; Heat does not flow spontaneously from a colder region to a hotter region, or, equivalently, heat at’ given temperature cannot 2be converted entirely into work. Consequently, the entropy of a closed system, heat energy per unit temperature, increases over time toward some maximum va|, Thus, all closed systems tend toward an equilibrium state in which entropy is a, maximum and no energy is available to do useful work. This asymmetry betwe forward and backward processes gives rise to what is known as the “arrow of time. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any isolated ‘system always increases. Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics Is expressed as: is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle, extracts heat from single reservoir and performs an equivalent amount of work on the surroundings” Clausius statement of the second faw states that: “It is impossible to construct a devic thet operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from lower temperature body to a higher temperature body” ~ The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a systen approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero STEADY FLOW PROCESS Flow processes: the flow of a mass of fluid through an open system is called a flow, process. That is mass of fluid crosses the system boundary; but in non — flow processes, there is no mass of fluid crossing the System boundary (i.e to go in and t flow out of the system). In flow process, the fluid under investigation does ne remain enclosed in the control volume throughout the period of study. Flow processes occur in varied conditions. When a flow Occurs with no change in time, itis referred to as being steady and when a flow is following in a uniform flow Pattern, it means no change in location. It is called Laminar flow, when the flow such that the fluid element move in continuous paths, or Streamlines, without mixin with the fluid in adjacent paths. In turbulent flows, eddy motion of small sid elements ig superimposed on the main flow. The velocities of individual element : 2fluctuate in the directi ic direction of fl . low and perpendi i a Perpendicular to it and so result in the mixing of Steady flow : dy flow energy equation (SFEE) A fluid flow j il is deseri i Roce sa 88 being steady when the rate at which the fluid is flowing wae ie es Hess of pes is constant. Some cxamples of steady flow MS are: a gas turbine, a i i i nme carburetor, an air compressor, an air conditioning unit, i and heat exchangers of i Ghenkay Which the fui ueed nines plants. The various forms 1, Internal energy: mu 2. Potential energy: mgz 3. Kinetic energy: +mc? 2 4. Heat energy: mq 5. Work transfer: mw 6. Flow or displacement work: PV Assumption for a steady flow process: 1, It shall be assumed that the mass flow rate of the fluid is constant and must also equal at the inlet and outlet point of the control volume. Therefore, if the process takes place between inlet (point 1) and outlet or exit (point 2), then My = Mh, = mh 2. The properties at any point in the system do not vary with time. In a turbulent flow, the properties of system vary at various points in the system. 3. Work and heat transfers occur at uniform rate in the system. 4,’ The properties of the fluid under investigation ‘are also constant over @ cross section of flow. 5 In the steady — flow energy equation, the application of the principle of the consesvetion of energy to the flow of a fluid through an open system and the equivalent energy equation for open system will be considered. ; For.the mass of fluid to be pushed into or out of the boundary of the system, some amount of work is required. This work is called displacement or flow work. Consider an element of fluid of length L, mass m, flowing steadily into the control volume at the inlet. ‘Let P,= pressure at which the fluid enters the control volume. 2But work done (en Biven by Work = F, x L = P, But A,Total energy enter} ring the hs : mages + med 4p 2 Total energy leaving th 3c} + mq, = e system muy + mp,v, + muz + mp. 202 + 1 aeane et 2773 + mma... Or for unit mass ofthe fluid (uy + p,v,) 1 s 1) + gz, +2¢2 ie ATIC + he (ug + pzv,) +925 +hcz Wag sat In engineering thermodynamics . h=utpv For total enthalpy H = mh= m(utpy) Since u, p, v are all properties of a system enthalpy h is also a property. Equation 4 becomes Mr hy + gay +5 cf + daa = he + 922 $ 38 + Wg ceca 5 Equation 3 and equation 5 is known.as the Steady flow energy equation (SFEE) GAS LAW Gases have various properties such as Pressure P, Temperature T, Mass M und ‘Vo‘uime V that are related to one another and the values of these properties determine the stnte of the gas. If we know the value of any two of the properties, we can determine the nature of the relationship between the other two. ‘fp All perfect gases obey all.gas laws under all conditions of pressure and temperature. These Gas Laws are” (1) Boyle’s Law (2)° Charles’s Law and Gay —Lussa Law (3) Joule’s Law ~ " (4) Avogadro’s Law i ; Joules Law: Change in internal energy is directly proportional to the change in temperature. Me.* Avogadro Law: Equal volume of all gases under the same pressure and temperature condition contained the same number of molecules. * — Boyle’s Law: it states that the volume ofa given mass of gas is inversely Proportional to its pressure, provided that the temperature remain constany 1 K feyns, Vos or Pv = K 0... (1) ‘Where. V = Volume, P = Pressure and K = Mathematical Constant PV, = PV i.e. state 1 to state 2 Examplel: 250cm? of a gas has a pressure of 740mm Hg, Find the volume if the Pressure is reduced to 720mmHg Solution: P| = 740 mmHg, P, = 720 mmHg V; =250em? V, =? PV, 740x250 PV, = P,Vp, Va = 44 = ——— =" = 956. 94cm? 1 = PaVaia =~ 720 : Charles Law: it states that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proport to its temperature provided the pressure remains constant. Vv he T.Vi= Kron aap Where V = Volume, T = Temp. (k) and K= Mathematical Constant Relationship can also be ‘expressed volume} In another form when considering (my, Two phases as -273Temp°C Va V2 , 7, = 7, ae ty, Example 2; ~ = volume at Temp T, and V2 = volume at TempT 26At S.TP a certain mass of Bas occupied a volume of 600cm?. Find the temperature at which the 885 occupied 1000cm? and has a pressure of 170mmHg. Solution: P= 760mmHg Ti = 273k Note: Vi =600em’, V,= 10006m? T, =? Py = 170mmHg AtS.T.P, PV _ PaVe 6 Thy Tp ciate: as equation PoVaT, _ 170 x 1000 x273 T= = = AA 760 x 600 AGETTe Note: S.T.P means standard ‘Temperature and pressure temperature at S.'T.P = 273k. Pressure at S.T.P = 760mmHg or 101 x10° N/m? Example 3: at At 17°C a sample of hydrocarbon gas occupied 125em?, What will be the volume at 100°C, if the pressure remains constant? Solution: given V, = 125 cm3, Vv, =? T, =17° = (17 + 273)k = 290k T, = 100°C (100 + 273)k = 373k Va _Ve_VAT, _ 1252x373 K 3 TT 7 Te = a0 — = 160.-780m? = 1610m Example 4: A given mass of gas occupied 800cm” at 820k and 0,72 x 10° Nm 2 pressure, What is the volume of the gas at S.T.P,? Solution: V, = 800cm},T, = 820k,T, = s.t.p = 273k, P, = 0.72x105Nm-2 P, = S.T.P = 1.01x10°Nm=,V, =? **From Py, Vz, PyV,T; 0.72 x10* x800 x273 ae =, therefore Vz =e 8273 qT TP. 820 x 1.01 x 105 V2 = 189.87cm’ (volume at S.T.P) Gay-Lussac's law states that the pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas when the volume is kept constant. 27Y |AL GAS EQUATION Three quantities are very important for determining the quantities are: (1) volume (b) pressures, (3) temperature moles or mass. The three parameters are related in a general i It has been proved experientially that equal volume temperature and pressure contain the same number of any gas at S.T.P. occupied a volume of 22.4dm’, That is, 10” molecules) of any gas occupied volume: of 22. mmole of oxygen O, (Molecular mass 32) has a mass Of; ‘This fact together with Boyles and Charles law lead ust PV =RT.. f R= constant termed as molar gas constant. The €q Equation and it is applied to one moles of gas. For n mole of gas we can express equation ~ PV = nT. what volume in dm? will the gas occupied at that c 'mol”) ee From ideal gas equation: PV =nRT, V= 2 Example 2: ae , : be Se amount of gas gorse Body at 2a alculate the num) moles present (R =0.082 atom dm? k*! mol” . Solutton:Given, P = 2atm,V = 6dm3,R = 0.0 16S 16+273= 289k From ideal gas equation: PV = nRT eS 2x6 ' aul a= : Rr” 0.082 x 289 —es Obeys the equation of state at all condition of pressure and temperature. The gases cannot be liquefied or solidified Specific heat values are constant Real Gas . Ideal gas . . Obeys the equation of state at all condition of pressure and temperature, except at the point where pressure approaches absolute zero . Can be solidified or liquefied. * Specific heat value varies with temperature and pressure Assumption for an ideal gas . Molecules occupy a negligible volume fraction . Long range force of attraction between the particles are negli gible Assumption of Kinetic Theory © Large number of molecules . Molecules are in continents and rapid random motion, colliding with each other and the wall of the vessel and the collision being elastic. . Pressure originates from the summation of large number of reacting forces as the molecules bounce off the wells. GAS CONSTANTS ‘The specific gas constant R of a gas is derived from the characteristic gas equation For an ideal gas given as j * PV = RT. eed). Where R = specific gas constant (/Kg K) For a mass mkg, gas, occupying a volume V, we have ( PV =RT perr m ’ PV = "mT... .......-(2) By definition: Specifie Volume V = ~ Substitute in equation (1), we have ‘Where the number of moles (n) of a substance (m) is expressed as follows 29a Mass of substance (m) _ © (Kg/Kmol) = Amount of substance @ m=nM Substitute values of m into equation (2), Then, PY = MnRT But MR is a constant and is called universal gas constant Ro Ro = MR = 8.314KJ/Kmol. K therfore, PV = MnRT = NRT mass m ‘volume v Since density p = from PV = MRT P=ORT v P = pRT,where p = density of the gas For @ gas like oxygen, the gas constant can be derived as } ia from Ro = MR, therefore R =—>7 ’ Re 3143 Kj/Kmol. K en 32 Kg/Kmol = 0.2598KJ/Kg. K (or KN.m/Kg. Kg.K) Example G) 0.92kg of a certain perfect gas at a temperature of 150°c and pressure of 6.25 bar contuined in a piston-cylinder assembly and occupies a volume of 0.185m?. The is cllowed to expand at constant pressure until the volume Lis 0.35m*. Calculate: i The molecular mass ii, The final temperature iii, ‘The work done by the gas Take Ro = 8.314K]/Kmol. K sesku Ty = 180+ 273 = 423.1; Solution: for perfect gas, P, = 6.25bar = ses P, = 6.25bar or *544 y, = 0, oe m= 0.92 Kg,Ro = 1.M=" FtomRo=MRWe need to know R from the equation of state Py = on PV, _ 625 x 0.18: MT, ~ OSE Eazy = 0297KI/iegk Ry _ 9.314 R 0.297 (2)Ta: applying equation of state for Process 1-2 PrVy _ PaVa Yon M= =28 Vi _ Va therefore nh (since P, = P,) Yan. 0.35 x 423 Yy 0.185 T, = 800k (527°C) (3) This is a constant pressure non-flour process, hence work done T= = 800k 5 Wis = | Pav = Pu, —v,) i = 625(0.35 — 0.185) [KN/m?xm*] = 103.125K) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEAT AND SPECIFIC HEAT The first law as applied to a reversible non-flow process is stated as dq — dw = du. «. (bi) For a reversible constant volume process (dw = 0) we have dq=du, butdu= GaP ........(bi) OF G2 = (Uz ~ U3) = C,(T, + Ty) For mass m of an ideal gas, we have, Qaz = m xqq2 = m(Uz — U;) = mC,(T; — 7) Norton’ 's law states that “the internal energy u, of an ideal gas is a function of the absolute temperature T only. nu = f(T) By integrating equation (bii)above, we have 31U=G,7+K For an ideal gas, u = 0 at t = 0 (assumed) Therefore the constant of integration k = 0 Accordingly, internal energy u = C,7 ... + see (biit) We can also derive a relationship refiiede heat and specific constant pressure: Recall; non-flow energy equation dq = du+dw but dw = pdv dq = du + pdv (biv) since d(pv) = pdv + vdp and p is constant, then vdp = 0 therefore d(py) = pdv Substitute this unto equation(biv), we have dq = du + d(pv) dq=d(u+pv), note that:h=u +pv dq=dh, hence dq=dh=C,dT For process 1-2 } ia = he — hy = cp(T, - 7) For mass m the total heat is; Giz =m xqz = mhz hy) = mC,(T2—T,)....... (bvii) Sirailarly, enthalpy of an ideal gas is also a function of ‘temperature only. f 4#=fO H=G7.. «« (bviii) Relationship Betweenof Specific Heat and Gas Constant R since enthalpy h = J + pv, and dh = du + d(pv) For aperfect gas:;v=RT, hence dh = du + d(RT) “but d(RT) = RaT + 7dr Since R és constant, TdR=0, thenwe have (RT) = RAT Substitute for value ofidh, du and (RT) into this dh = du + d(RT) We have, C)dT = C, 0 Re i then, C, = Cy +R a2Bia © R=G-6,, also 24.2 if 3 G But 2 = t esa C= % therefore,y—1 iG GQ= mal Examples 1 A well-insulated tigid vessel having a volume (molecules mole 40) at 80°C, 200kpa. A paddl 1.85kjof works on the Bas while a 150W electri operate for 10 minutes determine of 0.8m’ is filled with a perfect gas le wheel inserted into the vessel does ic heater inside the vessel is allowed to 1, The specific heat at constant volume 2, — The changes in internal energy of the gas 3. The temperature and Pressure of the gas at for the gasy = 1.672 Solution:Given a perfect gos, M = 40,y = 1.67 Volume of rigid vessel: v = 0.8m3(v = constant), initial conditions of gasP, = 200Kpa, 7, = 80 + 273 = 353kpaddle wheel input work,W, = -1.85KJ. Heat energy supplied by electric heater: Qi2 = 150W = 150)/s Duration of heating: t = 10 mins = 10x 60 = 600 Ss, Paddle wheel” Electric heater 33PoP, P,T, _ 200x489 N Tinie. th eae gt Pe hermodynamic cesses, It is possible to apply the first law of thermod: distribution in various non- lynamic to determine the energy flow processes, there is no mass transfer across the boundary of the System. Heat and work energies cross the boundary of the system. In a non-flow processes, the stored energy of the system is the internal energy (or Specified internal energy). The non-flow energy equation is given as below. Q-W=U,-U,andg-wew-% mie ¢ non-flow processes are: 1. CONSTANT VOLUME (SOCHORIC) PROCESS: In a constant volume Process, the system is contained in a rigid vessel, hence there is no boundary work done due to no change in volume. In this process, the only way in which work can be done on the system is by the method of stirring or paddle wheel work as shown in the fig below Paddle Wheel (-W) Figure (Q): constant volume process with paddle work. In constant volume V, = V2 (no boundary movement) Workdone W = [pee =0 (sinceYy = Vz) Unless otherwise stated, it will aay ‘be assumed that during a constant volume process. The work done is zero. By applying the non- flow energy equation: Q-—W=U,-U,, Q-0=U,—U, since W =0 Q =U, — U; or dq = du. 35For a unit mass of the system; we have q =U, —U, or dq =du This is the heat supplied to increase the internal energy U of tht A constant volume heating process on a P— V diagram is shown Fig (Q!) » against an external resistance as heat is supplied. pressure process will have its volume and system undergoing a constant pressure process Fig (p) Considering and the piston- eylinder assemb] expands does work to push the piston outward Weight W does wi piston is to main’ A constant pressure progSince there is a bow: surroundings. This b. indary a movement, Oundary work is given as: Wia = [Paw = [nav 1 work is done by the working fluid of its Since p= constant, then, Wiz = vf dv =p(V,—V4) but py = mRT therfore, Wy, = mR(Ty = T4) su won son wees (P) Applying the NFEE to a constant pressure process, we have Qh2 = Wiz = U2 - Uy —P(V2 = Vi) = U2 = Uy Qiz = (Uz + PV2)— (Uy + Py) since H = U + PV Qi2 = Hz Hy Similarity G2 = hy— hy For a perfect gasH = mC,T Q=me,(T2 — And for the heat transfer per unit mass q=C(l2 -T) Note: For the system under compression, we will have Waa = PVE =V2) = mRT—Ta) du =U; —U, = m6,(y- Ta) This means that the internal energy will decrease at the end of the process. 0 37) Example (1): ¢ " 0.25 Kg of a mass fluid at a p ae specific volume of 2544 KJ/Kgan oe: is 2807kJ/kg and the volun constant pressure until the specifi st ied. occupied is 0.2189m°. Calculate th at soplied Solution ; Given: a non-flow constant p in whic ss. To maintal y into the sys‘Dray © PY diagram + Mass of air m= O.44kg Initial temperature T, = 190 +273 = 453k =15 +273 = 288k inal Volume Final temperature T, Since 3 times its origi MV =1,V.=3 For adiabatic Process we have ae Gy" nt Va: © 482 yy-1 ia = (3) Taking log on both side, we have Loge(1.5729) = (y — 1)Log.(0.3333) Assured Log .(1.5729) =.0,453 ~ 0.453 = (y — 1)(~1,0996) Adiabatic Y Th up \e-' jae (a Whe ib oi, W- malay ta) ye! 0.453 eT F099 Therefore: work done during adiabatic process ‘ = MR(T, = T)) * Wy = yon i . SinceeR=C,~c, wit = (1.018 — 0.722)KJ/Kgk Re 0.296K]/Kgk (453 ~ 268) i Wa = 9.440.236 41 = 52.4k)Polytrophic Pidcess: This is reversible processes that satisfy the equationPy™ = co thermodynamic Processes, exponent for the process. Both vapors and perfect non-flow processes. For a closed system undergoes a polytrophic work transfer can be expressed as Since pv" =¢ apse — By substitution, we haverq, Vivi WP, Pay > Pave Equation (3) gives the total we ~T ea compression Process wh transg, re et in, xin’ Yolumes Va ty, ue #1 expansion or a For work done Per Unit mas, weh ©xpressed in m? and py and pin We have. Wa We py, : Fees hy. a Ve myayx tony, mma v% m—~Vrand ao), re nm 2 "Wz = Bion, nay Where Yiand¥,are the sp = CCific Volum: rn Note tat equation (3) and ¢4) ee (tke) ofthe uid at state 1 and 2. When n = 1, we have, Stall Values of n except for n= 1 YE" fromx® a4 | M ~>-=--@ 2 Was J pdv 2 PY = C(sincen = 1) 2¢ 2 Waa = [ pav=c[ ae 1? 1D V; V, V; W, =cmn{ A} = ays le ee] * 12 v, Vy mlz] Pavan] ; Example 1 “ : 4 gs expands reversibly according to the relation PV" = C. the initial volume and ‘mssure of the gas are 0,0283m’ and 13.8 bar respectively. The final pressure and vole are 1.035 bar and 0.2073 m®. Calculate the polyttophie index of expansion hence or otherwise determine the work done during the process’ Solution: : , Svea: Initial conditions: Py = 13.8 bar= 1380 KN/a? Vi= 0.0283m? Final conditions: P= 1.035 bar = 103.5KN/a? 43V2= 0.2073 m°. E Pyiec os a8 Ut Py 2 Py ‘Vo figp. Va 1. Polytrophio index of expansion, n From PV” = ¢ * We have, P,V;" = P,V" from which a =a rl" a, as 135 Ml “P, ~ l002@3} = Togs 7.325" = 13,33 Take the log of | both side é Note: log" = n log x i 1 nlog 7.325 = {0913.33 1og13.33 % . n= Peet 13 ; 11. The work doneW,. 4 Recall: Wi) = ach Wi Setetoits-108.5r02073 = 58.65k) Example 2; 7 9.414m? eas at ® Pressure of 2070KN/n? Sxpand to a pressure of 207KN/m?! according to théaw PV 135 ac Determine the work done by the gas during the expansion Solution \OE te Ve =2,p 2 m2 V2 =2,P, = kN /m2, h=135 PV, =| oe To know y,, Y= 9.014m3, P, = 2070kN Work done We use the elation * PVT = Pvp @y~ ve) = ) mena 0.0143, (2270) tas 207 = 0.077m2 = 27030946) 407<9977) 1.38—1 Work done = PHB =37.3ky Throttling process; when @ fluid flows below, the fluid is said tob through a restriction 48 shown in the figure ¢ throttled, Fig(r): Throttling process The restriction is usually a Capillary tube, an orifice or an adjustable valve designed to produce a pressure drop in the fluid, Applying SFEE to any two section of the pipe, Zt 1 hat 5 Ci +a = hy +53 +m. In throttling process 7. 2 = O(as a result of small surface area) Wiz = 0 (no external work done) Velocities C, and C2 are very small and ci =0 45ony shy Therefore specific enthalpy before throttling = specific enthalpy after throttling As such, throttling process is usually called a constant — enthalpy process. 1, irreversible process and it is usually represented by a broken line On & prope. diagram. ENTROPY ‘Just as the internal enery as a property of thermodynamics leads to quantify the firs: of thermodynamics, so also the concept of a property called entropy derives from, the Second law of thermodynamics, The entropy s can be expressed as ds = | a tev Or5z — $= frev® Le, change in entropy from state 1 tostate 2. The suffix “rev” implies that the relations holds for a reversible process: only. Entropy is measured in Ki/K, or on a unit-mass basts, : Change of entropy/unit-mass is expressed as -o) | Trev. Or S,~S,=frev. Fora reversible process, equa. (1) becomes 46 It ls measured In Ki/Kg K,tre The shaded area under the T~ $ diagram below Bives the heat transfer in the reversible process, < Fig. (_ )T-S diagram for a reversible process. For a reversible process, entropy remains Constant, for an irreversible process, entropy : Increases, For a reversible isothermal (T= Constant) + Wehave,Q,2 =T {ids =T(S,— S,) Note that when heat is absorbed by the gas, the change of entropy is positive (ie, and - increase of entropy), while the change in entropy becomes negative when heat is removed ‘& fromthe igas (ie, there ts a decrease of entropy), 47of Mathematically, the cyclic integral of any quantity which is a property of a % always zero, Bl, This implies that if the system Is taken through a thermodynamic cycle, then the ent, like any other Property attaines Its initial value when the system is returned to its in state, Adianatic process ‘ 5 dQm =0 Then, S, -S= Sun =0 ij Le. Change of nat ds= 6 | op t 2S, intropy remains Constant. This means that the initial and final entropi are the same. For this reason a reversible adalbatic Process Is call led isentropic Process. Foran eee Process, af n \ » i$ k Le. theientropy increases, “For any other reversible Process . 2a 52 - Sy -[ #0 4 \Generally, for any pro NY Process, the entropy change can by © expressed as: waa [9 , Entropy aS a Measure of t . the degree of disorder:- Note that entropy is a Useful Property and serves as a valuable tool in the second law analysis of engineering devicas, , This entropy can be vie wed 5 Measure of molecular disorder, or molecular randomness. As a system becomes more disordered, , the positions of the molecules becomes less predictable and th '@ entropy increases, That Is why the entropy of a substance is lowest in the solid phase and highest in the gas phase. In the soli + id phase, the molecules of a substance continually oscillate about their equatibrium positions, but they cannot move relative to each other, and their position at any instant can be predicted with good certainty, In the gas phase, the molecules move about at random, collide with each other, and change direction, making it extremely difficult to predict accurately the microscopic state of a system at any instant. Associated i with this milecular chaos Is @ high value of entropy. The entropy of a system is related to the total number of possible microscopic states of that system; called thermodynamic probability P, by the Boltz-Mann relation, ‘expressed as S = KinP where K = 1.3806 x 410724/Kis the Bitz masses constant, 49 - 62OC«C«‘SNY YNote that from a microscopic point of view, the entropy of a system increases when, . . the ‘molecular randomness or uncertainty (ie. molecular Probability) of a syste Increases. Hence, Entropy is a measure of molecular disorder and the molecular discra of an Isolated system increases anytime ft undergoes a process, The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero sin, there Is no certainty about the state of the molecules at that instant. (This is third law thermodynamics), liquid and gaseous fue} , Solid fuels:. 1 ' 4 Sources: fosil fuel eg. $6op, bitumen, nuctear fuel eg, Uranium, Titanium, » Bio fuel ¢.2 wood a ’ Uses:- (1) For generating electricity (2) Wood as a Means of energy for cooking (3) As fuel for transportation meats, Liquid fuels:- Sources: liquid fuel are Senerally mixtures of hydrocarbon obtained from crude Petroleum refining, Processes, Lighter crude Petroleum refined into fuel as liquid fuel Petroleum gas, Gasoline or petro, kerosene, Jet fuel and diese fuel, 50iicaven hydrocarbons refined indo sein jubricating Oils and waxes, Holl and other products such ax ses (1) 10 generating electricity (2) use as lubricant for Ree G3) As fuel for transp oo Gaseous fuel:- Sa enn Et he tem ppd onal ccuring by aa sukabie US Tecciving as fuels. It contains about 55-98% mixture of methane ether yi ws ier with smaller quantities Ot gaseous hydrocarbon of higher molecular Uses:- (1) For cooking at (ii) For industrial purpo (iii) As fuel for transportation mean Chemical Composition of Fuels chemical element Hydrogen Nitrogen. Composition by weight -% range Dole Combustion process and Air ; \ - combustion process is @ chemical reaction which involves the burning of a fuel and oxygen (the oxidizer) resulting in the liberation of heat energy. During ical reaction, heat enerBy is either liberated or absorbed. Combustion process !s oe ic reation (i-¢- heat is liberated at constant temperature) conversely, in an ., an exotherm! endothermic reaction, heat energy is absorbed at constant temperature adGunes meres Process, oxygen is usually provided by atmospheric air, Air Composed mainly of Oxygen, nitrogen, and argon. The composition of air on 3 volume basis (or Molar basis) is approximately: Oxygen (0;) = 23,2% Nitrogen (Nz) = 789% 75.4% Argon (A2)=1% 1.49% For all combustion calculation, itis customary to treat the argon and other traces of Inert gases as nitrogen so that the composition of air becomes: Element Volume/molar basis (%)mass basis (%) Oxygen 21 23 Nitrogen 79 76.8 For air on molar basis 2] ma 02 and '9in 01 of Nz will produce 100 made of air similarly, kg 0743.3 1kg N2=4.31kg air, Type of combustion: ~The major forms of, Combustion are: 1) Complete combustion. 2) Incomplete combustion, 3) Stoichiometric combustion (1) Complete combustion:- When a fuel is bumed completely ie, it’s chemical energy is released Completely, then al! carbon is bumed to Carbon dioxide, all 52CH: + 20. C034281,0 (2) Incomplete combustion: monoxide is formed, ‘When burning of carbon is incomplete, then carbon LeC+ "0, =co. In most of fue oe, ‘Combustion processes the ‘oxygen is supplied as air rather than as Mai urces nn Sources of thermal energy today is combustion of hydrocarbon fuels in ar. 3) Stoichiometric airs. This is the quantity of air which contain the minimum Smount of Oxygen theoretically required for complete combustion of the fuel. ‘The combustion equation which conten this minimum amount of oxygen is walled a theoretically Combustion equation. e.g C + O, = CO, = combustion equation, . . ‘The burning of prepare is Cs Hy +50;—> 3C03+"H,0: Stoichiometric air:- fuel mixture, This is a mixture of air and fuel which contains the minimum amount of oxygen theoretically needed for complete combustion, Stoichiometricair fuel ratio: SAF:- This is the ratio of the amount of + stoichiometric air to the amount of fuel:- a combustion process. SAF= amount of stoichiometric air Amount of fuel * Note: C+ 0,= CO mole Carbon + 1 mole O,__. ——+__1 mol CO; atomic hops ofC12, Ox=16,N2=14, 112 1 of O'vol. C+1vol, Op 1 vol, C0j12kg 6432kg 0, 44kg cop. The above equation satisfies the principle of conservation of mass. Le. Total mass of reactants= Total mass of products Ait’ Fuel ratio: (AF );- This can be defined as the ratio of air to the amount of fuel ina combustion process, . Amount of stoichiometric air AF = Amount of fuel Rich Mixtures- This is a mixture of ar and fuel in which les than the Sich orretia air is supplied that is there is a deficiency in the amount of air is supplies that is there is a deficiency in the amount of air. 4 : t Weak Mixture:- of air and fuel which has excess supply of air is referred to'as a Weak mixture. , . Mixture Strength (MS ):- this is a parameter of interest when dealing with dealing with petrol engines which have operate over a wide range of mixture strength. The mixture strength is defined as Excess air: Any air in excess of the stoichiometric air is Tegarded as excess air CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL The calorific value (also called heating values) of a fuel is the amount of heat energy liberated by the complete buming of a unit quantity of the fuel in air calorific values are normally expressed as kJ/kg of fuel, kJ/m? of fuel or Kj/amol of fuel as many be a 54—_ found CONVEniene, : rete ay The higher (or s =| toss) Solid and jj... “alot y Wid fyeiy Als dg r the twa ‘ won Hey cin ee - by . —_ HCY (kjteg) for in the BaSeous fuc| is the calorific value of b 8 of 'ustion is present in the iquia (2) The lower cal oh Vv Whee by the symbol Ley (kifkg) for solid and Sn the H0 in the ‘ BAScOus fuels is the Calorific value of the fuet inten. 8 Is Present in the vapour phase, S Of a solig OF liquid fue) (kg) and VF= volume fa gaseous fuel (mm?) @) For solia and liquid fuels Q= meCHcy) Qu= (Lev) (ii) For Bascous fuel: Q = VE (acy) ~ Q=AF (Lev) , (2.67) (0.86) = 2.30kg o;t0 produce (3.67) (0.86) = Similarly for the combustor oie of H,, the theoretical combustor equator is H +4 ~ On mass basis: 2kg Het (0.5 x 32) kg Or18kg-bh0 Dividing through by 2. 1kg Ha + 8kg 0,9%g 420 i.e. 1kg Hy requires 8kg O, to produce 9kg H:0 <= 0.14kg, Hp will require (0.14) (8) = 1.12kg 02 to produce (0.14) (9) * 1.26kg 20 For the combustor of 1kg of the fuel: Stoichiometric O2 required = 2.30 + 1.12 = 3.42kg From this equator 1kg O2 + 3.31kg N, = 431kg air, with Ikg 02, there are 4.31kg of air, © t+ stoichiometric mass of air; in, = (3.42) (4.31) = 14.74kg 1 mass of fuel: Im= lkg=14.74/1 74 1 SAF=ma = Mf, |