Module 2 – Energy, energy transfer, and general energy analysis 1

Module 2 – Energy, energy transfer, and general energy

analysis

2.1 Objectives
On successful completion of this module you should be able to:

● discuss energy transfer by heat and work

● discuss energy in its various forms: kinetic, potential, and internal
● discuss the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances and energy transfer to or from a
system
● discuss energy conversion efficiencies
● analyse systems, perform calculations, and solve problems using the above concepts and
tools.

2.2 Build up your understanding

Presentation
View the power point presentation for module 2 as this presentation should help
you identify the key elements from this module.

2.2.1 Introduction
Reading activity 2.1
Section 2.1

Introduction.

2.2.2 Forms of energy

Reading activity 2.2
Section 2.2

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed due to motion. In thermofluids, this conventionally
describes “bulk flow”: the molecules move coherently in a particular direction and this is
caused by pressure differences. While the effects are sometimes significant enough to be

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 Module 2 – Energy, energy transfer, and general energy analysis 2

considered in Thermo, detailed analysis of bulk flow is undertaken in Fluid Mechanics

MEC3102/MEC2106. The symbol for kinetic energy is KE.

Internal energy is a fundamental quantity that is used throughout this course. It is a measure
of the “random” kinetic energy. These are vibrations, rotations and translations that are not
bulk movements (fluid molecules are constantly moving in random directions). The amount
of random kinetic energy a molecule possesses is due to its absolute temperature. The symbol
for internal energy is U.

Potential energy is a capacity to do work and the most common form is due to elevation (with
the possibility of gravity to draw the fluid downwards). The symbol for potential energy is
PE.

Mass flow rate and volume flow rate are both measures of the bulk flow of a fluid. They are
both measures of how much fluid passes through a particular cross-section. Speed/velocity
are not reliable measures because changing the available space for a fluid to flow through
will change the (bulk) speed. Conservation of mass requires that the mass flow rate must be
constant and if the fluid is incompressible (its density cannot change), then conservation of
mass also requires that the volume flow rate is constant.

The power generated/required by a device to move fluid is equal to the mass flow rate (which
is normally either given or is computed from the known power) multiplied by the specific
energy of the fluid (which is determined based on thermodynamic principles). A number of
applications of power systems are studied in the course MEC4104 Energy Technology.

2.2.3 Energy transfer by heat

Reading activity 2.3
Section 2.3

Heat is a form of energy transfer that is caused by a temperature differential. It must flow
from hot objects to cold objects. Temperature is different: it is a measure of the amount of
energy an object possesses, so “heat” should not be used when “temperature” is meant. The
symbol for heat transfer is Q.

An adiabatic process is one where heat is not transferred to/from the system. It does not
mean that the temperature remains fixed within the fluid: just that the temperature change is
not due to a temperature gradient with the surroundings.

2.2.4 Energy transfer by work

Reading activity 2.4
Section 2.4

Work is the major form of energy transfer that is desired in engineering. Heat is a
disorganised transfer of energy (while it can be harnessed, it generally relies on fluids to be
useful), while work is organised: it generally involves the movement of solids, which are
easily able to transfer the energy to other solids or fluids. The symbol for work is W.

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 Module 2 – Energy, energy transfer, and general energy analysis 3

The amount of work transfer depends on what process is used to get from state 1 to state 2:
some processes are more efficient than others.

2.2.5 Mechanical forms of work

Reading activity 2.5
Section 2.5

These types of work are included for completeness and in this course are outside
the system being considered. They are analysed more in Dynamics (MEC2401).

2.2.6 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Reading activity 2.6
Section 2.6

The First Law of Thermo is so important that it is normally referred to as “The First Law”
and will be used in almost every Module in this course. It describes the conservation of
energy within a system. While considering the whole universe “energy cannot be created or
destroyed, merely converted from one form to another”, for a small part of the universe (the
“system”) it is perfectly reasonable to expect that energy can cross the boundaries and
therefore the total energy contained inside the system can change.

The total energy inside a system consists of all the quantities considered in Module 2.2.2 ; the
common mechanisms for transferring in/out of a system are described in Modules 2.2.3
and 2.2.4 . While mass transfer can also cause the system energy to change, this is a transient
phenomenon and in general only steady-state problems are considered in this course. (Flow
problems involving mass transfer are considered in this course, but there is no net change of
energy in the system: all changes produce the designated exit state.) The form of the First
Law which I find most useful is the full general form that accounts for everything you will be
expected to model:

Qin  Qout  Win  Wout  U 2  KE 2  PE 2   U1  KE1  PE1 

 U 2  U1  KE 2  KE1  PE 2  PE1

This describes the change of the fluid from state 1 to state 2 based on the influence of the heat
transfer and boundary work. In applying this formula, it is easy to eliminate many of the
quantities from the beginning, for instance because you know that there is nett heat transfer in
or out, therefore you can eliminate the other one. It makes life easier to get problems using
the 1stst law correct if you include all terms from the beginning and cancel the ones that can
be neglected.

Note Eq. (2-40), which is used in Modules 6–10 to define the holistic view of a device that
operates on a cycle (rather than each component).

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 Module 2 – Energy, energy transfer, and general energy analysis 4

Exercise 2.1
Textbook problem 2.44 (7th Ed.):

An adiabatic closed system is accelerated from 0 m/s to 30 m/s. Determine the

energy change of this system, in kJ/kg.

● First law
● Section 2.6
V22  V12
● ke 
2
● Answer: 0.45 kJ/kg

Exercise 2.2
Textbook problem 2.47 (7th Ed.):

A classroom that normally contains 40 people is to be air-conditioned with

window air-conditioning units of 5 kW cooling capacity. A person at rest may be
assumed to dissipate heat at a rate of about 360 kJ/h. There are 10 lightbulbs in
the room, each with a rating of 100 W. The rate of heat transfer to the classroom
through the walls and the windows is estimated to be 15,000 kJ/h. If the room air
is to be maintained at a constant temperature of 21oC, determine the number of
window air-conditioning units required.

● First law
● Section 2.6

● Qcooling  Qlight  Q people  Q heatgain

● Answer: 2 units

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 Module 2 – Energy, energy transfer, and general energy analysis 5

Exercise 2.3
Textbook problem 2.49 (7th Ed.):

A university campus has 200 classrooms and 400 faculty offices. The
classrooms are equipped with 12 fluorescent tubes, each consuming 110 W,
including the electricity used by the ballasts. The faculty offices, on average,
have half as many tubes. The campus is open 240 days a year. The classrooms
and faculty offices are not occupied an average of 4 hours a day, but the lights
are kept on. If the unit cost of electricity is 8.2 cent/kWh, determine how much
the campus will save a year if the lights in the classrooms and faculty offices are
turned off during unoccupied periods.

● First law
● Section 2.6

● E light ,total  E light ,classrooms  E light ,offices

● Answer: $41,564/yr

2.2.7 Energy conversion efficiencies

Reading activity 2.7
Section 2.7

Efficiency is the familiar quantity of “what you get out divided by what you put
in”. Note that “what you get out” is the nett useful energy, which can be defined
as:

Eout  Ein  Eloss

Lost energy can be due to effects such as friction; virtually all cases transform
all lost energy into heat.

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 Module 2 – Energy, energy transfer, and general energy analysis 6

Exercise 2.4
Textbook problem 2.61 (7th Ed.):

A 75-hp (shaft output) motor that has an efficiency of 91.0 percent is worn out
and is replaced by a high-efficiency 75-hp motor that has an efficiency of 95.4
percent. Determine the reduction in the heat gain of the room due to higher
efficiency under full-load conditions.

● Energy conversion efficiency

● Section 2.7
● Example 2.17
● Answer: 2.84 kW

Exercise 2.5
Textbook problem 2.66 (7th Ed.):

An exercise room has eight weight-lifting machines that have no motors and
four treadmills each equipped with a 2.5-hp (shaft output) motor. The motors
operate at an average load factor of 0.7, at which their efficiency is 0.77. During
peak evening hours, all 12 pieces of exercising equipment are used continuously,
and there are also two people doing light exercises while waiting in line for one
piece of the equipment. Assuming the average rate of heat dissipation from
people in an exercise room is 525 W, determine the rate of increase of energy in
the exercise room from people and the equipment at peak load conditions.

● Energy conversion efficiency

● Section 2.7
● Example 2.13
Qin  Qout  Win  Wout  Eroom
●
Qin  Win  Eroom

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 Module 2 – Energy, energy transfer, and general energy analysis 7

2.3 Review your understanding

2.3.1 Concept questions

Self assessment
Attempt the concept questions 2.4, 2.19, and 2.40.

● 2.4 Form of energy

● 2.19 Heat and work
● 2.40 First law

Hints for concept questions

● 2.4 Directly converted to

● 2.19 Heat crosses boundaries because of temperature differences
● 2.40 First law

2.3.2 Tutorial Sheet 2

Self assessment
Access Tutorial Sheet 2 and selected solutions here.

Access full solutions here.

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