Lecture 1

Nouns
1.Definition:

The popular definition of a noun is that it ‘describes a person, place or thing’. In fact we use
nouns to express a range of additional meanings such as concepts, qualities, organisations,
communities, sensations and events. Nouns convey a substantial proportion of the information in
most texts.

2.Characteristics of Nouns
Many nouns can be recognised by their endings. Typical noun endings include:

-er/-or actor, painter, plumber, writer

-ism criticism, egotism, magnetism, vandalism

-ist artist, capitalist, journalist, scientist

-ment arrangement, development, establishment,

government

-sion, -tion discussion, excursion, foundation, organisation, recognition,

supposition

-ant/-ent student, president, resident, assistant, defendant, accountant,

deodorant
-ee addressee, interviewee, referee, trainee, employee, refugee,
trustee, lessee, retiree
-ness happiness, kindness, forgiveness, goodness
-ship friendship, citizenship, leadership, membership
-ity ability, security, similarity, curiousity

Most nouns have distinctive SINGULAR and PLURAL forms. The plural of regular
nouns is formed by adding -s to the singular:

Singular Plural

car cars
dog dogs
house houses

We can recognise many nouns because they often have the, a, or an in front of them:
the car
an artist
a surprise

1
the egg
a review
These words are called determiners, which is the next word class we will look at.
Nouns may take an -'s ("apostrophe s") or GENITIVE MARKER to indicate
possession:
the boy's pen
a spider's web
my girlfriend's brother
John's house
If the noun already has an -s ending to mark the plural, then the genitive marker
appears only as an apostrophe after the plural form:
the boys' pens
the spiders' webs
the Browns' house
The genitive marker should not be confused with the 's form of contracted verbs, as in
John's a good boy (= John is a good boy).
Nouns often co-occur without a genitive marker between them:
rally car
police station
bus stop
gas station

3. Types of nouns:

There are two main types of nouns: proper nouns and common nouns.

3.1.Proper Nouns:

Proper noun is "a name for someone, place, or organization that has an initial capital letter".
Proper noun is any nouns that could be the name of an individual person, place or object, as
opposed to a common noun which refers to any one of all things denoted by the noun. The names
of particular people, places and things are proper nouns. They always begin with a capital letter.

These people’s names are proper nouns:

Robin Hood Florence Nightingale Mom Miss Park

Aladdin Muhammad Ali Dad Mrs. Taylor

Frankenstein George Washington Granny Mr. Young

Harry Potter David Beckham Granddad Dr. Lee

Santa Claus Julia Roberts Uncle David Professor Raj

Mahatma Gandhi Nelson Mandela Aunt Diana Jose

Confucius Alex Rodriguez Ms. Hall Yang Ming

The names of the days of the week and the months of the year are proper nouns:

2
Days of the week Months

Monday January July

Tuesday February August

Wednesday March September

Thursday April October

Friday May November

Saturday June December

Sunday

The names of special days and celebrations are also proper nouns:

New Year’s Day Veterans' Day

Mother’s Day Thanksgiving

Independence Day Memorial Day

Valentine’s Day Halloween

Labor Day Christmas

Ramadan Yom Kippur

The names of famous places, buildings and monuments are proper nouns:

Big Ben the Empire State Building

the Sphinx the Taj Mahal

Graceland the Eiffel Tower

the Grand Canyon the Golden Gate Bridge

the Sydney Opera House the Great Wall of China

Buckingham Palace Chaco Canyon Pueblo

the Leaning Tower of Pisa the Statue of Liberty

The names of people who live in a particular country are also proper nouns:

Country People

Afghanistan Afghans

Australia Australians

Britain the British

China the Chinese

3
France the French

Germany Germans

India Indians

Indonesia Indonesians

Italy Italians

Japan the Japanese

Korea Koreans

Malaysia Malaysians

Samoa Samoans

New Zealand New Zealanders

Pakistan Pakistanis

the Philippines Filipinos

Russia Russians

Nicaragua Nicaraguans

South Africa South Africans

Spain Spaniards(Spanish)

Switzerland the Swiss

Thailand Thais

USA Americans

Vietnam the Vietnamese

3.2.Common Nouns

Words for people, places and things are called common nouns.
These common nouns are words for things:
ruler chair hammer bicycle truth
Pen table saw ship calculator
Crayons sofa axe truck television
pencil loyalty drill ferry fridge
Book lamp ladder train cooker
dictionary carpet lawnmower bus computer
courage telephone spade laziness printer
These common nouns are words for animals. Notice that special names for
young animals are included:
Animal its young
dog puppy

4
cat kitten
cow calf
horse foal
sheep lamb
goat kid
frog tadpole
fox cub
elephant calf
kangaroo joey
bear cub
lion cub
tiger cub
whale calf

These common nouns are words for places:

bank airport hotel gas station library park museum farm mall zoo theater factory
hospital nursery university police station office restaurant mosque supermarket
temple stadium shop synagogue gym church.

These common nouns are words for people who do certain things:
Singer manager sailor gardener dancer secretary pilot police officer artist teacher driver
plumber photographer doctor writer farmer magician dentist friend clerk athlete lawyer
brother technician.

Exercise 1
Write each common noun under the correct heading.
Theater lion father brother doctor restaurant builder
stove elephant kangaroo museum library

things animals places people

Exercise 2
Underline the common nouns and circle the proper nouns in these sentences.
1. I told Uncle John about my accident.
2. Kim and Stephanie wore masks on Halloween.
3. The lawnmower is broken.
4. We’re going to the movies tomorrow.

5
5. The lion is playing with one of its cubs.
6. My sister’s favorite soccer player is David Beckham.
7. I’m watching a videotape about the Sahara Desert.
8. The tourists visited Rome and saw the Coliseum.
9. Does this bus go to the stadium?
10. We’re reading a story about a boy called Harry Potter.
Exercise 3
Read the following passage containing common nouns and proper nouns. Put a C in
the gab after a common noun and a P in the gab after a proper noun.

Mr. Peters_____ lives in Maine_____ in a big house____ by the sea____ . He has three cats____
and a dog_____ . He likes to travel to different countries______ . Last Christmas_____ , he went
to Paris______ and saw the Eiffel Tower_____ . He enjoyed eating French food______ in nice
restaurants________ .

Exercise 4
Give 5 nouns of the following suffixes:

-er/-or
-ism

-ist

-ment

-sion, -tion
-ant/-ent

-ee

-ness

-ship

-ity

6
3.2.1. Singular Nouns
Nouns can be singular or plural. When we are talking about just one thing or person, we use a
singular noun.
For example:
a tent a park an idea a taxi a doctor an oven a house a lady an exercise.

3.2.2.Plural Nouns
We use a plural noun when we are talking about two or more people, places or things.
Just add s to make (most not all) nouns plural.
singular plural
a computer computers
a chair chairs
a train trains
a player players
a teacher teachers
a taxi taxis
a mountain mountains
a river rivers
an envelope envelopes
an insect insects
an oven ovens
an uncle uncles
Notes
Words called articles or determiners are used to signal nouns.
a river an armchair three biscuits
a castle an idea five eggs
The article (an) is used before nouns that begin with the vowels a, e, i, o and u.
an artist an eye an insect
an oven an umbrella
The article a is used before nouns that begin with the other letters, called consonants.
But some words don’t follow these rules.
• a uniform, a unit, a user: a, not an, is used because the vowel u in these words is
pronounced like the word you;
• an hour, an heir, an honor: an, not a, is used because the consonant h in these words
is not pronounced.

7
-Nouns that end in (s, ss, ch, sh or x), are made plural by adding (es).

singular plural singular plural

bus buses sandwich sandwiches

glass glasses witch witches

dress dresses brush brushes

branch branches flash flashes

church churches box boxes

beach beaches fox foxes

-Most nouns that end in (y) are made plural by changing the (y) to (i) and adding (es).
singular plural
baby babies
family families
story stories
teddy teddies
fairy fairies
puppy puppies
housefly houseflies
library libraries
city cities
lily lilies
party parties
dictionary dictionaries

-Nouns that have a vowel before the (y) are made plural by simply adding (s) at the end.
singular plural
key keys
monkey monkeys
donkey donkeys
toy toys
boy boys
cowboy cowboys
day days
tray trays
runway runways
chimney chimneys
trolley trolleys
valley valleys

8
Many nouns that end in (f) are made plural by changing the (f to v) and adding (es).
Singular Plural
half halves
leaf leaves
shelf shelves
wolf wolves
thief thieves

But some nouns that end in (f )are made plural simply by adding (s).
Singular Plural
Chief chiefs
Roof roofs
Handkerchief handkerchiefs
cliff cliffs
puff puffs

Some nouns that end in (f )can be made plural in two ways.

Singular Plural
scarf scarfs or scarves
hoof hoofs or hooves
dwarf dwarfs or dwarves
wharf wharfs or wharves

Most nouns that end in (fe) are made plural by changing the (f to v) and adding (s).
Singular Plural
knife knives
wife wives
life lives
midwife midwives

Most nouns that end in (o) are made plural by adding (s).
singular plural
video videos
hippo hippos
zoo zoos
kangaroo kangaroos

But other nouns that end in (o) are made plural by adding (es).
Singular plural
tomato tomatoes
potato potatoes
hero heroes

Some nouns change spelling from the singular form to the plural.
Singular plural
Man men
Woman women
child children
person people

9
mouse mice
tooth teeth
foot feet
goose geese

The plural form of some nouns is the same as the singular form.
singular plural
sheep sheep (not sheeps)
deer deer (not deers)
fish fish (not fishes)
aircraft aircraft (not aircrafts)
salmon salmon (not salmons)

Notes
When you are talking about different kinds of fish, the plural can be fishes, for example:
the various fishes of the Indian Ocean.

Some nouns are always plural.

trousers glasses
shorts spectacles
jeans goggles
pants scissors
tights binoculars
pajamas pliers

Some nouns are usually plural.

shoes chopsticks
sandals gloves
slippers clogs
boots socks
Notes
You can use a pair of with these plural nouns. For example:
a pair of trousers
a pair of pants
a pair of glasses
a pair of scissors
a pair of chopsticks
a pair of sandals
a pair of gloves

-Plural of Latin and Greek words.

Many Latin and Greek words used in English retain their original plural forms. Others follow
English grammar rules.
▪ Nouns with the Latin or Greek plural.
alumnus – alumni fungus - fungi nucleus - nuclei crisis - crises
axis - axes, analysis – analyses oasis - oases thesis - theses
bacterium – bacteria datum – data erratum - errata stratum - strata

10
criterion – criteria phenomenon - phenomena

Exercise 5
Underline all the nouns in the following sentences. Are they common or proper nouns?
Put a checkmark in the correct box.

common nouns proper nouns

1. Do you like cheese?

2. They stood next to the Niagara Falls.
3. May I borrow your umbrella?
4. The ambulance was driving very fast.
5. Carl did not agree with them.
6. She loves to visit Disneyland.
7. Would you like some more water?
8. The fog was very thick.
9. May I invite Tom to join us?
10. My car is very old.

Exercise 6
Read the following passage. Write S in the gab after each singular noun and P in the
gab after each plural noun.
Our teacher ____is a very nice lady . She’s very kind to all the children___ in the class___ and
she tells us very funny stories____ . Yesterday, she told a story about the animals____ on a
farm____ . They all had a race____ . The pigs____ and sheep____ ran faster than the ducks___
and cows____ , but the heroes____ of the story____ were the mice____ . They were faster than
all the other animals____ , even though they had the shortest legs____ !

Exercise 7
Read the following passage. Notice that the plural nouns are missing. Write the correct
plural form of the singular nouns in parentheses. The first one has been done for you.

Three ladies (lady) in pink ______(dress) took their ______(baby) for a walk in the zoo. They
saw four_______ (giraffe), three______ (hippo ), two_________ (kangaroo) and an elephant.
They walked for so long that their ______(foot) became sore, so they sat down on a bench for a
rest near some________ (monkey). The________ (monkey) were playing with cardboard_____
(box) and throwing_____ (stick) at each other. After a while, the_______ (lady) looked at their
________(watch) and decided it was time to go home.

11
3.2.3. Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are a type of noun that names a group people, animals or things. Here are some
collective nouns for groups of people.
a family a crew
a team a club
a community a committee
a choir a company
a band a gang
an orchestra the government
an audience the army

Collective nouns may be used with a singular verb or with a plural verb. If the group is acting as a
single unit, use a singular verb. If group members are acting as individuals, use a plural verb. For
example:
We use the singular verb if we refer to a group as a single unit.
Our family is going on holiday to Spain in summer.
The herd is lying quietly in the shadow of trees. Notes
Always use a plural verb with the
We use the plural verb if we refer to a group as a number of collective nouns, people and the police.
individuals. For example:
Our family are going on holiday to different places in Those people live (not lives) in Asia.
summer. The police have caught (not has caught) the
The herd are looking in all directions. They are frightened. thief.

Besides using the singular verb, later references to the group named by the collective noun must
use singular pronouns. For example:
The fraternity cleans up the park on Saturday. It has been doing this for a year now.
A swarm of bees is blocking the trail entrance. It has to be removed by professionals.
The jury is still deliberating. It has asked for a review of the testimony.

Collective nouns in prepositional phrases can be a bit tricky. In the case of the swarm of bees,
you might make the mistake of thinking the subject is bees. You might then use the plural verb
are and the plural pronoun they. However, bees is part of the prepositional phrase, of bees, and
the subject of a sentence is never found in a prepositional phrase. The subject is swarm. This
construction—(noun/subject followed by prepositional phrase)—is common with collective
nouns. The verb has to match the subject, not the prepositional phrase. For example:

(Singular) collective noun + Prepositional phrase + Singular verb

team of salesmen is meeting
majority of drivers uses turn signals
minority of voters watches the news
family of six conserves water
crew of workers fixes the road

Here are more collective nouns you can use for groups of people.
a crowd of shoppers a gang of thieves
a company of actors a panel of judges
a class of schoolchildren a platoon of soldiers

12
Many groups of animals have their own special collective nouns.
a herd of cattle a pack of wolves a litter of puppies a gaggle of geese
a flock of birds a pride of lions a troop of monkeys a school of fish
a drove of sheep a pod of dolphins a brood of chickens a swarm of bees
Some groups of things also have their own special collective nouns.
a bunch of bananas a deck of cards a flight of steps a cluster of grapes
a bunch of flowers a suite of rooms a suite of furniture a bouquet of flowers
a range of mountains a set of tools a fleet of ships a string of beads
a fleet of vehicles a grove of trees

Collective nouns can be plural

Collective nouns can be plural. You can have several teams, families, crews, juries, swarms, or
fraternities. You would then use plural verbs and plural pronouns to match the plural subjects. For
example:
A few families on my block send their kids to the Montessori school.
Several crews are working on the downed power lines; they expect to finish by tomorrow.

More and more common collective nouns :

Collective nouns for people * Collective nouns for animals*
army, navy, air force brood (of hens)
audience cloud (of gnats, grasshoppers)
band colony (of bats, ants, bees)
board congress (of ravens, baboons)
bunch clutch (of eggs)
cast, choir, chorus drove (of donkeys, hares, cattle)
class flight (of doves, dragonflies)
committee flock (of ducks, gulls, geese, goats)
company, corporation gaggle (of geese)
congregation herd (of cattle, antelope, deer)
crowd hive (of bees)
department knot (of frogs, toads)
family litter (of kittens, puppies, coyotes)
gang murder (of crows)
group nest (of mice, ants, snakes)
jury pack (of wolves, dogs, coyotes)
majority parliament (of owls)
minority pod (of dolphins, whales, walruses)
party pride (of lions)
public skein (of flying ducks)
school swarm (of wasps, bees, locusts, eels)
senate team (of work horses, oxen)
society tribe (of antelope)
staff troop (of apes, baboons)
team yoke (of oxen)

13
Exercise 7
Read the following sentences and underline the collective nouns.
1. The captain guided the team to play better.
2. The flock of sheep was grazing in the fields.
3. My father brought a bouquet of lilies for my mother.
4. A pack of wolves howled at night.
5. A swarm of bees flew into the garden.
6. The hunter carries a quiver of arrows.
7. Our cat gave birth to a litter of kittens.
8. The army marched forward on the battlefield.
9. Can you pass me the bunch of keys?
10. The French destroyed the Armenian fleet.
11. Do you know about the cast of this movie?
12. The crew struggled to lead the ship past the stormy waves.
13. The board decided to appoint Riya as the Manager.
14. Please clean the pile of garbage.
15. The entire medical staff got infected by the Coronavirus.
16. The Beatles is a famous band.
17. The troupe performed the Macbeth drama.
18. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands comprise a group of 573 islands.
19. The jury passed a unanimous decision.
20. A cloud of dust swirled up during the storm.
Exercise 8:
Guess the collective noun
1. A number of people listening to a lecture/concert
2. A group of people who sing in the church or public platforms
3. A number of judges who are engaged in a case
4. A collection of tools
5. A collection of poems
6. A collection of different types of books
7. A number of grapes or nuts on a bunch
8. A collection of ducks, chickens or fowls
9. A number of directors of any institution
10. A number of lions
11. A number of stars in the sky
12. A group of bacteria
13. A group of penguins
14. A group of fish
15. A number of cards
Exercise 9
Read the sentences. Does the collective noun indicate a group acting together as a single unit? If
so, circle the singular verb. Does the collective noun indicate a group in which each member acts
individually? Circle the plural noun.
1. The jury (were/was) arguing about the importance of evidence.
2. A whole company of soldiers (is/are) marching in the parade.
3. A gaggle of geese (is/are) running every which way in the barnyard.
4. Those people (live/lives) in North America.
5. The police (has/have) arrested the suspect.
6. That troupe of actors always (stay/stays) at the Grand Hotel.

14
7. The committee (is/are) handing in their ballots.
8. Our school band (play/plays) many lively marches.
9. A big colony of ants (lives/live) under the front porch.
10. The government (are/is) entitled to collect taxes.
Exercise 10:
Fill in the Collective Nouns
1. The (musicians) played a beautiful symphony.
2. A (ants) of ants worked together to build their nest.
3. The (actors) of the movie gathered for a group photo.
4. A (geese) of geese waddled across the road.
5. The (people) clapped after the performance.
6. A (trees) of trees provided shade and shelter for animals.
7. The (fish) of fish swam together in the ocean.
8. A (clothes) of clothes needed to be washed and folded.
9. The (employees) worked together to complete the project.
10. A (soldiers) of soldiers marched in formation.
11. The (musicians) played a lively tune at the concert.
12. A (flowers) of flowers brightened up the garden.
13. The (directors) met to discuss the company’s future.
14. A (tools) of tools was needed to fix the broken machine.
15. The (members) gathered for a reunion dinner.

15
 Lecture 2

3.2.4. Countable and uncountable Nouns:

The major division of English nouns is into "countable" and "uncountable".
Countable nouns are things that we can count:
dog, cat, animal, man, person
bottle, box, litre
coin, note, dollar
cup, plate, fork
table, chair, suitcase, bag

Countable nouns can be singular or plural:

My dog is playing.
My dogs are hungry.

We can use the indefinite article a/an with singular countable nouns:
A dog is an animal.
This is an apple.

When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it:
I want an orange. (not I want orange.)
Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?)

When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone:

I like oranges.
Bottles can break.

We can use some and any with countable nouns:

I've got some dollars.
Have you got any pens?
I haven´t got any pens.

We can use few, a few and many with countable nouns:

I've got few friends.
I've got a few dollars.
I haven't got many pens.

Uncountable nouns
Unlike countable nouns, Uncountable nouns (or mass nouns) refer to substances, abstract ideas,
qualities and other things that we cannot count. We cannot usually use the indefinite article a/an
with uncountable nouns:
music, art, love, happiness
advice, information, news
furniture, luggage, damage
news, progress
rice, sugar, butter, water

16
electricity, gas, power
money, currency

-Uncountable nouns can be the following:

▪ Substances:
air, bread, butter, dust, fire, flour, fuel, gold, ice, jam, juice, milk, oil, oxygen, petrol, rice, salt,
sand, smoke, snow, soap, sugar, water, wheat...
▪ Abstract nouns:
advice, aid, anger, art, beauty, cash, chaos, courage, damage, death, evidence, freedom, fun,
happiness, health, help, horror, information, kindness, knowledge, love, motivation, pity, relief,
safety, wealth, wisdom...
▪ Other things:
baggage, camping, cash, clothing, electricity, energy, food, furniture, literature, litter, luggage,
money, nature, news, parking, rubbish, shopping, sunshine, traffic, weather...

We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:
This news is very important.
Your luggage looks heavy.
We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We
cannot say "an information" or "a music". But we can say a "something" of:
a piece of news
a bottle of water
a grain of rice

We can use some and any with uncountable nouns:

I've got some money.
Have you got any rice?
I haven´t got any rice.

We can use little, a little and much with uncountable nouns:

I´ve got little time.
I've got a little money.
I haven't got much rice.

Uncountable nouns are also called "mass nouns".

Here are some more examples of countable and uncountable nouns:
Countable Uncountable
dollar money
song music
suitcase luggage
table furniture
battery electricity
bottle wine
report information
tip advice
journey travel
job work
view scenery

-There are words which can be used in either a countable or uncountable sense. Compare the
followings.

17
a) I bought a paper. (a newspaper)
Each student is asked to submit a paper on grammar. (an essay, esp. one to read to a learned
society)
I need a sheet of paper. (material for writing on)
b) There is a hair in the soup. (one single hair)
She has beautiful hair. (hair on the head)
c) We had many interesting experiences during our holiday. (things that
happened to us)
You need experience for this job. (knowledge of something because you have
done it before)
d) I ate meat for dinner.
Different meats are available at the supermarket. (types f meat)
e) We need to take water along on the camping trip.
There are carbonated and uncarbonated mineral waters. (brands f mineral water)
f) TV is both good and bad.
Yesterday we bought a TV. (informal for a television set)
g) I drink coffee every morning.
Please bring us three coffees. (informal for three cups of coffee)
h) France produces wine.
Cabernet Sauvignon is a wine produced in France. (a brand of wine)
i) It takes work to prepare an elegant meal. (use of bodily or mental powers with the purpose of
doing or making something)
Your meal is a work of art. (a product of the intellect or the imagination)

-In addition, some nouns that are both countable and uncountable
Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable but they have a different meaning.
beer = kind of drink, beers = glasses of beer
chicken = kind of meat, chickens = animals
chocolate = kind of food, chocolates = small sweets in a box of chocolates
coffee = kind of drink, coffees = cups of coffee
experience = kind of knowledge, experiences = things that happen to you
glass = material, glasses = cups
light = brightness from the sun, lights = electric lamps or bulbs
paper = material, papers = newspapers
people = human beings, peoples = nations or ethnic groups
room = space, rooms = living room, bedroom, etc.
wood = material, woods = forest
hair = hair on your head, hairs = animal hairs

Partitive Structure with Uncountable Nouns

We can use the same uncountable noun in different partitive expressions with
different meanings. For example, a loaf of bread and a slice of bread are
partitive expressions with different meanings.
A loaf of bread is what we call a whole unit of bread that we buy from a baker.
A slice of bread is what we call a smaller unit of bread after it has been cut from a loaf.
Here are some examples of partitive expressions:
a glass of milk
a spoonful of sugar
some of the cake
a lot of feathers
a bottle of perfume

18
a piece of paper
a bit of fun, luck, time, work, paper, information, bread, money, news, gossip
a piece of paper, software, information, work, writing, furniture, wood, equipment, music, cloth,
land
an item of clothing, equipment, furniture, food, information, interest, business, jewellery, news
a sheet of paper,ice, glass
a carton of milk, juice, yoghurt
a glass of milk, beer, wine
a cup of tea, coffee
a slice of bread, cheese, cake
a loaf of bread, cheese, meat
a bar of chocolate, soap
a spoonful of sugar, flour, salt
a pinch of salt, cinnamon, humour
a jar of jam, honey, beer, mayonnaise

Here are some more examples:

Don't forget to buy a bag of rice when you go shopping.
Can I have one cup of coffee and two cups of tea.
I will take at least three pieces of furniture.
I want a tablespoon of honey would be more than enough.

-We use little / few, a little / a few, much / many with countable and uncountable nouns:
We use little, a little and much with singular uncountable nouns to express quantity.
We use few, a few and many with plural countable nouns to express quantity.

Little with uncountable nouns / few with countable nouns (negative sense)
We had very little information about the hotel. (= not much information)
We learned very few facts about the hotel. (= not many facts)

A little with uncountable nouns / a few with countable nouns(positive sense)

I can help you. I have a little time now. (= some time)
I can help you. I have a few hours to spare. (= several hours)
Notes
Little and few have negative meanings. They mean 'not as much or not as many as I expected'.
A little and a few have positive meanings. They mean 'better than nothing'.
Compare:
I have little money and few friends. (= I feel unhappy. I want more money and friends.)
I have a little money and a few friends. (= I feel happier. I have some money and several friends.)

Much with uncountable nouns / many with countable nouns

My brother won much money with a lottery ticket.(= a lot of money)
My brother bought many lottery tickets. (a lot of tickets)

A lot of, some with countable and uncountable nouns

These quantifiers can be used with countable and uncountable nouns in affirmative sentences.
They are more informal than the quantifiers mentioned above.

A lot of (lots of, plenty of)

19
We can use a lot of, lots of or plenty of instead of much, many.
We had a lot of fun (much fun) at the party. (uncountable)
We had a lot of drinks (many drinks) at the party. (countable)
Some
We can use some instead of a little and a few.
I would like some more coffee (a little more coffee). (uncountable)
I would like some more bisquits (a few more bisquits). (countable)

20
Exercise 11:
A. Write whether these are countable or uncountable:
1. milk →
2. room →
3. butter →
4. song →
5. music →
6. minute →
7. tea →
8. child →
9. key →
10. water →

Exercise 12:
Write the correct word a / an or some
1. I have __________good idea.
2. That’s __________ interesting job!
3. They have found _________ gold in that old mine.
4. Do the Smiths have _____________ yellow van?
5. Look! He's having ___________ sandwiches.
6. He always likes __________ piece of chocolate.
7. I have _________ homework to do for tomorrow.
8. There's _________nice girl in the red car.
9. Would you like _________ milk with your cookies?
10.How about _________ grapes?

Exercise 13:
Use “How many” or “How much”.
1. _________ stars are there in the sky?
2. __________ people live on islands?
3. __________ birds are there?
4. __________water is in the ocean?
5. ______________money is in a bank?
6. _____________countries are there in the world?
7. ____________bread is eaten per day?
8. ____________ bones are there in the human body?
9. ___________ sand is in the deserts?
10.______________ information is on the internet?

Exercise 14:
Use “much” or “many”
1. There isn't ___________milk left in the fridge.
2.You shouldn't eat so __________ sweets.
3. My friend doesn't eat __________ fruit.
4. I don't have ________ time to practice basketball.
5. There aren't __________ people in the shops today?

21
Exercise 15:
Complete the sentences with a/an if necessary.
Don't forget to buy _____ milk. And we also need ____ loaf of bread. A: Excuse me. Can you
give me _____ information about flights departing from Heathrow tonight? B: Here you are. This
is _____ complete list of departures. We are moving next week. We'll need _____ new furniture.
We've already ordered _____ sofa and _____ small table. And _____ new cooking equipment,
too. I think _____ grey hair on _____ elderly woman looks better than _____ artificial hairstyle.
Children need _____ more sleep than adults. If we don't sleep enough in _____ childhood, it can
cause several problems including _____ decreased brain development and frequent negative
emotions.

Exercise 16 :
Complete the sentences with little/a little, or few /a few or much/many.
few/a few
All I wanted when I was young was _______________ reliable friends. Maria is so busy all the
time. She has _______________ moments on her own. _______________ people know about
this beach. That's why it's so clean. We spent _______________ days in Barcelona and we really
enjoyed it.
little/a little
Ben made a lot of mistakes. He had _______________ time to answer the questions. I preferred a
cup of coffee because I'd already had _______________ tea before that. You have to take up the
job. You have _______________ choice. I have _______________ money. I can afford a short
holiday in France.
much/many
How _______________ students are taking part in the competition? How _______________ rice
should I cook for one person? Susan isn't having _______________ luck today, is she? They
didn't have _______________ real problems, as far as I know.

Exercise 17:
Choose the correct word or phrase and complete the sentences. ___________
Are you ready to order? - Yes, please. Can I have .............................. and rice?
• chicken • a chicken
......................................................... do you have in your henhouse?
• How much chicken • How many chickens
....................................... is a candy made from cacao beans.
• Chocolate • A chocolate
OK. You can choose ..................................... from my box, but I'll take one from your box.
• chocolate • a chocolate
Do as ............................................. as you can and you'll improve your English in a month or two.
• much exercise • many exercises
Sharon, you should take more ................................ if you want to lose weight.
• exercise • exercises
Josh has ...................................................... in the kitchen, but he does know how to make really
good scrambled eggs.
• little experience • few experiences
I met my boss only once and it was ........................................... I will never forget.
• experience • an experience
Don't forget to turn all the ................... off before you leave the house.
• light • lights
Our apartment is surrounded by tall trees so it doesn't get .........................

22
• light • a light
Excuse me. Do you have ...................................... at your hotel for tonight?
• free room • a free room
I got rid of some old books to make ......................... for contemporary American writers.
• room • a room

Exercise 18:
Choose the correct quantifier and complete the sentences.
When I was eighteen, my grandfather gave me a ........................ of advice I've never forgotten.
• stroke • word
Can you pass me ........................ of paper, please?
• a sheet • an item
The only thing you need to succeed in your business is a ........................ of luck.
• stroke • box
Sarah took my joke very seriously. But it was just a ........................ of fun.
• item • bit
Make sure that you dust the floor under every ........................ of furniture.
• item • carton
I have no idea where I've left the ........................ of matches.
• box • piece
Ben is going to play a ........................ of music by Chopin at his birthday party.
• sheet • piece
Do you think that three ........................ of milk will be enough?
• cartons • pieces
Don't forget to buy two ........................ of bread for the barbecue.
• bits • loaves
How many ........................ of salami should I put on each plate?
• strokes • slices
My younger brother is hooked on Coca-Cola. He drinks three or four ........................ every day.
• cans • bits
I was eating my dinner when a news ........................ on TV caught my attention.
• sheet • item

3.2.5. Abstract nouns:

3.2.6. Compound nouns:

A compound noun is a noun that is formed from two or more unique words and has a more
specific meaning than the separate words. The compound word can be written as separate words
(mother tongue), as a single word (grandmother) or with hyphens (mother-in-law).

Types of compound nouns

▪ Open compound nouns = separate words:
swimming pool, first aid, hot dog
▪ Closed compound nouns = a single word:
grandmother, snowball, railway

23
▪ Hyphenated compound nouns = words connected with hyphens:
check-in, mother-in-law, merry-go-round

Possible combinations
We can combine various parts of speech to make compound nouns.
Noun + noun:
traffic warden, petrol station, shop window
seaside, website, Iceland
hitch-hiker, fire-fly, paper-clip

Adjective + noun:
small talk, full moon, last will
blackbird, hardware, greenhouse

Combinations with gerunds:

fruit picking, gold mining, waiting list, driving licence
trainspotting, haircutting, storytelling
price-fixing, weight-lifting, dining-room

Combinations with prepositions:

output, checkout, onlooker
passer-by, check-in, father-in-law

Open compound nouns

The open compound noun is made up of two words that are written as separate words but their
combination creates a new, single meaning.
air force, fairy tale, street lamp, goose bumps, first aid, hot dog, remote control, fire engine, bank
clerk, prime minister, credit card

Closed compound nouns

The closed compound noun combines two words that are written as one word with a new
meaning.
airmail, banknote, billboard, earthworm, honeymoon, keyboard, outlook, overcoat, painkiller,
password, rainbow, runway, sweetheart, swordfish
Hyphenated compound nouns
The hyphenated compound noun is a combination of two or more words that are connected with
hyphens. They are less common in modern English than in the past.
co-worker, editor-in-chief, hanger-on, happy-go-lucky, mass-production, passer-by, runner-up,
word-of-mouth, forget-me-not

Plurals of compound nouns

We normally add -s to the last part of a compound noun to make the plural.
a shop window, two shop windows
a blackbird, a few blackbirds
a hitch-hiker, many hitch-hikers
But there are a few exceptions to this rule.
a passer-by, two passers-by (but two grown-ups)
a woman doctor, several women doctors (but several female doctors)
a sister-in-law, all my sisters-in-law (but merry-go-rounds)

Compound words in transition

24
There are no clear rules how to form a compound noun in English. With the relaxed attitude
toward spelling, a lot of compound nouns gradually develop. A good dictionary will help you to
find out how to write a compound word.
all right | alright
back yard | back-yard | backyard
check in | check-in
Exercise 19:
Choose the word that makes each of these nouns into a compound noun.
Fund __________ (A – driver, B – seat, C – raiser)
News __________ (A– paper, B – story, C – travels)
Sun ____________ (A– day, B – glasses, C – heat)
Child ___________ (A – hood, B – ren, C – play)
Door ___________ (A– frame, B – handle, C – way)

Exercise 20:
Fill in the blanks to complete each compound noun, or with the one-word compound noun that
fits best.
Prevent a heart _________ by eating properly and getting enough exercise.
(A – stroke, B –attack, C – murmur)
Do you prefer peppermint or cinnamon flavored _____________?
(A– cookies, B – toothpaste, C – applesauce)
The full ___________ looked enormous as it rose over the horizon.
(A – moon, B – sun, C –sunset)
I’m going to the barber for a _____________.
(A – trim, B – new style, C – haircut)
They’re digging a new swimming ____________ in the park.
(A – suit, B – pool, C – game)
I’d love to learn to pilot an ____________
(A–boat, B – airplane, C – submarine)
One reason donuts are fattening is that they’re fried in cooking _____.
(A – oil, B – sugar, C –pans)
Sherrie is upset because she lost an ______________.
(A – input, B – earring, C – friendship)

We put a ____________ in the garden to chase birds away.

(A – runway, B – sunshade, C –scarecrow)
15.I’ve got to pick up a package at the post ___________.
(A – man, B – office, C – book)

25
Open compound nouns
Exercise 21:
Match the words from column 1 with the words in column 2.
column 1 column 2 compound noun
full estate
dining cheese
real coaster
disk page
memory room
cream aid
apple card
web mug
fire office
roller moon
first game
video band
coffee drive
post wave
upper pie
sweet exit
vice deck
rubber tooth
radio hockey
ice president

Closed compound nouns (one word)

Exercise 22:
Make compound nouns to match the definitions.
a human figure created with snow s __ __ __ m __ __
a cat living in forests or mountains w __ __ __ c __ __
someone who is in the same class at school c __ __ __ __ m __ __ __
a cosmetic product that makes your lips look colourful l __ __ s __ __ __ __
a strip of ground for the landing and takeoff of planes r __ __ w __ __
a person with reddish hair r __ __ h __ __ __
a public place where children can play p __ __ __ g __ __ __ __ __
a son of your son or daughter g __ __ __ __ s __ __
the time when the sun first appears in the sky s __ __ r __ __ __
the line of short hairs above your eyes e __ __ b __ __ __
a sudden bright light used in taking photos f __ __ __ __ l __ __ __ __
a tower with a light to guide ships at sea l __ __ __ __ h __ __ __ __
a set of buttons used for typing on a computer k __ __ b __ __ __ __
a book used for taking notes n __ __ __ b __ __ __
a place where you can buy books b __ __ __ s __ __ __
a puzzle in which you write words horizontally and vertically c __ __ __ __ w __ __ __
a thing placed between the pages of a book to find a place b __ __ __ m __ __ __
a mark made on a surface by a foot f __ __ __ p __ __ __ __
a style in which your hair is shaped h __ __ __ c __ __

26
Exercise 23:
Choose the correct options and complete the sentences.
living room, living-room
I hear you have new furniture in your ...........................................
website, web-site
We are sorry, this ....................................... is currently under construction.
self defense, self-defense
My sister attends ....................................... lessons for women once a week.
coorganizer, co-organizer
We should contact one of the .............................................. of the trade fair.
teaspoon, tea-spoon
People are advised to never use a household .................................. to take medicines.
fire engine, fire-engine
The .......................................... has put the fire out, but a lot of damage has been done.
firefighter, fire-fighter
When I was about ten years old, I wanted to be a ..................................... like my father.
check out, check-out
Please, don't forget that the ............................ is between nine at ten o'clock.
sun set, sunset
My girlfriend and I sat on the beach enjoying a romantic .............................
book shelf, bookshelf
Adding a .............................. or two to your bedroom can make it much cosier.

27