Language transfer, motivation, language attitude and aptitude:

Internal factors that

influence successful second language learning

In a multicultural context where multilingual speakers come in contact, learning

another language is possible. Theories about how people learn to speak a second (or third

or fourth) language are directly related to the first language acquisition theories. There

are two reasons why. First of all, because first language acquisition is a universal

achievement of children the world over, researchers and educators interested in second

language acquisition and teaching have often used first language acquisition as an ideal

model, one that may inform us about how a second language might be taught. Until

Chomsky, however, ideas about how a first language was acquired were not fully

developed and researched. Behaviorists, for example, did not analyze closely the speech

development of young children, but rather extended general learning theory principles to

language development. Indeed, learning a second language mirrors first language

acquisition which basically goes through a process which differs on its own gamut.

Different stages of language development in L2 determine how language learning

manifests language success which is one of the issues in SLA. This language issue has

been paid attention by several researchers who tried to explore the determiners and other

predictors of success such as language transfer, motivation, attitude and aptitude that

influence learning (Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Krashen, 1982; Dornyei, 2003). These
predictors of language success constitute what is said to be the internal factors that affect

second language learning. Even though SLA is clearly marked with universal tendencies

(e.g., developmental sequences, acquisition orders, Universal Grammar), it is clear that

SLA learners are not all alike nor do they attain similar degrees of knowledge or

proficiency over time (Patten & Benati, 2010). It is the study of individual differences

that attempts to address variation in language success over time. Individual differences

seem to play an important role in determining language success since it espouses that

learners have different phases in language development, learning strategies, and different

styles. This short paper deliberates how each internal factor affects the development and

how it influences language success.

The origins of individual differences as a field of study are found in classroom-

based research conducted in the late 1950s in which researchers wanted to know why

some people are better students of second languages compared to others. In this regard,

researcher studies have begun to investigate on what really accounts for these language

phenomena until after different variables (e.g. aptitude, motivation) were discovered and

explored that relate to SLA. This has led to investigate several areas that affect language

development. These are language aptitude and attitude, motivation, learning styles, and

learning strategies. Language aptitude can be defined as a learner’s propensity to learn an

L2, and is one of the many factors researched in the field of individual differences (Patten

& Benati, 2010). Such propensities include the following: (1) the ability for a learner to

handle and memorize new sounds in an L2; (2) the ability for a learner to recognize

grammatical function of words in an L2; (3) the ability for the learner to extrapolate

grammatical rules from L2 samples; and (4) the ability for the learner to memorize new
words in an L2. In addition, DeKeyser (2000) found a strong positive correlation between

their scores on the aptitude test and their scores on a test of the acquisition of various

aspects of English morphology and syntax. However, this correlation was only positive

for those who arrived after the age of 17; that means, the correlation between aptitude and

acquisition scores was not significant prior to that age. Another view on aptitude shows

that different learners with different aptitude clusters will respond to different

instructional treatments differentially (Robinson, 2001). It is therefore concluded that

individual differences largely affect language development vis-à-vis other factors that

influence success such as language aptitude. On the other hand, the birth of motivation

(what researchers also call individual differences) has been explored in the field of SLA.

The theory on individual motivation posits that integratively motivated learners succeed

because they are active learners (Gardner, 1985). Gardner and Lambert (1972) argued

that second language learners’ feelings about a foreign language and its cultural values

and living styles (attitudes) and their individual reasons for learning the language

(motivation) are related to overall learning success and achievement with learning that

foreign language. They found that the pragmatic purpose for learning a second language

is derived from a personal desire to know the native speakers of the target language.

Second language learners are interested in learning about native speakers of that language

and understanding the main purpose of the ways of life in the target language. This is

called instrumental motivation (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Gardner (1985) and

Schumann (1978) pointed out that integrative, instrumental, and work avoidance

motivation help second language learners to learn the target language more easily.

However, it is seen that in the field of SLA, motivation moves from a static construct
related to sociopsychological variables (e.g., how the learner perceives the target

language and culture and the degree to which the learner wishes to interact with the

latter) to more cognitive-oriented constructs (e.g., the mental self of learners), to

constructs related to contemporary psychology on self-esteem, self-regulation, and other

advances in research on human personality (Patten & Benati, 2010). Since the 1970s, the

field of motivation research has become more complicated by including such things as

the possible and ideal selves, motivation as process, demotivation, and the evolution of

motivation over time, among other concepts. Indeed, all the reasons sprout from the

desires of the self which motivates an individual towards language learning and

determines language success depending upon the amount and the type of motivation that

an individual has shown.

Language transfer, on the other hand, is another factor that influences language

success. Through monitor hypothesis (Krashen, 1982) errors can be observed which

would serve as the basis for correction. Some errors may be due to ‘transfer’ (also called

‘crosslinguistic influence’). Transfer means using sounds, expressions or structures from

the L1 when performing in the L2 (Yule, 2006). If the L1 and L2 have similar features

(e.g. marking plural on the ends of nouns) then the learner may be able to benefit from

the positive transfer of L1 knowledge to the L2. On the other hand, transferring an L1

feature that is really different from the L2 (e.g. putting the adjective after the noun)

results in negative transfer and it may make the L2 expression difficult to understand. It is

important to remember that negative transfer (sometimes called ‘interference’) is more

common in the early stages of L2 learning and often decreases as the learner develops

familiarity with the L2. It is through monitoring which learners will be able to modify,
make alternatives, and correct their own mistakes. Thereby making themselves aware of

the errors they are committing and doing some language appropriations for that matter.

By this, learners’ chance for a language learning and language success is highly possible.

It is therefore concluded that internal factors such as language aptitude, attitude,

and motivation that constitute individual differences and language transfer are predictors

of language success aside from other factors mentioned in other empirical studies.
 List of References:

Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan, P. (2003). Individual differences in second language learning. In
C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long, The handbook of second language acquisition
(pp. 589-630). Oxford: Blackwell.

Gardner, R. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of

attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold.

Gardner, R., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language

learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford:

Pergamon Press, 1982.

Patten B. V. & Benati, A. (2010). Key terms in second language acquisition. London:

UK. Continuum International Publishing Group

Robinson, P. (2001a). Individual differences, cognitive abilities, aptitude complexes

and
learning conditions in second language acquisition. Second Language
Research,
17, 368-392.

Schumann, J. (1978). The pidginization process: A model for second language

acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language. United States of America: Cambridge

University Press.

First Language Acquisition in Children

1/5

First Language Acquisition in Children

A child is born without the ability to speak, but even before coming to the world
it is exposed to a mother’s voice and native-tongue. A new born baby is able to create
only a few sounds starting with crying, then cooing, chucking. However, what does the
process of a mother tongue acquisition look like? How do unrecognizable sounds
evolve into a clear speech which can be easily understood by the society?
Part One - Theoretical Aspects of First Language Acquisition
Behaviourist Approaches
One of the first theories on first language acquisition was described by B. F.
Skinner in 1957. According to him, a baby is born as a clean sheet, without any ideas
about the world or a language. Slowly, a child is shaped by its environment and
conditioned through various reinforcements. This explains how the child can acquire
its mother tongue - by stimulus or habit formation factor. We can distinguish a few
stages of behaviorism:
• Imitation - a child imitates its mother tongue
• Repetition - a child repeats words/structures several times
• Memorization - a child memorizes words/structures
• Controlled drilling - a child drills words in an environment
• Reinforcement - a child learns that all behaviors are reinforced. If
consequences are rewarded, then the behavior is kept and increases its
strength. If consequences are punished, then the behavior becomes weaker and at
the end may disappear.
Unfortunately, the theory does not explain how an infant really learns a mother
tongue. It is not possible to spontaneously produce correct responses or understand
grammar rules by only repeating words and correct structures.
Nativist Approach
Nativists looked at the nature of language acquisition from a different
perspective. According to them we are born with a capacity to acquire any language
and understand its system. Many scientists discussed this topic, but the best known is
Chomsky and LAD - language acquisition device. This device codes principles of any
language and its grammar, and a child just needs to learn vocabulary that is used to

2/5

apply grammar rules. It also explains how infants can use sounds and gestures into
language acquisition, because according to Chomsky repetitions are not enough to
really learn and understand the syntax of any language. Following studies among
scientists supporting nativist approach focused on a theory of Universal Grammar that
bears foundation for every language.
Functional Approaches
According to scientists supporting functional theory, language is just the most
effective way to deal and interact with the world: sharing and getting information,
expressing our needs and feelings, giving meaning to our lives. It means that people
and their needs are at the foundation of a language, and as it follows, a baby learns a
language by interacting with its environment.

Picture 1, Theories of first language acquisition, https://www.tuninst.net/LANG-

ACQUI/n-Brown3/n-ch02-3/n-ch02-3.htm [access: 20.11.2022]
Part Two - Stages of language acquisition in children
1. Pre-talking stage (0-6 months)
An infant starts its communication with caretakers by making “comfort sounds” that
can be interpreted in different ways. Slowly, starting usually at the age of 2 months,
an infant responds more to mother’s voice and language, and also starts discriminating
the structure of maternal language among other languages. While the baby grows up,
it starts babbling, new consonants such as “b”, “p” or “m” appear in its
communication.
2. Babbling stage (6-8 months)
After a time an infant starts repeating some syllables which are imitating its

3/5

caretakers’ language. The sounds are made without any specific context, but
sometimes they can sound like a speech. This period is differently described in
different studies, but we can assume that it starts at the age of 4 months and finishes at
the age of 9 months. During this time a baby starts responding to its name and may even
start saying CVC or VCV vocalizations like “mam”, “ada” “pap” etc. Not only
production of a language develops, but also memorization and detection of words that
appear in daily speech and stories.
After a time a baby’s babbling starts changing - an increase in used consonants is
noticed. An infant starts producing its first very simple words describing usually
people around them like “mama” or “dada”. Crying for communicative purposes
decreases and is replaced by other voices. An infant correctly responds to emotions by
categorizing tones and voices to them, and can start reacting to some commands.
3. Holophrastic stage (9-18 months)
Holophrastic comes from the words holo “complete” and phrase which means
“phrase” or “sentence”. In this age a baby starts producing single simple words. It can
also start using them to express needs, for example “book” or even “boo” can mean
“Can you read a book?” - a single word means a whole sentence. Takecarers are the
only ones who are able to understand this language, but in time more people can do it.
In this period overextension among children is normal. They use one word to describe
many things around: “book” can mean all types of paper objects like leaflets,
newspapers, books. Underextension also appears, where a child uses “book” to
describe one specific book.
4. The two-word stage (18-24 months)
When a baby is 18-24 months it starts creating its first two-word sentences: “Mommy
book” or “want book”. In an environment, where take carers repeat correct sentences, a
child will develop its speech earlier. At the age of 24 months, a child should know
about 300 words.
5. Telegraphic stage (24-30 months)
In the next following months a child will start producing first telegraphic short
sentences like “Daddy read book”. In this process grammar is missing and supported
by body language. Slowly a baby will experiment with the language more and start
producing more complex sentences by using prepositions.

4/5

6. Later multiword stage (30+months)

At the age of 3 years a child usually knows about 1000 words which are used in a
symbolic way. The words are used in a egocentric way, usually while playing and
saying monologues. We can see it when in a group of children, all of them talk, but
none of them listen to each other. A child starts creating more correct sentences
usually built-up of 4-5 words. In this stage, by asking a lot of questions, big amount of
vocabulary is learnt, usually 600 per year.
Conclusions
In this essay I presented only a few theories of first tongue acquisition and briefly
described the process. Children learn their mother tongue unconsciously, but the
process needs to be carefully supported by both caretakers and teachers. As we know
from our own experience, the education of our mother tongue does not finish in our
puberty. We learn and improve it all our lives.

References:
• Anjali Hans, Emmanuel Hans, Children Acquire Their Mother Tongue Through Various
Stages, Scholars World - International Refereed Multidisciplinary Journal Of Contemporary
Research, Online: ISSN 2320-3145
• Mehry Haddad Narafshan, Firooz Sadighi, Mohammad Sadegh Bagheri, Nasrin Shokrpour,
First Language Acquisition by Infants, Journal of Advances in English Language
Teaching 2013; vol.1, No.2, pp.59-63
• Paulina Klaudia Woźniak, The Early Stages of First Language Acquisition, Retrieved
from https://www.academia.edu/39373357/The_Early_Stages_of_First_Language_Acquisition?
sm=b [access: 19.11.2022]
• Bertaria Sohnata Hutauruk, Children First Language Acquisition At Age 1-3 Years Old In
Balata, IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), Volume 20, Issue 8,
Ver. V (Aug. 2015), PP 51-57
• Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Fourth Edition, New
York: Pearson Education, Retrieved from https://works.doklad.ru/view/XPlrnQsPGkQ/all.html
[access: 19.11.2022]
Second Language Acquisition : A Theoretical
Introduction to Real World
Applications by Alessandro G. Benati and Tanja Angelovska (2016) is without
doubt a help for undergraduate students and trainee teachers who need to deal with
the issue of second language acquisition (SLA). The content is very precise but, at
the same time, very clear and easy to understand and follow, even for those students
who are dealing with this topic for the first time. It can be applied in the classroom,
as a resource book or even a course book, to introduce SLA. It is true that the field
has become very complex in the past years, as the studies include many different
fields of knowledge: linguistics, psychology, sociology and education. However,
the authors of this book have been able to highlight the most important theories in
such a way that it can be an excellent resource for use in undergraduate classes.
They have also incorporated some activities for students to reflect on the topic and
to develop their critical thinking about it. Most of the activities are good and
although some are unpretentious, they are effective for students to think about this
issue. In short, all of the activities give an insight into the theory. The structure of
the book is also very well organized. It is divided into six chapters, which
summarize the main theories of SLA:

1. Introduction to second language acquisition.

2. Similarities and differences between first and second language acquisition.
3. How learners process information in second language acquisition.
4. How the internal system develops in a second language.

Copyright © 2017 Language Value, ISSN 1989-7103 222

Articles are copyrighted by their respective authors
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2017.9.10
Second Language Acquisition: A Theoretical Introduction to Real World Applications

5. How learners learn to communicate in a second language.

6. What we know about SLA.

The organization of each chapter follows the same order, which is very effective:

 A short summary of the chapter.

 The theoretical part with all the main authors on SLA analyzed and
contrasted.
 Some activities to check understanding and to achieve a critical
opinion on the topics, fields of knowledge, theories and issues.
 The application of the theory to the “real-world”, that is, a guide for
learners and language instructors to use these theories in an effective way
when learning or teaching a second language.

The first chapter, “Introduction to second language acquisition”, starts with a clear
definition of SLA after examining different contexts and assuming three research
methods: experimental (more pedagogical research), observational (in the
classroom) and case studies (in the classroom). The starting point answers two
questions, bearing in mind that L1 has already been acquired: first, how learners
internalize the linguistic system of L2, and, second, how learners make use of the
linguistic system. In this chapter there is a practical and straightforward summary
of the main theories of SLA from the different fields of knowledge involved in the
process of L2 learning: firstly, from a rationalist perspective, which proposes that
the learning of an L2 is innate and, as such, in opposition to behaviorism, which
was in fashion in the past; secondly, from a linguistic perspective (competences and
skills); thirdly, from a cognitive perspective; fourthly, from a psychological
approach, and finally, from a sociological perspective. The chapter continues by
analyzing the nature of language: lexicon, phonology, morphology, syntax,
pragmatics, sociolinguistics and discourse. It later continues by summarizing the
main theories in second language acquisition: Behaviorism, Universal Grammar
Theory, Monitor Theory, Interaction Hypothesis, Processability Theory, Input
Processing Theory, Skill Acquisition Theory, Emergentism, the Declarative and
Procedural Model, Complexity Theory and Sociocultural Theory. It is a reality that
SLA is an active growing field in which researchers have not yet accepted just one

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Book and Multimedia Review

single theory, but all the main studies have been summarized in this book. After
analyzing the key elements of SLA, the authors move on to the learning process,
from declarative to procedural working memory, and to all those factors responsible
for the acquisition of linguistic features.

The second chapter, “Similarities and differences between first and second
language acquisition”, shows the differences and similarities in the acquisition of
L1 and L2 in a clear and down-to-earth manner. This chapter is significant as it
clarifies the basis of SLA from the point of view of the learner: Chomsky’s
Universal Grammar (1965 and 1981), the linguistic constraints of transfer and
markedness, the role of the brain and the matter of age. The matter of age has been
a controversial question, and Lenneberg’s (1967) “Critical period hypothesis” is
still an issue of research in this subject. The question is whether there is an optimal
age for acquiring a second language or if cognitive maturity and experience can be
assets in learning a second language. The authors analyze the misconceptions about
age from different areas of language skills: pronunciation, morphology and syntax.
The authors extend their theory to a multilingual environment, which is nowadays
becoming the reality of most learners, as most of them are living in multilingual
societies.

The third chapter, “How learners process information in second language

acquisition”, studies the way in which learners process information. Learners do not
always process all the input they are exposed to when learning another language.
Moreover, the authors indicate the limited role of instruction in a second language
due to external and internal factors. The importance of individual differences for
SLA (age, language aptitude, working memory, learning strategies, motivation and
learning styles) are reviewed in this chapter.

The fourth chapter, “How the internal system develops in a second language”, is a
key issue within SLA. It deals with the rules applied when learning a second
language, the learner language or interlanguage (Selinker, 1972), that is, language
transfer, over-generalization of target language rules, transfer of training, L2
communication strategies and L2 learning strategies. The cognitive theories of SLA
are also examined in this chapter, in spite of the difficulties this issue entails.

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Second Language Acquisition: A Theoretical Introduction to Real World Applications

The fifth chapter, “How learners learn to communicate in a second language”, helps
to understand the ability a second language learner has when using his or her
communicative skills. This sociolinguistic aspect of SLA studies the different tools,
skills, and competences that a learner must master for successful communication
(Canale and Swain, 1980), which are linguistic (grammar and phonology,
phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, etc.), sociolinguistic (sociocultural),
discourse and strategic. First, the social aspect of language, and what this entails, is
emphasized in this chapter, and thus, it studies different approaches from a
functionalist perspective, for example, the concept-oriented approach. Second, SLA
is influenced by cultural practices and here Vygotsky’s (1978) Social-Cultural
Theory, Giles’ (1978) Accommodation Theory, and Schumann’s (1978)
Acculturation Model are summarized. Considering that our society is becoming
multilingual rather than just bilingual, the authors state the differences in meaning
in relation to the concepts of bilingualism, heritage language and multilingualism.
A final thought is given to “multilingualism competence” and the Dynamic System
Theory (Larsen-Freeman, 1997 & 2002).

The sixth, and last, chapter, “What we know about SLA”, evaluates what is known
in the field of SLA: the similarities and differences between L1 and L2 in both
children and adults. It also deals with the role of implicit and explicit knowledge,
input, interaction and output, and well as the impact of instruction in SLA. The
remark the authors make is that, in spite of an increase in research since the basis of
SLA was established, it is still a matter of continuous debate and controversy. The
reason for this is that this topic is very complex and it involves many different
fields of knowledge, as stated at the beginning of this review.

All these chapters end with a guide for learners and language instructors on how to
apply these theories in the “real world”. These sections are highly significant due to
their practicality and they give language instructors valuable as well as useful
information on how to apply the theoretical part in the learning and teaching of a
second language. Chapter six should be highlighted, as it includes some approaches
and concerns relating the teaching of a second language. The book also offers other
helpful information, for example, the figures and tables included, as well as the
final glossary, which is very useful in order to check terminology, theories,

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Book and Multimedia Review

hypotheses and models concerning SLA. The authors have researched the literature
well and have included a wide range of references. Moreover, after each chapter
they provide a list of references allowing the reader to go deeper still into the topic.
All of the references are relevant, well-chosen and well cited.

I therefore think this book is a very good resource to introduce students and trainees
to the topic of SLA in such a way that it can be easily understood. This knowledge
is reinforced by the activities included and the references for further research on the
topic. Moreover, the authors cover and review all the main areas of knowledge of
this topic in an engaging, practical way for anyone dealing with this complex matter
for the first time. In short, the main strength of this book is to help learners and
teachers to tackle the numerous studies and theories on this issue. Its only slight
weakness may be the simplicity of some of the activities provided by the authors.

REFERENCES

Benati, A.G. & Angeelovska, T. 2016. Second Language Acquisition: A Theoretical

Introduction to Real World Applications. London (U.K.): Bloomsbury.

Canale, M. and Swain, M. 1980. “Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to

second language teaching and testing”. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1-47.

Chomsky, N. 1959. Aspects of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT.

Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrencht: Foris.

Giles, H. and Smith, P. 2008. “Accommodation Theory: Optimal levels of

convergence. In Giles, H. and St. Clair, R. (Eds.) Language and Social Psychology.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 45-65.

Larsen-Freeman, D. 1997. “Chaos/complexity science and second language

acquisition”. Applied Linguistics, 18 (2), 141-165.

Larsen-Freeman, D. 2002. “Language acquisition and language use form a

chaos/complexity theory perspective”. In Kramsch, C. (Ed.), Language Acquisition
and Language Socialization: Ecological Perspective. London: Continuum, 33-46.

Lenneberg, E.H. 1967. Biological Foundations of Language. New York: Wiley.

Language Value 9 (1), 222-227 http://www.e-revistes.uji.es/languagevalue 226

Second Language Acquisition: A Theoretical Introduction to Real World Applications

Schumann, J.H. 1978. The Pidgination Process: A Model for Second Language
Acquisition. Rowley, M.A.: Newbury House.

Selinker, L. 1972. “Interlanguage”. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10,

209-231.

Vygotsky, L.S. 1978. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological

Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Received: 6 April 2016

Accepted: 19 February 2017