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These hydrated gels resist compression (useful for joints). Two pairs of connexons (hexamers of
connexins; Cx) form a pore enabling diffusion for ions and small molecules. Significant progress has
been made in the technique of genetically encoded voltage indicator ( Kang et al., 2019 ). However,
this state-of-the-art technique is still below the threshold to detect the subtle variation of voltages in
an astrocyte syncytium, and therefore, future optimization of this technique is crucial to recruit
advanced imaging techniques to study the physiology and pathology of astrocyte syncytial networks.
Incubation with SR101 of slices from epileptic mice 9 mpi resulted in astrocytic labeling in the
contralateral CA1 region. Both human tissue studies and animal models of epilepsy have shown
considerable changes in connexin expression after seizure activity. Block 5 Erik Kessler, Michael
O’Brien, Bryan Richman. Structure:. Meshwork of fine fibers within the cell Made up of three types
of fibers Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules Gives the cell some structural
support. Increasing evidence for the role of GJs in seizure initiation, epileptogenesis, and tissue
synchronization has been presented in both human tissue studies and experimental models of
epilepsy. Here, we will limit our discussion to this advanced paired recording mode and its
application to analyze the functional connectivity of neighboring astrocytes. Identify the four major
tissue types and describe their functions. In a subset of patients with tumors associated with acute
seizures, even higher levels of Cx43 mRNA were observed. Tight Junctions. Occur when the
membranes of two cells move close to each other in order to prevent molecules from passing
between cells. Afterward, results can be gathered in a radar diagram to denote the degree of
anisotropy and orientation of networks (C 2 ). Over time, the V M reaches a stationary level of -73
mV. In addition, uncoupling was prevented in Toll-like receptor 4 knockout mice. First, differing
from paired recordings, V M,SS is measured from single electrode recordings. Both human tissue
studies and animal models of epilepsy have shown considerable changes in connexin expression after
seizure activity. Since the patch-clamp system is able for simultaneous current injection and
membrane potential recording, now only two electrodes are used for paired recording. Several
studies have demonstrated a role for GJ coupling in seizure activity, although these findings have
been debated. For the interpretation of ion diffusion within the gap junction network, it is beneficial
to analyze the spread of ions that is less effected by signaling cascades. Tissue composition Outline
How are cells organized into tissues? I. Recently, ultrastructural details of astrocyte-astrocyte
contacts have been revealed that explain how such a low inter-astrocytic resistance could be
biophysically achieved ( Kiyoshi et al., 2020 ). ADHESION JUNCTION: Cytoskeletal fibers join
between cells; flexible; tissues subject to mechanical stress. Learning Outcomes 4-1 Identify the four
major types of tissues in the body and describe their roles. 4-2 Discuss the types and functions of
epithelial tissue. This is important in generating a clear visual signal because the primary reaction,
phototransduction, is a dirty process. Gap junctions. Gap junction coupling in the ovarian follicle.
Subsequently, LY labeling can be combined with immunohistochemistry to determine the identity of
coupled cells ( Binmoller and Muller, 1992; Konietzko and Muller, 1994 ). Tracers are usually loaded
for several minutes into a single cell via the backfill of the patch pipette. Discuss the types and
functions of epithelial tissues. S is significantly weaker in Bergmann glia networks than those
established by velate astrocytes at the granular layer. In the present review we discuss mutations in ?-
Cx genes encoding Cx26, Cx30, Cx30.3 and Cx31 which lead to skin disease and deafness.
Group of similar cells common embryonic origin common function Histology study of tissues
Pathologist looks for tissue changes that indicate disease. 4 Basic Tissues (1). These are connections
that allow for the direct passage of molecules between two cells. Thus, the V M,SS serves as a
dynamic readout of the strength of syncytial coupling. These half channels join together, bridge the
extracellular space in the process, and form the entire channel that spans both cell membranes. To
address the electrical role of gap junctional coupling for astrocyte syncytium, a single electrode
method was developed in 2016 with details described in the following “Astrocyte Syncytial
Isopotentiality” section. Although there was a decline in the mean levels of Cx43 mRNA expressed
predominantly in astrocytes in the epileptic tissue, there was no significant change in the
corresponding protein levels. Altogether, these findings support the role of electric coupling through
GJs in VFOs and seizure synchronization. The authors point out that their findings do not rule out
the possibility of a change in the dynamic state (open vs closed) of the GJs playing a role in
epileptogenicity. Lee et al. used fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) to quantify GJ
coupling in tissue from patients who underwent temporal lobectomies for intractable epilepsy.
Significance of cell-adh es ion: Formation of multiple layers of cells. Muscle tissue 4. Nervous tissue.
Epithelial Tissue. Tissue composition Outline How are cells organized into tissues? I. Shortly
thereafter, three independent research groups proved that chemical synaptic transmission was not
necessary for the synchronization of neuronal activity in the CA1 region of the hippocampus.
Specifically, primary astrocytes were derived ex vivo from the hippocampus, hyperexcitable
parahippocampus, and the “normal” cortex. Similarly, tetanus toxin blocks the release of inhibitory
neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft, thereby causing generalized muscular spasms. Finally, the
kindling model of epilepsy involving repeated electrical stimulations is used to study the effects of
repeated seizures on the brain. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.
Simultaneously, tracers diffuse within the gap junction network. Therefore, the controls used in these
studies should be taken into account when considering human tissue data. Discuss the types and
functions of epithelial tissues. In the following section, we will first discuss the rationale, application,
advantage, and limitation of the commonly used paired recording model and the newly developed
syncytial isopotentiality measurement. Panels (A) and (B) modified from Zhong et al. (2016), and
Panels (C) and (D) modified from Ma et al. (2016). This is important in generating a clear visual
signal because the primary reaction, phototransduction, is a dirty process. These approaches are
capable to reveal cellular heterogeneity causing electrical isolation of functional circuits, reduced ion-
transfer between different cell types, and anisotropy of tracer coupling. The efficiency of the
junction is increased because each strand acts independently. Cell Junctions. -Intercellular bridges
located between the cells of animals -2 major types. The most convenient approach is to measure the
extent of tracer spreading in two directions orthogonal to each other (“YX ratio”). Both human
tissue studies and animal models of epilepsy have shown considerable changes in connexin
expression after seizure activity. Protein domain structure Dystrophin glycoprotein complex
Contraction unit Cytoskeletal linkages at sarcolemma Muscle proteins and disease Creatine kinase
and CKI In situ staining and Western blots. These approaches include paired recordings,
determination of syncytial isopotentiality, tracer coupling followed by analysis of network
topography, and wide field imaging of ion sensitive dyes. Electrophysiological studies have
implicated GJs in the generation of very fast oscillations that precede seizures. Biophysically, gap
junctional ionic movement occurs during the equalization of the potential differences in a syncytium,
therefore a strong syncytial isopotentiality means a less ionic movement inside a syncytium.
In contrast, Maier et al. (2002) showed that hippocampal slices from mice lacking Cx36 had less
frequent sharp waves and ripple oscillations. No changes in Cx37, connexin 40 (Cx40), or Cx47
mRNA were observed after KA treatment in rats. To unravel these particular differences suitable
approaches are necessary. Here, the gap junctions insure efficient propagation of contractile signals
so that the cardiac muscle can contract in synchrony. In addition, mefloquine, a specific Cx36
blocker, did not alter the seizure-like activity in the wild-type slices, indicating that the reduction in
amplitude seen in the knockout slices was likely due to preexisting compensatory changes rather
than due to the lack of the interneuron GJs. By extension, the gap junction coupled astrocytes should
then be able to balance their membrane potentials to comparable levels so that a syncytial
isopotentiality could be achieved. Thus, despite a striking difference in syncytial anatomy, the
syncytial isopotentiality occurs to syncytial networks established by both subtypes of astrocytes (
Kiyoshi et al., 2018 ). Over time, the V M reaches a stationary level of -73 mV. Gap junctions are
integral membrane proteins that connect the cytosol of neighboring cells. Introduction. Cell adhesion
to polymer surfaces has obvious implications in the field of tissue engineering. As a result, many
studies use tumor specimens as controls for epileptic tissue (and vice versa). These are connections
that allow for the direct passage of molecules between two cells. Reading Cooper: Chapter 14 Topics
The Extracellular Matrix Composition Cell-Matrix Interactions Cell-Cell Interactions. These
approaches are capable to reveal cellular heterogeneity causing electrical isolation of functional
circuits, reduced ion-transfer between different cell types, and anisotropy of tracer coupling.
American colonists in Texas had to adapt to a different culture and government in Mexican Texas.
Thus, independent of Cx isoforms, transjunctional voltage measurements stand out as an universal
readout of gap junctional coupling ( Veenstra et al., 1995; Veenstra, 1996 ). Though astrocytes
throughout the brain share similar properties, they exhibit a considerable amount of region-dependent
heterogeneity. Learning Outcomes 4-1 Identify the four major types of tissues in the body and
describe their roles. 4-2 Discuss the types and functions of epithelial tissue. Connexons in turn are
hexamers that are formed by connexins (Cx; Figure 1A ). Both KA, a neuroexcitatory amino acid,
and pilocarpine, a muscarinic receptor agonist, are commonly used to induce a model of temporal
lobe epilepsy (TLE) in rodents. Incubation with SR101 of slices from epileptic mice 9 mpi resulted in
astrocytic labeling in the contralateral CA1 region. Knockout and GJ inhibitors studies have
demonstrated potential anticonvulsant effects, although these results are mixed and suffer from lack
of specificity of many of the currently available GJ inhibitors. They found that Cx30 is the dominant
astrocytic connexin in the thalamus and functional channels formed by Cx30 and Cx32
predominantly mediate astrocyte to oligodendrocyte coupling in the thalamus. For example,
Kettenmann and Ransom used it to record cultured astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, confirming that
gap junctions were indeed the molecular identities for the functional coupling of these glial subtypes
( Kettenmann and Ransom, 1988; Ransom and Kettenmann, 1990 ). A summary of the various cell
junctions found in a vertebrate. Mutations in Cx genes are linked to a range of human disorders.
Increasing evidence for the role of GJs in seizure initiation, epileptogenesis, and tissue
synchronization has been presented in both human tissue studies and experimental models of
epilepsy. Anchoring junctions: attach cells (and their cytoskeleton) to other cells or extracellular
matrix (providing mechanical support) 3. A significant disadvantage to human tissue studies is the
lack of appropriate controls. From top to bottom, there are tight junctions (purple), adherens junctions
with f-actin (blue), desmosomes (orange) connected to intermediate filaments, and gap junctions
(blue).
Introduction. Tissue: Collection of specialized cells that perform limited number of functions
Histology: The study of tissues What are the four tissues of the body. Xylem - Chief conducting
tissue for water and minerals that are absorbed by the roots. What are: atoms nucleus p rotons
neutrons electrons energy levels a tomic number mass number molecule c ompound cation anion.
Panels (A) and (B) modified from Zhong et al. (2016), and Panels (C) and (D) modified from Ma et
al. (2016). Gap junctions. Gap junction coupling in the ovarian follicle. Findings implicating GJs in
epilepsy as well as differences in the roles of neuronal versus glial GJs in tissue excitability are
considered in this chapter. Gap junctions Regulation of connectivity When might a cell want to alter
its connections to other cells. Something that is made by virtually all multi-cellular organisms.
Elaborate covering outside animal cell membranes, occupying the space between cells. Metazoan
cells form organs with specialized tissues:. - Epithelial. Cells. - Muscle. Cx30 mRNA was
upregulated in the hypothalamus and in the medial amygdaloid nuclei by 6 hours. Both human tissue
studies and animal models of epilepsy have shown considerable changes in connexin expression after
seizure activity. Group of similar cells common embryonic origin common function Histology study
of tissues Pathologist looks for tissue changes that indicate disease. 4 Basic Tissues (1). They found
that Cx30 is the dominant astrocytic connexin in the thalamus and functional channels formed by
Cx30 and Cx32 predominantly mediate astrocyte to oligodendrocyte coupling in the thalamus.
Increasing evidence for the role of GJs in seizure initiation, epileptogenesis, and tissue
synchronization has been presented in both human tissue studies and experimental models of
epilepsy. A second disadvantage of human tissue studies is that they are often a representation of the
end-point of a disease. No changes in Cx37, connexin 40 (Cx40), or Cx47 mRNA were observed
after KA treatment in rats. Consequently, rather low CC values in the range from 1.6% to 5.1% were
reported from hippocampal astrocytes in situ ( Meme et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2010 ). Cells
(mesenchymal origin) - fibroblasts - smooth muscle cells - chondroblasts - osteoblasts and epitelial
cells. Graham Cromar and Dr. John Parkinson Program in Molecular Structure and Function Hospital
for Sick Children Toronto, ON, CANADA. More details about the biophysical principles and
assumptions used to build up this computational model are available in this publication ( Kiyoshi et
al., 2018 ). In addition, this model can be used for analysis of the dynamic change of coupling
strength, for instance, during neuronal activation ( Kiyoshi et al., 2018 ). In a subset of patients with
tumors associated with acute seizures, even higher levels of Cx43 mRNA were observed. Findings
implicating GJs in epilepsy as well as differences in the roles of neuronal versus glial GJs in tissue
excitability are considered in this chapter. Describe the relationship between form and function for
each tissue type. For instance, when heart cells need to beat in unison, gap junctions allow for the
transmission of electrical signals between the cells. There are also hemidesmosomes (orange) on the
basal surface attached to the basement membrane. Taken together, these data suggest preseizure
ripples are generated by electrical coupling of neurons and GJs are involved in the synchronization of
VFOs. Interestingly, no changes in Cx43 mRNA levels were found in epileptic tissue compared to
control. The efficiency of the junction is increased because each strand acts independently. The retina
is an excellent example with numerous gap junctions between neurons. Learning Outcomes 4-1
Identify the four major types of tissues in the body and describe their roles. 4-2 Discuss the types
and functions of epithelial tissue.