Social Science Reviewer

NOTES FOR NAT REVIEW
 A reference group is a group to which we compare ourselves. Reference groups, such as

college freshmen, serve as a standard to which we measure our behaviors and attitudes. We
use reference groups in order to guide our behavior and attitudes and help us to identify social
norms.
 Network, in social science, a group of interdependent actors and the relationships between
them.Networks vary widely in their nature and operation, depending on the particular actors
involved, their relationships, the level and scope at which they operate, and the wider context.
 Social group, any set of human beings who either are, recently have been, or anticipate
being in some kind of interrelation. The term group, or social group, has been used to
designate many kinds of aggregations of humans.
- “Primary group” refers to those personal relations that are direct, face-to-face,
relatively permanent, and intimate, such as the relations in a family, a group of close
friends, and the like.
- “Secondary group” refers to all other person-to-person relations but especially to
those groups or associations, such as work groups, in which the individual is related to
others through formal, often legalistic or contractual ties.
 Non-state institutions - this are groups and organizations which operate outside the support
of any state or government. They are referred to be ‘stateless’ since they are considered to be
independent of any state, although, they usually collaborate with the government in
implementing projects. Non-state institutions assume different functions and focus on a
specific objective. In general, they develop certain services needed by members of the society
for their progress.
 Human beings develop through social interaction. This development process acquired through
social interaction is called “socialization”.
- Socialization is a continuing process whereby an individual acquires a personal
identity(attitude, values and behavior) and learn the norms, values, behavior, and
social skills appropriate to his and her social position.
- It teaches as how to behave and act within our society.
 Social mobility, movement of individuals, families, or groups through a system of
social hierarchy or stratification.
- If such mobility involves a change in position, especially in occupation, but no
change in social class, it is called “horizontal mobility.” An example would be a
person who moves from a managerial position in one company to a similar position
in another.
- If, however, the move involves a change in social class, it is called “vertical
mobility” and involves either “upward mobility” or “downward mobility.” An industrial
worker who becomes a wealthy businessman moves upward in the class system; a
landed aristocrat who loses everything in a revolution moves downward in the
system.
- Upward mobility - this is when a person moves from a lower position in society to
a higher one. It can also include people occupying higher positions in the same
societal group. However, upward mobility, while seen as a good thing, can also
come at a cost for individuals.When a person moves upward, they often need to
leave behind familiar surroundings such as family and places. They may also need
to change their way of thinking and behavior. The individual will need to adapt to the
new environment as a result of their upward movement and adopt different behaviors
in the new society.
 Social stratification the process where a society determines a person's worth based on their
income and wealth, as well as other characteristics like gender,class and age, and distributes
social rewards accordingly.
 Social class refers to the category of persons based on their socio-economic privileges. It is
divided into three classes namely: the upper class, the middle class, and the lower class.
 Social inequality refers to differential access to and use of resources across various domains
(e.g., health, education, occupations) that result in disparities across gender, race/ethnicity,
class, and other important social markers.
 Race refers to the concept of dividing people into groups on the basis of various sets of
physical characteristics and the process of ascribing social meaning to those groups. Ethnicity
describes the culture of people in a given geographic region, including their language,
heritage, religion and customs.
 Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially
constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man,
girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other.
 Ethnicity - denotes groups that share a common identity-based ancestry, language or culture.
It is often based on religion, beliefs and customs as well as memories of migration or
colonization.
 Transnational migration is the movement of persons who are embedded in social fields
involving ties and relationships across the nation-states' borders. The connections extend
beyond the social to the economic and political.
 International migration – The movement of persons away from their place of usual residence
and across an international border to a country of which they are not nationals.
 Brain drain is a slang term that indicates a substantial emigration or migration of individuals.
A brain drain can result from turmoil within a nation, the existence of favorable professional
opportunities in other countries, or a desire to seek a higher standard of living.
 Transnational migration occurs when people move from one country to another while
maintaining their social ties.
- Trans-migrants are immigrants whose everyday lives are reliant on many and
continuous interconnections across international borders, and whose public identities
are shaped by multiple nation-states.
 Traditional authority is when a person receives their decision-making power through long-
standing customs, traditions, or lineage. Discover examples of this form of authority.
 An absolute authority is one whose commands its subjects have an obligation to obey
independently of all conditions save those necessary to its being an authority.
 Rational-legal authority - with this type of authority, an individual or ruling group exerts power
based on legal office. Once the person in power leaves their official position, their authority is
lost. Those who govern have a legal right to do so, and subordinates accept this legal
authority.
 Charismatic authority stems from an individual's extraordinary personal qualities and from
that individual's hold over followers because of these qualities. Such charismatic individuals
may exercise authority over a whole society or only a specific group within a larger society.
 Monogamy - is when you are married to, or in a sexual relationship with, one person at a
time.
 Endogamy- marriage within one's own tribe or group as required by custom or law.
 Exogamy- marriage to a person belonging to a tribe or group other than your own as required
by custom or law.
 Polygamy - refers to the practice of having more than one partner in union or sexual mate
- Polygyny - man has multiple female partners
- Polyandry - woman has multiple male partners
 Decentralization -refers to allocation of the power in organization or social structures from the
higher to the lower level
 Politics - refers to activities through which people make, preserve, and amend the general
rules under which they live.
- it involves the dynamics of conflict resolution and cooperation, as well as the
exercise of power.
 Power - it refers to the ability to do something in order to achieve a desired outcome
- a person with power has the capability control people or make them do something
that they would not do otherwise.
-social scientists emphasizes the notion that power involves a relationship i. e. there is
one who exercise power and another who is subject to it.
 Authority - it is a legitimate power.
- this means that the person who has authority has the right to exercise power.
- the exercise of authority means that the person who exercises power is obeyed by
the people because he or she is recognized as the rightful or legitimate ruler or
leader.
 Bands -only comprised of family members and leadership was less complicated and simple.
 Leadership - is not permanent because leadership was based on skills.

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NOTES FOR NAT REVIEW

 A reference group is a group to which we compare ourselves. Reference groups, such as

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