“Optimization of welding parameters to study the weld on

bead of AA6082 by using Cold Metal Transfer (CMT)

welding process”

A PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED IN THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE
OF

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

Submitted By

Harshit Bansal
(2K21/PRD/05)

Under the supervision of

Dr. N. Yuvraj
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Delhi Technological University, Delhi

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi-110042

June, 2023
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi-110042

DECLARATION

I, Harshit Bansal, 2K21/PRD/05 student of M.Tech (PRD), certify that the work which is

being presented in this thesis entitled “Optimization of welding parameters to study

the weld on bead of AA6082 by using Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) welding process”

in the partial fulfilment of requirement of requirement for the award of degree of Master

in Technology submitted in Department of Mechanical Engineering at Delhi

Technological University, is an authentic record of my own work carried out during a

period from August 2022 to May 2023, under the supervision of DR. N. YUVARAJ ,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi. The

matter presented in this thesis has not been submitted in any other University/Institute for

the award of any degree or diploma.

Place: Delhi Harshit Bansal

Date: June, 2023 (2K21/PRD/05)

ii
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi-110042

CERTIFICATE

I hereby certify that the thesis entitled “Optimization of welding parameters to study

the weld on bead of AA6082 by using Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) welding process”

submitted to the Delhi Technological University, Delhi, is fulfilment of the requirements

for the award of degree of Master of Technology in Mechanical Engineering embodies

the original research work carried out by Mr. Harshit Bansal, Enrollment No:

2K21/PRD/05 under my supervision. This work has not been submitted in part or full for

any other degree of this or any other University.

Place: Delhi Dr. N. Yuvraj

Date: SUPERVISOR

Assistant Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Delhi Technological University
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi-110042

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am greatly indebted to my supervisor Dr. N. Yuvraj Department of Mechanical

Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, for his invaluable guidance, constant

inspiration, numerous suggestions and continued support throughout this research work.

I am profoundly grateful to him with reverence for helping me with necessary information

and equipment & materials as well.

I would also thank with much appreciation the people whose help and support were a

great asset; the technical staff at DTU, namely, Mr. Girish Anand, Mr. Lalan Kumar

Sinha, who provided great help for conducting the experiments and material

characterization; Mr. Tek Chand for his help in revealing the microstructures and Mr. Om

Prakash for his help in microhardness testing.

Finally, I dedicate my work to my Parents. My sincere thanks to my father Mr. Jaiprakash

Bansal and my mother Mrs. Rekha Devi for their support and blessings that greatly helped

me carrying out this research work.

HARSHIT BANSAL

2K21/PRD/05

iv
 ABSTRACT

Aluminium alloys are extensively employed in industries such as construction,

automobile manufacturing, and spacecraft production owing to their remarkable

attributes, including outstanding corrosion resistance, a high strength-to-weight ratio,

excellent machinability, and ductility. The cold metal transfer technique shows potential

as a welding method for constructing aluminium structures. This research work focuses

on a comparison of influence of activated flux on microstructure and characteristics of

weld bead geometry of Al-Mg-Si alloy AA6082 manufactured by cold metal transfer

(CMT) process. ER4043 was used as a filler wire to make weld on bead on 3 mm thick

AA6082 plates. Various input process parameters i.e., current (80, 100 and 110 A) and

welding speed (30, 40, 50 cm/min) were used, whereas the nozzle tip distance andshielding

gas flow rate remained fixed at 10 mm and 15 l/min, respectively. Optical microscopyis

used to study the microstructural characteristics. The samples created with activated flux

have a high level of penetration and percentage dilution. Also, there is an increase in

micro-hardness of samples which are fabricated using activated flux.

Keywords: CMT, AA6082, ER4043, weld bead geometry, activated flux, dilution,

microstructure, micro-hardness, and heat input.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION……………………………………………………..…...…………….ii
CERTIFICATE……………………………………………………..…………...……...iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………..……………......…iv
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………..……….……..…….v
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………….…..…………………...vi
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………..………………......viii
LIST OF TABLES…………………………….………………..……………………......x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………….…………..……………………........xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................1
1.2. APPLICATION OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY...............................................................1
1.3. TYPES OF ALUMINIUM.............................................................................................2
1.4. WROUGHT ALUMINIUM GRADES.........................................................................3
1.5. WELDING OF ALUMINIUM......................................................................................4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................8
2.2. LITERATURE SUMMARY......................................................................................15
2.3. RESEARCH GAPS.....................................................................................................15
2.4. OBJECTIVE OF WORK...........................................................................................15

CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. MATERIAL SELECTION..........................................................................................16
3.1.1 AA6082.................................................................................................................16
3.1.2 ER4043..................................................................................................................17
3.2 COMPOSITION.........................................................................................................17
3.3 APPLICATIONS OF AA6082....................................................................................17
3.4 SAMPLE SIZE............................................................................................................17
3.5 DEVELOPMENT OF CMT WELDING SYSTEM.................................................17
3.5.1 Selection of Process Parameters............................................................................18
3.5.2 Design of Experiments...........................................................................................18
3.5.3 Taguchi orthogonal array design............................................................................18
3.6 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP........................................................................................19

vi
 3.7 ACTIVATED FLUX...................................................................................................22
3.8 CHARACTERIZATION OF WELD BEAD............................................................24
3.8.1 Optical microscopic analysis.................................................................................24
3.8.2 Penetration.............................................................................................................27
3.8.3 Microhardness.......................................................................................................27

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................30
4.2. OPTIMIZATION OF PROCESS PARAMETERS.................................................31
4.2.1. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)............................................................................32
4.2.2. Optimization of weld beads formed without using flux.........................................34
4.2.3. Optimization of weld beads formed using flux......................................................37
4.3. MACROSTRUCTURE OF WELD BEADS..............................................................40
4.3.1. Consequences of welding parameters on bead dimension......................................41
4.3.2. Consequences of active flux on bead dimension....................................................42
4.4. MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS.........................................................................43
4.5. EFFECTS BY PROCESS PARAMETERS...............................................................47
4.5.1. Effect on Dilution and Heat Input..........................................................................48
4.5.2. Effect on Penetration.............................................................................................49
4.5.3. Effect on Micro-hardness.......................................................................................51

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK

5.1. CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................................................54
5.2. SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK.................................................................................55

REFERENCES

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of TIG welding..................................................................5

Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of MIG welding.................................................................5
Figure 1.3 Schematic diagram of Gas welding..................................................................6
Figure 1.4 Schematic diagram of LBW.............................................................................6
Figure 1.5 Schematic diagram of FSW..............................................................................7

Figure 3.1 Experimental setup of CMT machine.............................................................20

Figure 3.2 Schematic diagram of a fixture holding AA6082 plate...................................22
Figure 3.3 Method of applying flux.................................................................................23
Figure 3.4 Marangoni and Reverse Marangoni effect......................................................24
Figure 3.5 Polishing of sample by emery paper...............................................................25
Figure 3.6 Olympus PS2 optical microscope...................................................................25
Figure 3.7 Samples after polishing..................................................................................25
Figure 3.8 Vickers hardness testing machine indenter.....................................................27
Figure 3.9 DRAMIN-40 STRUERS hardness testing machine.......................................28
Figure 3.10 Microhardness indentation on aluminium sample........................................28

Figure 4.1 Weld Bead Geometry.....................................................................................31

Figure 4.2 Plot between S/N ratio and current, weld speed of WFB for dilution..............34
Figure 4.3 Plot between S/N ratio and current, weld speed of WFB for microhardness...35
Figure 4.4 Plot between S/N ratio and current, weld speed of FB for dilution.................37
Figure 4.5 Plot between S/N ratio and current, weld speed of FB for microhardness.......38
Figure 4.6 Macro-images of weld beads..........................................................................40
Figure 4.7 Macro-images of weld beads fabricated using flux........................................41
Figure 4.8 Variation in bead geometry for variable welding speeds at constant current of
100A................................................................................................................................42
Figure 4.9 Variation in bead geometry for variable current at constant welding speed of
50cm/min.........................................................................................................................42
Figure 4.10 Effect of flux on weld bead geometry at constant current and weld speed....42

viii
Figure 4.11 (a) WFB at 90A. Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM,(c) FZ,(d) WZ..44
Figure 4.12 (a)WFB at 100A.Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM,(c) FZ,(d) WZ..44
Figure 4.13 (a)WFB at 110A.Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM,(c) FZ,(d) WZ..45
Figure 4.14 (a)FB at 90A.Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM, (c) FZ,(d) WZ......46
Figure 4.15 (a)FB at 100A.Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM,(c) FZ,(d) WZ.....46
Figure 4.16 (a)FB at 110A.Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM, (c) FZ (d) WZ.....47
Figure 4.17 Heat input vs welding speed curve...............................................................48
Figure 4.18 Comparison of percentage dilution between weld beads formed without and
with flux...........................................................................................................................49
Figure 4.19 Percentage Dilution vs Heat input between weld beads formed without and
with flux...........................................................................................................................49
Figure 4.20 Comparison of penetration between weld beads formed without and with
flux...................................................................................................................................50
Figure 4.21 Penetration vs Heat input between weld beads formed without and with
flux...................................................................................................................................50
Figure 4.22 Comparison of penetration between weld beads formed without and with
flux...................................................................................................................................52
Figure 4.23 Hardness testing at various points taken in horizontal direction...................52
Figure 4.24 Hardness testing at various points taken in vertical direction.......................52
Figure 4.25 Weld bead hardness distribution in horizontal direction...............................53
Figure 4.26 Weld bead hardness distribution in vertical direction...................................53

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Summary of literature review studied by various researchers............................8

Table 3.1 Base plate and filler metal chemical composition............................................16

Table 3.2 Steps involved in Taguchi design.....................................................................19
Table 3.3 CMT process variables and their levels............................................................19
Table 3.4 Design Matrix..................................................................................................21
Table 3.5 Specifications of CMT machine......................................................................21
Table 3.6 Specifications of Optical Microscope..............................................................26
Table 3.7 Specifications of Microhardness Testing Machine..........................................29

Table 4.1 L9 orthogonal array for the specimens formed without flux.............................33
Table 4.2 L9 orthogonal array for the specimens formed with flux..................................33
Table 4.3 Response table of S/N ratio of WFB for Dilution.............................................35
Table 4.4 ANOVA table of WFB for Dilution.................................................................35
Table 4.5 Model summary of WFB for transformed response.........................................35
Table 4.6 Response table of S/N ratio of WFB for Microhardness...................................36
Table 4.7 ANOVA table of WFB for Microhardness.......................................................36
Table 4.8 Model summary of WFB for Transformed Response......................................36
Table 4.9 Response table of S/N ratio of FB for Dilution.................................................38
Table 4.10 ANOVA table of FB for Dilution...................................................................38
Table 4.11 Model summary of FB for Transformed Response........................................38
Table 4.12 Response table of S/N ratio of FB for Microhardness....................................39
Table 4.13 ANOVA table of FB for Microhardness........................................................39
Table 4.14 Model Summary of FB for Transformed Response........................................39

x
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AA Aluminium Association

Al Aluminium
ANOVA Analysis of variance

ASTM American Society for Testing Materials

BM Base Metal

CMT Cold Metal Transfer

CTWD Contact Tip to Workpiece Distance

DOE Design of Experiments

DOP Depth of Penetration

EDM Electric Discharge Machining

FB Flux Bead

FL Fusion Line

FZ Fusion Zone

GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding

GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

HAZ Heat Affected Zone

MMC Metal Matrix Composite

RSM Response Surface Methodology

THI Thermal Heat Input

TIG Tungsten Inert Gas

WFB With Flux Bead

WFS Wire Feed Speed

WM Weld Zone / Weld Metal

xi
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Fusion welding has been acknowledged as a crucial enabling technique to improve the
innovative and sustainable production among the many manufacturing technologies [1].
Aluminum alloys are investigated to produce a cost-effective, weight-optimized body that
offers excellent strength and stiffness in contemporary industrial applications including
vehicle manufacture, aeroplane construction, and shipbuilding. Even though aluminium
is a great material in its pure form, it could not be strong enough for applications requiring
high durability. It can therefore be combined with other elements to create alloys that are
significantly stronger and more appropriate for industrial usage [2]. An "alloy" is a
mixture of various metallic elements that is frequently produced to increase the strength
and endurance of the material. Depending on the use, pure aluminium is frequently mixed
with other elements such as silicon, manganese, tin, copper, and magnesium to create
aluminium alloys. With the correct combination, aluminium can probably get stronger
and, in some circumstances, even surpass steel [3-5]. Alloys are less expensive while
providing benefits comparable to those of pure aluminium.
1.2. APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY
Aluminium alloy is a type of metal that contains aluminium as its primary component,
along with one or more additional elements, such as copper, zinc, magnesium, or silicon.
This alloy has become increasingly popular due to its lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and
strong properties, making it a useful material in various applications [6]. Here are some
detailed applications of aluminium alloy:
1. Transportation: Aluminium alloy is widely used in the transportation industry
due to its lightweight and strength. It is commonly used in the manufacture of
aircraft, cars, trains, and bicycles. The use of aluminium alloy in transportation
vehicles helps to increase fuel efficiency and reduce carbon emissions.
2. Construction: Aluminium alloy is used in the construction industry due to its
corrosion-resistant properties and strength. It is used to make windows, doors,

1
 roofing, and cladding. Aluminium alloys are also used in the manufacture of
scaffolding, ladders, and other construction equipment.
3. Packaging: Aluminium alloy is used in the packaging industry because it is
lightweight, durable, and can be easily formed into different shapes. It is
commonly used to make beverage cans, food packaging, and cosmetic containers.
4. Electrical and electronic equipment: Aluminium alloy is used in the
manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment due to its good conductivity,
heat dissipation, and strength. It is used in the production of heat sinks, computer
casings, and mobile phone casings.
5. Sports equipment: Aluminium alloy is used in the manufacture of sports
equipment due to its lightweight and strength. It is used to make bicycle frames,
baseball bats, golf clubs, and tennis rackets.
6. Marine industry: Aluminium alloy is used in the marine industry due to its
corrosion-resistant properties. It is used to make boat hulls, masts, and fittings.
7. Medical equipment: Aluminium alloy is used in the medical industry due to its
non-toxicity, non-magnetic, and corrosion-resistant properties. It is used to make
medical instruments, such as surgical instruments, implants, and prosthetics.

In conclusion, aluminium alloy is a versatile material that has a wide range of applications
due to its lightweight, strength, corrosion-resistant, and other useful properties. Its use
has enabled the production of more efficient, durable, and cost-effective products in
various industries.
1.3. TYPES OF ALUMINIUM

Cast aluminium alloys and wrought aluminium alloys are the two main divisions of
aluminium alloys. Compared to wrought aluminium alloys, which have fewer than 4%
alloying elements, cast aluminium alloys have more than 22%. Mechanical properties are
significantly impacted by the ratio of alloying elements. When more alloying elements
are introduced, Aluminium lacks its ductility, rendering most cast alloys vulnerable to
brittle fracture. By keeping ductility and other desirable features, wrought alloys have
allowed researchers to increase the strength, resistance to corrosion, conductivity, and
other attributes of aluminium. The preponderance of aluminium items, such as those
created by extrusion or rolling, are composed of wrought aluminium [7]. Various types
of wrought aluminum alloys can be classified based on the presence of certain elements

2
such as copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium, combinations of magnesium and silicon,
zinc, and lithium.
1.4. WROUGHT ALUMINIUM GRADES

Wrought aluminum alloys are those that are shaped by rolling, forging, or extruding in
their solid form. There are many different grades of wrought aluminium alloys, each with
its own unique set of properties and applications [8]. Here are some of the most common
wrought aluminium grades:

• 1000 series: This series is pure aluminium and has excellent corrosion resistance,
electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivity. It is often used in chemical
processing equipment, reflectors, and electrical conductors.
• 2000 series: This series contains copper as the main alloying element and has
good strength and fatigue resistance. It is used in aircraft and aerospace
applications, as well as in military and defence equipment.
• 3000 series: This series contains manganese as the main alloying element and has
good formability, corrosion resistance, and weldability. It is used in heat
exchangers, cooking utensils, and pressure vessels.
• 4000 series: The 4A01 series of aluminum plates, which fall under the 4000
series, are characterized by their high silicon content. These plates are commonly
used as building materials, forging materials for mechanical parts, and welding
materials. With a silicon content typically ranging between 4.5% and 6.0%, they
exhibit a low melting point, excellent corrosion resistance, as well as heat and
wear resistance.
• 5000 series: This series contains magnesium as the main alloying element and
has good strength, formability, and corrosion resistance. It is used in marine and
automotive applications, as well as in structural components.
• 6000 series: The primary alloying elements in this series are magnesium and
silicon, leading to advantageous properties such as strength, weldability, and
resistance to corrosion. It is used in architectural and structural applications, as
well as in the production of consumer goods.
• 7000 series: This series contains zinc as the main alloying element and has the
highest strength of all the wrought aluminium grades. It is used in aircraft and
aerospace applications, as well as in sports equipment.

3
 • 8000 series: Comprising a diverse range of alloying elements, these alloys serve
various purposes such as achieving high-temperature performance, reduced
densities, enhanced stiffness, and other unique characteristics. Primarily utilized
in helicopter parts and other space applications, these alloys offer exceptional
properties to meet the specific requirements of these industries.
In conclusion, wrought aluminium alloys offer a wide range of properties and applications
due to their different compositions. The selection of the appropriate grade of aluminium
alloy depends on the specific requirements of the application, such as strength, corrosion
resistance, and formability.
1.5. WELDING OF ALUMINIUM
When combining comparable or dissimilar materials, welding creates a localized,
permanent bond with or without the use of heat, pressure, or just pressure. The process
can be performed with or without the utilization of filler material. Compared to welding
steel or iron, welding aluminium is different [9]. Users may anticipate a number of
challenges due to the unusual composition of aluminium, including hot cracking,
porosity, and thermal conductivity. There are several ways to weld aluminium, including:
1. Tungsten inert gas welding
2. Metal inert gas welding
3. Gas welding
4. Laser welding
5. Friction stir welding
• Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding:
TIG welding is commonly used in industries that require high-quality, precise welds,
such as aerospace, automotive, and medical equipment manufacturing. This is a
popular method of welding aluminium, in which an electrode heats the metal to create
a weld. The welding process is precise and clean, producing a high-quality weld with
minimal distortion.

4
 Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of TIG welding [10]
• Metal inert gas (MIG) welding:
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding, also known as Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), is
a welding method that utilizes a wire electrode and shielding gas to join two metal
components through fusion. In this process, a continuous wire electrode is fed
through a welding gun, simultaneously delivering the shielding gas to safeguard the
weld pool against atmospheric impurities. By generating an electric arc between the
wire and the workpiece, the metal is heated, melted, and subsequently solidifies to
create a robust bond. Notably faster than TIG welding, MIG welding enables the
production of sturdy welds with minimal exertion.

Figure 1.2: Schematic diagram of MIG welding [10]

• Gas welding:
Gas welding is a welding technique in which the joining of two metal parts is achieved
by utilizing a flame generated through the combustion of fuel gas and oxygen. The
process involves heating the metal parts to a temperature high enough to melt and
fuse them together. Gas welding can be performed using several types of fuel gases,
including acetylene, propane, and natural gas, and requires a welding torch equipped
with a tip that mixes the fuel gas and oxygen. This method uses a flame to heat the

5
metal and then a filler rod is added to create a weld. Gas welding is a versatile method
of welding and can be used on a wide range of aluminium thicknesses.

Figure 1.3: Schematic diagram of gas welding [10]

• Laser welding:
Laser welding is a welding method that employs a high-intensity laser beam to
effectively combine two metal parts. By generating a concentrated heat source, the
laser beam melts and joins the metal parts together through fusion. Laser welding
finds widespread application in industries that demand exceptional precision and
accuracy, including aerospace, medical equipment manufacturing, and electronics
sectors. It is also used in automotive manufacturing and jewelry making. Laser
welding is a precise method of welding, which produces a high-quality weld with
minimal distortion.

Figure 1.4: Schematic diagram of LBW [11]

• Friction-stir welding:
This method uses a rotating tool to create friction and heat, which softens the metal
and creates a weld. Friction stir welding is a relatively new method of welding, but it

6
is increasingly being used to weld aluminium due to its advantages such as producing
high-quality welds with minimal distortion.

Figure 1.5: Schematic diagram of FSW [12]

Every one of these methods possesses distinct advantages and disadvantages, and the
selection of the appropriate method will hinge upon the specific requirements of the
project.
• Cold Metal Transfer (CMT):
The fundamental feature of this method is an extremely steady arc with very little heat
input. The MT welding method allows users to attain optimal settings while
combining various materials, during welding when a short circuit is detected, the
digital process control detaches the droplet by retracting the wire, as soon as a short
circuit develops, the wire travels forward and is pulled back. As a consequence, during
the arc-burning phase, the arc only generates heat for a relatively brief time. The arc
length is detected and calibrated mechanically. In this process, no matter how rapidly
the operator welds or how rough the work piece's surface is, the arc remains stable.
The above discussion leads to the conclusion that CMT is highly useful for welding
everywhere.

7
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. INTRODUCTION
Aluminum alloys play a crucial role in various industries due to their desirable properties,
including lightweight, corrosion resistance, and high strength-to-weight ratio. It is widely
utilized in the automotive, aerospace, and marine industries. To enhance the weldability
and mechanical properties of aluminum alloys, filler materials and activated flux are
commonly employed during the welding process.
This section provides an overview of the relevant literature pertaining to dissimilar
materials joints, encompassing joints between different alloys or metals, diverse joint
types such as lap and butt joints, and varying thicknesses of joints where different sheet
thicknesses are welded together. It also includes the use of activated fluxes with different
joining methods. The literature review focuses on research papers published within the
past 15 years to ensure an up-to-date understanding of the advancements in welding using
different joining techniques. By thoroughly examining the literature, this review aims to
identify any existing research gaps and establish the objectives of the current work.

Table 2.1: Summary of literature review studied by various researchers

Author Process Material & Activating Process Results
Filler wire Flux Parameters
Kun Liu et. CMT 5A06 Al plate SiC Shielding gas - 1. Without flux
al. 2022 Argon (99.99%) • UTS= 260 MPa
[13] Al ER5087 (Al- Gas flow- • YS= 110 MPa
Mg4.5) wire of 18L/min 2. With flux
diameter 1.2 mm Travel speed- • UTS= 325 MPa
0.5m/min • YS= 135 MPa
Wire feed- 3. Tensile strength of
6.5m/min MMC increased by
increasing SiC content.
4. Ductility decreases as
we increase SiC content.

8
Huaqing Lai CMT 5052 Al alloy and Plumbum Shielding gas – • Without - 120 MPa
et.al. 2014 Galvanized Q235 (Pb) foil Pure Argon • With – 167 MPa
[14] steel sheet Gas flow – Flux improves the
ER4043 filler 15L/min wettability of molten
wire Welding speed – metal.
600 mm/min
Wire feed –
3.6-4.3 m/min
Y. Ruan et.al. Twin- 6082-T6 Al alloy SiO2 Voltage (V) • Using the flux, there is
2012 wire plate of thickness Former wire – slight increase in the
[15] MIG 6mm 19-21 width of the HAZ.
ER5087 filler Rear wire –20-22 Also, there is an increment
wire Current (A) in depth of penetration of
Former wire – about 26% and the main
210-220 A reason for this increase is
Rear wire – 150- arc constriction and higher
160 A arc temperature.
Weld speed – 120
cm/min
Yiming Laser 5083 Aluminium Cr2O3 Laser power – 1.5 • Full penetration at laser
Huang, et.al. welding alloy of size kW power of 1.5 kW.
2022 100*50*2 mm3 Weld speed – 3-6 In active laser welding, the
[16] ER5356 wire of mm/s maximum tensile strength
dia 1.2 mm Wire Feed – 0-4 of 255 MPa was recorded
mm/s while in active laser wire
Gas flow – 15 filling welding, the max
L/min tensile strength of 275
MPa was recorded.
K.R. Madavi MIG SS316 plate of 5 ZnO Voltage – 20- • With the use of
et.al. mm thickness Al2O3 28V activating flux, 20.62%
2021 SiO2 Current – 170- higher penetration is
[17] 210 obtained.
Shielding Gas – • For flux welding, there
Ar + CO2 is 10.8% increase in
Weld speed – 140 UTS and about 15%
mm/min increase in productivity

9
 Gas Flow – which reduces the
12L/min welding time
Abhishek MIG SS-202 plate of Ammonium Voltage – 220 V • Maximum depth of
Chakraborty 6.15 mm Ferro- Current – 100 A penetration achieved is
et.al. thickness Sulphate, Load – 20 kgf 2.81 mm which is 66%
2021 Sodium Bi- more than that in without
[18] Carbonate, flux.
Ammonium
Carbonate
Anand MIG AISI 1018 plate Al2(SO4)3, Voltage – 210 V • With the use of Borax
Baghel et.al. of 6 mm NaOH, Feed rate – 3.5 flux, there is an increase
2021 Na2CO3, mm/sec of DOP of about 43%.
[19] NaHCO3, Weld speed – 10 • And the aspect ratio
Borax mm/sec (width/depth) is also
Gas flow – 5 getting reduced in fusion
L/min zone.

Her-Yueh MIG AISI 1020 carbon Fe2O3 Voltage – 20.2- • Taguchi method is used
Huang steel of thickness SiO2 23.3 V to find process
2010 5 mm. MgCO3 Current – 180- parameters and L9
[20] Carbon steel wire 220 A orthogonal array is used.
(ER70S-6) of Speed – 346-454 • The use of these fluxes
diameter 1.6 mm. mm/min increases the DOP and
Joint gap – 0-2 enhances the mechanical
mm properties and hardness.
Shielding gas – • In case of MgCO3 flux,
Argon there is maximum tensile
Flow – 15 L/min strength of joint which is
about 24% more than that
of without flux.
D.K. Dwivedi A-TIG 409 Ferritic SiO2 for A- Current – 230 & • With the use of A-TIG
et.al. 2017 M-Tig Stainless Steel of TIG 125 A process, there was an
[21] thickness 8 mm SUPERTIG Speed – 80 increase in joint
ER309L for mm/min penetration and the
M-TIG Voltage – 15 & mechanical properties
12.7 V were also enhanced and

10
 Shielding gas – more than that of M-TIG
Argon with 10 process.
L/min • The toughness in A-TIG
process is low in FZ but
they were improved
using post weld heat
treatment.
Anand TIG SS202 and SS304 CaCl2 Current – 80 A • Oxide flux increases the
Baghel et. al. plates of Fe2O3 Feed rate – 3.5 depth of penetration but
2021 thickness 3 mm. mm/sec the chloride flux
[22] Weld speed – 10 decreases it.
mm/sec • The hardness of fine
Gas flow – 5 grain HAZ is more than
l/min that of coarse grain HAZ.
Her-Yueh GTAW Austenitic MnO2 and Current – 125 A • There was increase in
Huang et.al. stainless steel ZnO in the Speed – 75 DOP and weld area as we
[23] (SS304) 5mm ratio mm/min add more N2 in shielding
thick (80:20) Arc length –3mm gas.
Gas – (Ar+N2) • It also enhanced the
(N2- 2.5-10 vol% tensile properties and
Flow - 20µL/min hardness and reduced the
angular distortion of
welded joint.
A. Kulkarni A-TIG 316 SS and P91 Multi- Current – 230 A • The welded joint was free
et.al. 2017 (9Cr1Mo) component Voltage – 14-16 from defects like crack,
[24] martensitic steel flux Speed - 80±2 porosity, lack of
plates of 8 mm TiO2 (35%) mm/min penetration, etc.
thickness SiO2 (40%) Arc length –3mm • There was increase in
NiO (15%) Shielding Gas – hardness from 316L to
CuO (10%) pure Argon P91 side and maximum
Flow- 10 L/min hardness observed in P91
steel.
• But the tensile test results
are not good. UTS was
lower than that of parent
metals.

11
R. Mohanraj Flux SS304 and SS316 Al2O3 Current – 120- • More hardness was
et.al. 2020 assisted L of dimension CuO 150 A recorded in case of Al2O3
[25] GTAW 300x150x6 mm Voltage –16-18V flux assisted welding.
Gas – Ar(18 l/m) • Presence of Al2O3 flux
Travel speed – produces closely packed
3.5 mm/min structure in weld region.
• Also, the specimen
formed using Al2O3 flux
had more strength than
that used CuO flux.
•
R. S. TIG Mild steel plate SiO2 Current – 220 A • The maximum depth of
Vidyarthy of thickness 8 TiO2 Speed – 80 penetration occurred is
et.al. 2020 mm CuO mm/min 5.5 mm with the use of
[26] MoO3 Arc length –3mm SiO2.
Cr2O3 • There was significant
increase in hardness also.
In FZ, hardness is 215
HV which is more than
1.5 times that of base
material. In HAZ, the
hardness achieved is
about 173 HV which is
also more than hardness
of base material.
M.Vasudevan TIG 1.BOP on 9 mm Cr2O3, TiO2, Current – 100 A • There were no such
et.al. thick 304 & 316 SiO2, Fe2O3 Voltage –13-14V differences in
2017 SS plates. NaF, CaF2 Required microstructure of weld
[27] 2.Sq-butt joint on And multi quantity of flux produced with and with
- 10 mm thick component for welding was flux.
304 SS plate flux 200 mg/m. • The aspect ratio (D/W) is
- 12 mm thick less in case of single
316 SS plate component flux, that’s
Using multi why multi component
component flux flux is used.
in single pass

12
 • There was also increase
in toughness with the use
of activated flux.
Darko Bajic PAW 6 mm thick 316L BC31- Current – 158 A • The tensile strength
et.al. 2018 SS solder Voltage – 28.6V enhances by using
[28] Speed – 16 activating flux.
cm/min • Also, the elongation of
the base metal is more
than the welded joint.
Z. D. Zhang MIG AZ61 KCl, Shielding gas- Ar • With KCl flux, the
And Q. J. Cao magnesium alloy TiO2, Voltage – 23 V welding current is more
2012 plate of 6 mm CaCl2 Weld speed – 0.6 than the average current,
[29] thickness, m/min and there is reduced
Feed rate – 9 droplet size and metal
AZ61 m/min transfer period which
magnesium alloy Gas flow – 17 leads to less spatter.
wire of 1.6 mm L/min •
dia as filler wire
k. TIG 5 mm thick plate SiO2 Voltage – 9-12 V • The DOP increases as we
Devendranath of Inconel 718 TiO2 Current – 140A increase the welding
Ramkumar Electrode dia – current and both the
et.al. 2015 3.2 mm fluxes resulted in full
[30] Gas – Argon penetration while
Flow – 19 lpm employing 140A current.
Weld Speed – • The UTS increases in
110 mm/min TiO2 flux joint but
decreases in SiO2 flux
assisted joint as
compared to base metal.
• There was also increase
in hardness for both flux
assisted weldments.
Dixit Patel FATIG Hastelloy C-22 SiO2 Current - 200A • Penetration enhancement
et.al. 2022 plate of thickness Al2O3 Arc length– 3mm was due to variations in
[31] 6 mm Fe2O3 Welding speed – peak temperature and arc
CuO 170 mm/min voltage.

13
 mix with Shielding gas - • Acidic flux produces
acetone Argon (15 l/min) smoother weld surface
and gave more DOP and
D/W ratio.
• SiO2 reduces weld bead
width up to 25%.
Ashish kumar Laser Pure Titanium MgF2 Laser power – • With the use of active
Nath et.al. beam rectangular strip 2.15 kW flux, there were
2021 welding of 2 mm Speed – 4 m/min improvements in tensile
[32] thickness Gas – Argon strength and ductility.
Flow – 10 L/min • Also, the peak
temperature recorded
was high and colling rate
was slower in case of
welding with active flux.
N. Rakesh, TIG • Reverse Marangoni
et.al. 2023 convection was
[33] responsible for the
improvement in
penetration.
• Effective fluxes mainly
oxides, chlorides and
fluorides were effective
during A-TIG process.
• Flux coated filler wire
shows better penetration
results.
Jay J. Vora, Arc and • Oxide fluxes were
et.al. 2021 Beam effective for both
[34] welding welding.
• Use of flux increase
penetration but reduces
weld width.
• More scope of flux use is
there in MIG, PAW, and
EBW.

14
2.1. LITERATURE SUMMARY
The discussion encompasses an array of welding processes, their corresponding process
parameters, combinations of welding materials, as well as the mechanical and
microstructural analyses conducted by different researchers on welded joints. The
concluding points drawn from the literature review are:
➢ The Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) process highlights the notable importance of the
retractive movement of the filler wire during the short-circuit phase. This
movement effectively minimizes spatter formation, thereby eliminating the need
for post-weld machining and facilitating the production of welds with superior
quality.
➢ The optimal process parameters mainly depend on material, filler wire metal, type
of activated flux, and other surrounding conditions.
➢ By augmenting the wire feed rate and reducing the welding speed, it is possible to
achieve a higher heat input, resulting in a weld bead characterized by enhanced
penetration.
➢ The use of activated flux not only increases the depth of penetration but also
enhances the mechanical properties.
2.2. RESEARCH GAPS
On the basis of literature review the following research gap have been identified:
➢ The investigation into the joining of thin aluminium alloy sheets is considerably
limited, necessitating further exploration in this field.
➢ Limited research work is carried out in CMT process using activated flux
➢ Idea to improve wettability in molten pool by employing different active fluxes has
not been studied much.
➢ Use of different activated fluxes and its effect with varying welding parameters is
also found to be missing.
2.3. OBJECTIVE OF WORK
➢ Fabrication of weld bead samples of AA6082 with and without flux using Cold
Metal Transfer Process.
➢ Optimization of process parameters to study the weld on bead of AA6082 by using
Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) welding process.
➢ To study the effect of activated flux on weld bead geometry, microstructure and
mechanical properties.

15
 CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL WORK AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 MATERIAL SELECTION

3.1.1 Aluminium AA6082
AA6082 is widely recognized as a Structural alloy and boasts the highest strength of all
the 6000 series aluminium alloys. Its composition primarily consists of silicon and
manganese. Not only is it renowned for its exceptional machining capabilities, but it also
exhibits remarkable properties such as weldability, cold machinability, and corrosion
resistance. The high manganese content enables it to control its grain structure, resulting
in a stronger alloy that is particularly useful for applications demanding additional
strength and toughness.
3.1.2 ER4043
ER4043 is a type of aluminium welding wire that is commonly used in the Gas Tungsten
Arc Welding (GTAW) and Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) processes. It is a silicon-
based wire that is typically used for welding aluminium alloys containing silicon, such as
6XXX series alloys. ER4043 is known for its excellent welding characteristics, including
its ease of use, low spatter, and good fluidity. It is also well-suited for welding thin gauge
materials and has good colour match with the base material. Additionally, ER4043 is a
versatile wire that can be used for both welding and brazing applications.

3.2 COMPOSITION
Chemical composition of filler materials (wt.%) and substrate materials in accordance
with ASTM E 1251:2011 as shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Base plate and filler metal chemical composition (wt%)
Composition Si Fe Zn Cu Ti Mg Mn Cr Al
AA6082 0.8 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.5 0.25 Bal

ER4043 5.6 0.8 0.10 0.3 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.05 Bal

16
3.3 APPLICATIONS OF AA6082
AA6082 aluminium alloy is commonly used in various applications that require a high
strength-to-weight ratio, good machinability, and resistance to corrosion [35]. Some of
the typical applications of AA6082 include:

1. Structural components in the aerospace industry, such as aircraft wings and

fuselage.

2. Automotive industry, such as body panels, wheels, and chassis components.

3. Marine industry, such as boat hulls, masts, and fittings.

4. Construction industry, such as scaffolding, ladders, and bridges.

5. Sports equipment, such as bicycle frames and components, and tennis racquets.

6. Electrical components, such as electrical enclosures and conductors.

7. Packaging industry, such as cans and containers for food and beverage products.

8. Medical equipment, such as surgical instruments and equipment due to its non-
toxic and non-magnetic properties.

Overall, AA6082 is a versatile alloy that can be used in a wide range of applications where
high strength, durability, and corrosion resistance are required.

3.4 SAMPLE SIZE

The aluminium alloy AA6082 plate of specification 100 mm X 60 mm X 3 mm is used
and the filler wire diameter is 1.2 mm. As per the study conducted by researchers it has
been concluded that welding of Aluminium alloys depends upon various parameters like
welding current, heat input, shielding gas, voltage, filler material and welding speed.

3.5 DEVELOPMENT OF CMT WELDING SYSTEM

The development of CMT (Cold Metal Transfer) welding system involves the use of a
welding technique that combines high welding speeds and low heat input to achieve
precise and consistent welds. The CMT process involves feeding a consumable electrode
wire into a weld pool at a low current level, which creates a short circuit. The current is
then increased, causing the wire to detach and create a small droplet that transfers to the
workpiece [36]. This process is repeated multiple times per second, resulting in a high-
speed welding process with minimal heat input. The CMT welding system was developed

17
to address the limitations of traditional welding processes, such as spatter, distortion, and
poor weld quality. By using a controlled short circuit and precise droplet transfer, the
CMT process can produce high-quality welds with minimal spatter and distortion [37].
Additionally, the low heat input of the CMT process allows for welding of thinner
materials without the risk of warping or burn-through. The development of the CMT
welding system has revolutionized the welding industry, allowing for faster, more precise,
and higher quality welds in a wide range of applications.
3.5.1 Selection of Process Parameters
After reviewing several literature sources, it has been determined that the quality of a
welded joint is largely influenced by the welding electric current, the argon gas flow rate,
and the filler material used. As a result, these factors have been selected as process
parameters for the current study, and a series of experiments will be conducted using
different combinations of these parameters. The Taguchi Design of experiments approach
was utilized to carry out the experiments, with varying levels of the factors being tested.
3.5.2 Design of Experiments
The Design of Experiments (DOE) is a statistical tool that helps establish relationships
between process variables and output parameters in various fields, including
manufacturing and non-manufacturing industries like medicine, engineering, biology,
and physics. It was developed by Ronald A. Fisher in the late 1920s when he was
conducting agricultural research to improve crop yield, where he introduced a novel
approach compared to traditional methods. Fisher documented his findings in a book on
DOE, which outlined how to determine the outcome of an experiment based on input
factors. In essence, DOE is used to evaluate the cost-effectiveness and process efficiency
of a hypothesis.
3.5.3 Taguchi orthogonal array design
The Taguchi orthogonal array design is a statistical technique used in the Design of
Experiments (DOE) to efficiently test and optimize multiple parameters with a minimal
number of experiments. The approach is named after Dr. Genichi Taguchi, a Japanese
engineer who developed the technique in the 1950s.
The Taguchi orthogonal array design involves selecting a set of input variables, or factors,
that are hypothesized to affect a specific output, or response. The factors are then assigned
specific levels, and an orthogonal array is chosen based on the number of factors and
levels. The orthogonal array is a matrix that ensures an equal number of test combinations
for each factor level, reducing the number of experiments required to obtain reliable

18
results. The Taguchi orthogonal array design is particularly useful in industries where
product quality and cost efficiency are critical factors. By using this approach, engineers
can identify the most important factors that affect the output and determine optimal levels
for each factor, leading to improved product quality and reduced production costs.
In general, Taguchi design of experiments consists of the following steps as shown in the
table 3.2 below:
Table 3.2 Steps involved in Taguchi design [38]
STEPS DESCRIPTION

BRAINSTORMING Determine the number of components and

levels involved in reaching the process's
goal.

DESIGN EXPERIMENTS Decide the required orthogonal array and

the order of the design runs.

RUNNING EXPERIMENTS Run experiments in random order as

possible.

ANALYSING RESULTS Determine the best design and

performance under ideal conditions.

3.6 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

AA6082 plate of thickness 3 mm as a substrate material and filler wire ER4043 (1.2 mm)
is used to perform the weld bead on CMT machine shown in Figure 3.1. Different test
runs have been conducted using various combinations of process parameters, with the
approach of modifying one parameter while keeping the remaining parameters
unchanged. Table 3.3 shows the operating range of process parameters used in this study.
Taguchi L9 orthogonal array was selected for design matrix with and without flux, hence
total 18 samples (9 samples of without flux and 9 samples with flux) were created using
CMT welding process.

Table 3.3: CMT process variables and their levels

Welding Units Symbol Levels
Parameters -1 0 1
Current A I 90 100 110
Welding speed cm/min S 30 40 50

19
The CMT machine represents an enhanced iteration of the GMAW machine. In this
research, the TPS400i CMT machine (Figure 3.1) is employed, and its detailed technical
specifications are outlined in Table 3.5. During CMT welding, the total welding time is
significantly reduced compared to conventional techniques. Notably, approximately one-
fourth of the overall welding time is allocated to the short-circuit phase, wherein the
current reaches its maximum value before decreasing nearly to zero. This distinct
characteristic sets CMT welding apart from other methods and contributes to its
efficiency and effectiveness. The utilization of advanced technologies such as high-speed
digital process control (DPC) and wire buffer in CMT welding leads to significant cost
and energy savings, typically ranging from 30% to 40% [39]. By employing a synergic
power source, DPC promptly signals the wire buffer to retract the filler wire during the
short-circuit phase. This automatic adjustment of the current level effectively reduces the
thermal heat input (THI), resulting in several benefits including minimal spatter,
negligible distortion, and low dilution. The combination of these factors contributes to
enhanced cost-effectiveness and energy efficiency in CMT welding processes [37,40]. In
this CMT machine, a direct current electrode positive (DCEP) configuration is employed.
In this configuration, the welding torch, which includes the wire electrode, is connected
to the positive terminal of the CMT power source, while the base metal (BM) is connected
to the negative terminal. This setup is also known as direct current reverse polarity
(DCRP).

Figure 3.1: Experimental setup of CMT machine

20
Figure 3.2 illustrates the schematic of a fixture that holds an AA6082. Acetone
((CH3)2CO) is used to clean each plate before to welding. The surface films and other
impurities are then removed from the metal surface using a steel wire brush. The other
parameters employed argon (99.99% pure) as the shielding gas, a CTWD of 10mm, a
5mm stick-out, and a 90º torch angle. The conventional bead-on-plate method was
employed to lay weld beads on AA6082 plates using a wire with a diameter of
approximately 1.2mm composed of ER4043 (AlSi5%).
Table 3.4: Design Matrix
Sample Number I (A) S (cm/min)
1. 90 30
2. 90 40
3. 90 50
4. 100 30
5. 100 40
6. 100 50
7. 110 30
8. 110 40
9. 110 50

Table 3.5: Specification of CMT machine

21
The trials, which are conducted in accordance with the design of experiment (DOE)
detailed in Table 3.4. In experiments, the Taguchi L9 design matrix is employed to
identify the ideal parameters with the number of trials. Table 3.4 displays the results. This
technique yields excellent weld bead results, such as high strength, optimal penetration,
and a visually appealing appearance, while also minimizing heat-affected zone (HAZ)
and substrate material deformation in thin sheets. The dependent parameters for CMT are
current, voltage, and wire feed rate, change in one lead to changes in other two.
Before performing welding operation on specimen, AA6082 sheets were cleaned by sand
paper to remove the oxide layer. To maintain alignment and spacing, the sheets were
positioned on a steel backing bar and secured at the ends using clamps. and then welding
operation was performed using argon as a shielding gas by following table experimental
arrangement presented in Table 3.4.
After forming the weld bead in plate, then a sample of weld bead is taken out with the
help of wire EDM. Then, it was etched using Keller's reagent after being dry polished
with 320, 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1500, 2000, and 2500 grit emery paper.

Figure 3.2: Schematic diagram of a fixture holding an AA6082 plate.

3.7 ACTIVATED FLUX
Activated flux is a type of welding flux that contains certain chemical compounds or
additives that help to improve the quality of the weld by removing impurities from the
surface of the metal being welded. The chemical compounds or additives in the activated
flux become active during the welding process, reacting with the oxides and other
contaminants on the metal surface and making them easier to remove.

22
Activated flux is used during welding to improve the quality of the weld and the overall
welding process. Some of the main uses of activated flux during welding include:
1. Removal of Oxides and Contaminants: Activated flux contains chemicals that
react with oxides and other contaminants on the surface of the metal, allowing
them to be easily removed during the welding process. This helps to produce a
clean and high-quality weld.
2. Improvement of Wetting: The activated flux can help to improve the wetting of
the filler metal on the base metal surface, resulting in a stronger and more reliable
weld.
3. Prevention of Porosity: Activated flux can also help to prevent porosity in the weld
by eliminating the presence of gases such as hydrogen and nitrogen that can cause
porosity.
4. Protection against Oxidation: During welding, the high temperatures and exposure
to air can cause the base metal to oxidize. Activated flux can help to prevent
oxidation by shielding the weld from the air.
5. Enhancement of Mechanical Properties: Depending on the type of activated flux
used, it can also help to enhance the mechanical properties of the weld, such as its
strength, ductility, and toughness.
Overall, the use of activated flux can help to improve the quality and reliability of the
welding process, leading to stronger and more durable welds.

Figure 3.3: Method of applying flux [17]

It is challenging to evenly paste flux that is in powder form over the welding surface. The
powder will be combined with acetone and made into a paste for this purpose as shown
in Figure 3.3. The SiC flux appears to be evenly distributed on the surface and appears to
evaporate easily with acetone.

23
The base material plate with a thickness of 3 mm was cut into 100*60 pieces for welding
trials. And using a paintbrush, flow paste has been placed with a width of 60 mm
throughout the full length of the strip. Fluxes boost the arc constriction mechanism and
reverse Marangoni effect, which improves penetration. Surface tension gradient turns
positive in reverse Marangoni effect, causing molten metal to flow inward as shown in
Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Marangoni and Reverse Marangoni effect [22]

3.8 CHARACTERIZATION OF WELD BEAD
Weld bead is the visible result of the fusion process that occurs during welding. It is the
metal that has been melted and fused together by the welding process to join two or more
pieces of metal. The characteristics of a weld bead are important because they can affect
the strength and quality of the welded joint.
3.8.1 Optical Microscope Analysis
The evaluation of optical microscopy was conducted utilizing the Olympus GX41
compact inverted metallurgical microscope, as depicted in Figure 3.6. Detailed technical
specifications for this microscope can be found in Table 3.7. The GX41 inverted
metallographic microscope is ideally suited for efficient and reliable characterization of
specimens, facilitating the examination of metallurgical properties to ensure adherence to
production requirements. Its compact and lightweight body enhances portability. The
main objective of optical microscopy is to investigate the microstructure of weld bead
and get the idea of change in structure of joint at weld bead, heat affected area and parent
metal due to welding. The analysis of microstructure provides insights into important
features such as grain structure, grain boundaries, and grain size. The primary instrument
employed for characterizing the internal grain structure of the metal is the optical
microscope. To prepare the samples, a square piece measuring 15 x 10 mm was extracted

24
from the weld bead. Subsequently, the cross-sectional phase was embedded in an epoxy
resin powder using a hot mounting press. The samples were then cooled within the
mounting press for a duration of 15-20 minutes.
The cross-sectional surface of the weld bead is subjected to dry polishing using emery
paper of various grades, including 100, 320, 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1500, 1800, and
2000. Following the dry polishing step, wet polishing is performed using velvet emery
paper and alumina powder. The samples are then dried using a hot air blower. For
revealing the microstructure of AA6082-T6, Keller's reagent (consisting of 1ml HF, 1.5
ml HCl, 2.5 ml HNO3, and 95 ml of water) is applied to the samples for a duration of 15
seconds. After etching with Keller's reagent, the samples are again dried using a hot air
blower and examined under an optical microscope.

Figure 3.5: Polishing of sample by emery paper Figure 3.6: Olympus PS2 Optical Microscope

Figure 3.7: Samples after polishing

25
Table 3.6: Specifications of Optical Microscope

26
3.8.2 Penetration (P)
The penetration of the weld bead is the depth to which the weld has melted into the base
metal. This is an important characteristic because it affects the strength of the weld joint.
Activated flux is a type of welding flux that is designed to increase the effectiveness of a
welding process. It is usually added to the weld metal to improve the weld penetration
and increase the efficiency of the welding process.
The use of activated flux in welding can have a significant effect on the penetration of the
weld bead. Activated flux helps to increase the heat input into the weld, which in turn can
increase the depth of the weld penetration. This is because the flux helps to increase the
heat transfer rate between the welding arc and the workpiece, allowing the weld to
penetrate deeper into the base metal.
3.8.2 Microhardness
Micro hardness testing, also referred to as micro-indentation hardness testing, is a method
of evaluating the hardness of a material on a small scale. The technique involves using a
precise diamond indenter to create an impression on the material at loads that range from
a few grams to one kilogram. By measuring the length of the resulting impression under
a microscope, along with the applied test load, a hardness value can be calculated. These
hardness values serve as useful indicators of the material's properties and its anticipated
durability in service.

Figure 3.8: Vickers hardness testing machine indenter [41]

To conduct a hardness test, the DRAMIN-40 STRUERS machine utilizes Vickers
hardness testing. This method involves using a Vickers indenter, as depicted in Figure
3.8, to apply controlled force to the surface of the material. The resulting pyramid-shaped

27
indentation is then measured with a microscope to determine the material's hardness value
based on the diagonal length of the impression.
The Vickers hardness test was conducted with a 300-gram load and a 10-second
indentation dwell time. When a load is applied to a material, it causes the indenter's shape
to penetrate the surface, resulting in permanent deformation. The Vickers hardness test is
conducted under controlled conditions, with the pressure being monitored for a specific
time segment (typically 20 seconds of dwell time). A square-shaped diamond indenter is
used for this test. The resulting diagonal length of the indentation on the material's surface
is measured, and the Vickers hardness value is calculated using a formula. Figure 3.9
displays the DRAMIN-40 STRUERS Vickers hardness testing machine used for the test.
To ensure accurate measurement, the surface is polished to facilitate clear visibility of the
indenter's diagonal, as depicted in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.9: DRAMIN-40 STRUERS hardness testing machine

Figure 3.10: Microhardness indentation on aluminium sample.

28
Table 3.7: Specifications of Microhardness Testing Machine

29
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. INTRODUCTION
By examining the bead on the plate, a thorough assessment of the welded bead's geometry
can be obtained, encompassing crucial parameters such as weld reinforcement (R), weld
penetration (P), and weld width (W). These parameters are visually presented in Figure
4.1, providing a comprehensive overview of the bead's characteristics. Measuring the
dimensions of the weld bead is crucial to gain a better understanding of its geometry,
which in turn helps to optimize the overall cost of the welding process. To achieve a weld
joint that is both effective and economical, it is essential to strive for increased penetration
to enhance tensile strength while minimizing the heat-affected zone (HAZ), weld width,
and weld reinforcement. By minimizing the consumption of filler wire, cost-effectiveness
can be further optimized. [42]. The shaded region "A" in this diagram represents the area
of reinforcement, while "B" represents the area of penetration. Dilution is determined by
the ratio of the molten base metal (BM) area to the overall fusion zone (FZ) area, or it can
be expressed as the ratio of the penetrated area (B) to the total weld metal area (A+B) as
shown in equation (1). Dilution plays a critical role as it results in the formation of a new
intermediate alloy between the substrate and filler materials, which has a completely
different chemical composition than the final weld metal [43-45]. The addition of an
appropriate filler material to the base metal (BM) through dilution improves the
mechanical properties of the welded bead. Increasing the current and decreasing the
welding speed led to an increase in all bead dimensions, as revealed by the study's
findings. The calculation of the Weld Penetration Shape Factor (WPSF) is obtained by
dividing the bead width (W) by the penetration (P). Similarly, the Weld Reinforcement
Form Factor (WRFF) involves determining the ratio between the bead width (W) and the
bead height (R). Calculating the heat input using equation (4.2) [46] is crucial in
determining the appropriate amount of heat required for materials of varying thickness.
The thermal heat input plays a significant role in determining the properties of the weld
zone (WM) [47], and greatly influences the cooling rate of the WM. Heat input refers to
the quantity of energy transferred per unit length of the weld, and by employing more

30
efficient techniques to reduce heat input, it is possible to achieve a weld with increased
strength. [48].

Figure 4.1: Weld Bead Geometry

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐵)
𝐷𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐷) = (4.1)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴+𝐵)
𝑉∗𝐼
Heat input (𝐻𝐼) = ȵ (4.2)
𝑆
The variables Q, V, I, S, and ƞ represent the heat input (J/mm), voltage (V), current (A),
welding speed (mm/sec), and efficiency (%) respectively. Welding typically has a thermal
efficiency of around 80%, according to studies [49,50].

4.2. OPTIMIZATION OF PROCESS PARAMETERS

The Taguchi technique and ANOVA were employed in the design and analysis of
experiments, with the assistance of Minitab software. The user-friendly interface of
Minitab and its useful features made it convenient to obtain the desired results [51]. The
Taguchi technique is an experimental method that reduces the number of required tests
in comparison to traditional methods, resulting in an expected model that identifies the
most suitable process parameters.
Optimization of process parameters such as current and welding speed during welding
involves finding the best combination of these parameters to achieve the desired dilution
ratio and weld quality [52].
The current is the amount of electrical energy flowing through the welding arc, which
affects the temperature and heat input of the weld. Higher current generally results in
higher heat input and faster welding speeds, but may also increase the risk of defects such
as porosity and cracking.

31
Welding speed, on the other hand, affects the rate at which the weld is deposited and the
heat input per unit length of the weld. Faster welding speeds can reduce the amount of
heat input, but may also reduce penetration and increase the risk of incomplete fusion.
In order to enhance the welding process parameters, a systematic approach like Design
of Experiments (DOE) or Response Surface Methodology (RSM) can be employed.
These methods entail controlled variation of process parameters and analysis of the
resulting welds to identify the optimal conditions that fulfill the desired specifications for
dilution and weld quality.
The present study utilized the Taguchi L9 orthogonal array to conduct experiments. For
welding samples with each filler wire, a separate L9 orthogonal array was generated with
2 factors (welding current, and filler rod diameter) and 3 levels for each factor. The
response variables were dilution (%) and micro-hardness of each welded joint. The
Taguchi method was employed with a larger-is-better S/N ratio characteristic. The
Taguchi technique was also used to determine the rank of each parameter that influences
the microhardness and dilution (%).
4.2.1 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
ANOVA stands for Analysis of Variance, which is a statistical method used to analyse
the difference between means of two or more groups. It examines whether there is a
significant difference between the means of the groups being compared. ANOVA
calculates the variance within and between groups and compares them to determine if the
observed differences are statistically significant. ANOVA can be used in various fields
such as psychology, biology, economics, and engineering to compare the effects of
different treatments or interventions on a specific outcome variable [53]. ANOVA is a
powerful tool for data analysis and hypothesis testing, and it is widely used in research
studies and experimental designs.
In our study, ANOVA was utilized to determine the impact of individual parameters on
the response variable, which are dilution (%) and microhardness. Furthermore, ANOVA
can identify the most statistically significant process parameter. The ANOVA table
displays the results for the dilution and micro-hardness of the welded joint of AA6082
alloy with and without activated flux.

32
 Table 4.1: L9 orthogonal array for the specimens formed without flux
S. No. Current Welding Dilution Penetration Micro- Heat
(A) speed (%) (mm) hardness input
(cm/min) (HV) (J/mm)

1. 90 30 56.6 1.83 64.19 164.16

2. 90 40 53.2 1.78 61.27 123.12

3. 90 50 51.3 1.69 57.32 98.496

4. 100 30 63.2 2.11 71.35 185.6

5. 100 40 59.6 2.09 67.43 139.2

6. 100 50 56.73 1.97 58.31 111.36

7. 110 30 68.45 2.52 74.39 206.8

8. 110 40 63.46 2.47 70.11 155.1

9. 110 50 60.41 2.32 65.23 124.08

Table 4.2: L9 orthogonal array for the specimens formed with flux
S. No. Current Welding Dilution Penetration Micro- Heat
(A) speed (%) (mm) hardness input
(cm/min) (HV) (J/mm)

1. 90 30 60.1 2.13 69.35 164.16

2. 90 40 57.7 2.02 63.23 123.12

3. 90 50 52.9 1.78 58.25 98.496

4. 100 30 67.56 2.53 77.43 185.6

5. 100 40 63.11 2.31 73.63 139.2

6. 100 50 58.76 2.13 69.25 111.36

7. 110 30 72.53 2.91 83.57 206.8

8. 110 40 69.87 2.79 78.81 155.1

9. 110 50 66.78 2.43 72.31 124.08

33
4.2.2 Optimization of weld beads formed without using flux
As per the Taguchi optimization of weld bead samples formed without using active flux,
the best level of process parameters with the largest S/N ratio, which indicates the
maximum dilution and hardness [54].
Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 shows the S/N ratio curves for dilution and microhardness
respectively. ANOVA technique was used to check the adequacy of the model. Table 4.3
shows that the maximum dilution occurs at welding current at level 3 i.e., 110A and travel
speed at level 1 i.e., 30 cm/min. Similarly, Table 4.6 shows that the maximum hardness
is achieved at current at level 1 i.e., 90A and travel speed at level 3 i.e., 50 cm/min.
The adequacy of the model was assessed using the analysis of variance (ANOVA)
technique. Table 4.4 and 4.7 present the ANOVA results for the dilution and
microhardness of the weld beads formed without activated flux. The tables present data
including sum of squares (SS), degree of freedom (DF), mean square (MS) - which is the
ratio of SS and DF - F-value, P-value, and percentage contribution. The F-value signifies
the ratio of variation between the factors to the variation within the factors, while the P-
value denotes the probability, which should be lower than 0.05. The percentage
contribution signifies the impact of independent factors on the responses. Adjusting the
value of the factor with the highest percentage contribution will exert a substantial
influence on the output response. This emphasizes the sensitivity of that specific factor.

Figure 4.2: Plot between S/N ratio and current, weld speed of WFB for dilution

34
 Table 4.3: Response table of S/N ratio of WFB for Dilution
Level Welding current Travel speed
1 34.59 35.93
2 35.53 35.36
3 36.13 34.97
Delta 1.53 0.96
Rank 1 2

Table 4.4: ANOVA table of WFB for Dilution

Source DF Contribution Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P

Value Value
Current 2 72.68% 0.000014 0.000014 0.000007 1819.82 0.000
Welding 2 27.24% 0.000005 0.000005 0.000003 681.95 0.000
Speed
Error 4 0.08% 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
Total 8 100% 0.000019

Table 4.5: Model Summary of WFB for Transformed Response

S R-sq R-sq (adj) PRESS R-sq (pred) BIC
0.0000619 99.92% 99.84% 0.0000001 99.6% -143.00

Figure 4.3: Plot between S/N ratio and current, weld speed of WFB for microhardness

35
 Table 4.6: Response table of S/N ratio of WFB for Microhardness

Level Current Weld speed

1 36.77 35.49
2 36.41 36.56
3 36.02 37.15
Delta 0.75 1.66
Rank 2 1

Table 4.7: ANOVA table of WFB for Micro-hardness

Source DF Contribution Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P

Value Value
Current 2 15.99% 0.000003 0.000003 0.000001 24.34 0.006
Welding 2 82.69% 0.000013 0.000013 0.000007 125.84 0.001
speed
Error 4 1.31% 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000

Total 8 100% 0.000016

Table 4.8: Model summary of WFB for Transformed Response

S R-sq R-sq (adj) PRESS R sq (pred) BIC

0.0002301 98.69% 97.37% 0.0000011 93.35% -119.36

For dilution, welding current is more dominant (72.68%) as compared to welding speed
(27.24%) but for microhardness, welding speed is highly dominant (82.69%) as compared
to welding current (15.99%) because of lower P-values and higher F-values. The
predicted R2 values show reasonable agreement with the Adjusted R2 for all the response
parameters, with a difference of less than 0.2. This closeness in values indicates that the
majority of data points fall within the regression line. The main distinction between
adjusted R2 and predicted R2 lies in their interpretations. Adjusted R2 specifically
identifies the independent variables which actually affect the dependent variable, while
predicted R2 assumes that the variation in the dependent variable is explained by each
individual variable., providing an indication of the percentage of explained variation.
Table 4.5 and 4.8 shows the model summary which indicates R2 is a validation criterion,
which means that in this example the model accounts 99% for dilution and 93.5% for
microhardness of the variance in the predictor.

36
4.2.2 Optimization of weld beads formed using activated flux
As per the Taguchi optimization of weld bead samples obtained using active flux, the best
level of process parameters with the largest S/N ratio, which indicates the maximum
dilution and hardness. Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 shows the S/N ratio curves for dilution
and microhardness respectively. ANOVA technique was used to check the adequacy of
the model. Table 4.9 shows that the maximum dilution occurs at welding current at level
3 i.e., 110A and travel speed at level 1 i.e., 30 cm/min. Similarly, Table 4.12 shows that
the maximum hardness is achieved at current at level 1 i.e., 90A and travel speed at level
3 i.e., 50 cm/min.
The adequacy of the model was assessed using the analysis of variance (ANOVA)
technique. Table 4.10 and 4.13 present the ANOVA results for the dilution and
microhardness of the weld beads formed without activated flux. The tables present data
including sum of squares (SS), degree of freedom (DF), mean square (MS) - which is the
ratio of SS and DF - F-value, P-value, and percentage contribution. The F-value signifies
the ratio of variation between the factors to the variation within the factors, while the P-
value denotes the probability, which should be lower than 0.05. The percentage
contribution signifies the impact of independent factors on the responses. Adjusting the
value of the factor with the highest percentage contribution will exert a substantial
influence on the output response. This emphasizes the sensitivity of that specific factor.

Figure 4.4: Plot between S/N ratio and current, weld speed of FB for dilution

37
 Table 4.9: Response table of S/N ratio of FB for Dilution
Level Welding current Travel speed
1 35.09 36.46
2 35.99 36.04
3 36.86 35.45
Delta 1.77 1.01
Rank 1 2

Table 4.10: ANOVA table of FB for Dilution

Source DF Contribution Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F- P-
value value
Current 2 75.50% 3946778 3946778 1973389 203.88 0.000
Welding 2 23.76% 1241946 1241946 620973 64.16 0.001
Speed
Error 4 0.74% 38716 38716 9679
Total 8 100% 5227440

Table 4.11: Model summary of FB for Transformed Response

S R-sq R-sq (adj) PRESS R sq (pred) BIC

98.3824 99.26% 98.52% 196002 96.25% 114.03

Figure 4.5: Plot between S/N ratio and current, weld speed of FB for microhardness

38
Table 4.12: Response table of S/N ratio of FB for Microhardness
Level Current Welding speed
1 36.97 35.01
2 36.72 37.05
3 36.06 37.69
Delta 0.91 2.68
Rank 2 1

Table 4.13: ANOVA table of FB for Microhardness

Source DF Contribution Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F- P-

value value

Current 2 10.00% 0.017493 0.017493 0.008746 20.15 0.008

Welding 2 89.01% 0.155738 0.155738 0.077869 179.35 0.001

speed

Error 4 0.99% 0.001737 0.001737 0.000434

Total 8 100.00% 0.174968

Table 4.14: Model Summary of FB for Transformed Response

S R2 R2 (adj) PRESS R2 (pred) BIC

0.0208368 99.01% 98.01% 0.0087920 94.98% -38.25

For dilution, welding current is more dominant (75.50%) as compared to welding speed
(23.76%) but for microhardness, welding speed is more dominant (89.01%) as compared
to welding current (10.00%) because of lower P-values and higher F-values. The
predicted R2 values show reasonable agreement with the Adjusted R2 for all the response
parameters, with a difference of less than 0.2. This closeness in values indicates that the
majority of data points fall within the regression line. The main distinction between
adjusted R2 and predicted R2 lies in their interpretations. Adjusted R2 specifically
identifies the independent variables which actually affect the dependent variable, while
predicted R2 assumes that the variation in the dependent variable is explained by each
individual variable., providing an indication of the percentage of explained variation.
Table 4.11 and 4.14 shows the model summary which indicates R2 is a validation

39
criterion, which means that in this the model accounts 96.25% for dilution and 94.98%
for microhardness of the variance in the predictor.
4.3. MACROSTRUCTURE OF WELD BEAD
The cross-sectional macrostructure of the welded joint provides a clear indication of
various features such as the presence of pores, the depth of penetration, reinforcement,
HAZ, and base metal (BM). The macro-images of the cross-section of a weld bead
generated without and with flux, respectively, are shown in Figure 4.6 and 4.7.
30 cm/min 40 cm/min 50 cm/min
90 A
100 A
110 A

Figure 4.6: Macro-images of weld beads

It can be seen that the weld beads formed using activated flux has a smaller number of
pores as compared to those formed without using flux. At elevated heat inputs, aluminium
alloys can be prone to the solubility of gases, particularly hydrogen, which leads to the
formation of porosity. In addition to heat input, the presence of alloying elements also
influences hydrogen solubility. The inclusion of Mg element in aluminium alloys results
in a high affinity for hydrogen due to stronger interactions between Mg atoms and
hydrogen atoms compared to those between aluminum and hydrogen [55]. Upon
polishing and etching of the samples, different welding zones become apparent. The

40
effect of welding process parameters can be easily seen on the weld bead. Increasing the
current while maintaining a constant welding speed leads to an overall increase in weld
geometry due to a higher heat input. On the other hand, increasing the welding speed
results in reduced penetration, weld width, and dilution due to lower heat input, keeping
the current constant.
30 cm/min 40 cm/min 50 cm/min
90 A
100 A
110 A

Figure 4.7: Macro-images of weld beads fabricated using flux

4.3.1. Consequences of welding parameters on bead dimension

Process parameters such as welding speed and current exert a significant influence on the
geometry of the weld bead, microstructural analysis and mechanical properties. Figure
4.8 demonstrates that, when using the CMT welding technique without flux and keeping
the current constant at 100 A, increasing the weld speed from 30 cm/sec to 50 cm/sec
results in reduced penetration and decreased weld width, with minimal change in
reinforcement height due to low heat input. Similarly, Figure 4.9 indicates that, when
keeping the welding speed constant at 50 cm/sec and increasing the current from 90 A to
110 A, with the increase in heat input, the penetration shows a notable initial increase
followed by a gradual growth, while the width of the weld gradually increases as well.

41
 Figure 4.8: Variation in bead geometry for variable welding speeds at constant current of 100 A

Figure 4.9: Variation in bead geometry for variable current at constant welding speed of 50 cm/min

4.3.2. Consequences of active flux on bead dimension

SiC is utilized as an active flux in this study. The major difference between these two
cases is that flux leads to increase in penetration and reduced width. Active fluxes are
designed to facilitate better penetration of the weld into the base metal. The active
components in the flux can help to reduce surface oxides, improve heat transfer, and
enhance the metallurgical interaction between the base metal and the weld metal. These
effects can result in deeper penetration of the weld bead into the base metal, leading to
increased weld strength and potentially larger dimensions.

Figure 4.10: Effect of flux on weld bead geometry at constant current and welding speed.

42
It can be seen from Figure 4.10 that when weld beads fabricated using activated flux and
keeping the current and welding speed fixed results in reduced bead width but there is an
increase in penetration. There may be an increment in the reinforcement height also. This
happens due to presence of active components in the flux can influence the surface tension
and fluidity of the molten metal during welding. This altered fluid behaviour can impact
the shape and profile of the weld bead.
4.4. MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Images of the microstructure are captured using an Olympus GX41 compact inverted
metallurgical microscope. The microstructure of aluminium alloy 6082 is composed of a
face-cantered cubic (FCC) aluminium matrix with a mixture of magnesium, silicon, and
manganese as the main alloying elements. The presence of magnesium and silicon results
in the formation of Mg2Si and Al2MgSi particles, which strengthen the material and
improve its mechanical properties. These particles are uniformly distributed throughout
the aluminium matrix, creating a fine-grained microstructure that enhances the material's
strength and toughness. The microstructure of the AA4043 filler wire is primarily
composed of an FCC aluminium matrix with a small amount of silicon and magnesium
as the main alloying elements [56]. Aluminium alloy 6082 has a fine-grained
microstructure composed of an FCC aluminium matrix with Mg2Si and Al2MgSi
particles, which provides excellent strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance. When
welding aluminium alloy 6082, the use of AA4043 filler wire results in a weld with a
similar microstructure to the base metal, ensuring excellent mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance [57]. When SiC flux is introduced, the silicon carbide particles act as
nucleation sites for the formation of new phases during solidification. This leads to
refined microstructures with smaller grain sizes in the weld bead. The presence of fine
grains can improve the mechanical properties of the weld, such as tensile strength and
hardness. Furthermore, SiC flux can alter the morphology and distribution of intermetallic
compounds that form in the weld zone. Intermetallic compounds, such as Al-Si and Mg-
Si, are typically present in aluminum alloys and can affect the weld's mechanical
properties. The addition of SiC flux can help in reducing the size and volume fraction of
these intermetallic compounds, leading to improved weld performance. Additionally, the
SiC flux can influence the formation of oxide films and their interaction with the molten
metal during the welding process. By promoting the removal of oxide films and
improving the wetting ability of the filler metal, SiC flux can enhance the overall
weldability and reduce defects such as porosity.

43
 a b

c d

Figure 4.11: (a) WFB at 90 A. Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM, (c) FZ (d) WZ

a b

c d

Figure 4.12: (a) WFB at 100 A. Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM, (c) FZ (d) WZ

44
 a b

c d

Figure 4.13: (a) WFB at 110 A. Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM, (c) FZ (d) WZ
Figure 4.11 to 4.16 shows the microstructural images from optical microscope for the
weld beads fabricated using with and without activated flux. A total of six samples were
collected to examine the microstructure, three from without using activated flux and other
three from those which uses SiC flux. Base Metal (BM), Weld Zone (WZ) and Fusion
Zone (FZ) are the places where microstructure is taken. Image (c), which is actually heat
affected zone (HAZ), clearly shows the fusion line where AA6082 fuses with ER4043
filler metal. The separation of the source metal and weldment's microstructure by fusion
lines (shown by yellow dashes) is evident in Figures 4.11(c), 4.12(c), 4.13(c), 4.14(c),
4.15(c), and 4.16(c). The grain structure and grain boundaries are clearly depicted in
Figure 4.11(b), 4.12(b), 4.13(b), 4.14(b), 4.15(c), and 4.16(b), which represent the parent
metal. At higher current values (specifically 110 A), a notable presence of black spots is
observed in both the parent metal and the bead region, which can be attributed to the
elevated heat input. The non-uniform cooling rate caused by this high heat i/p leads to the
formation of a higher number of brittle compounds, particularly Mg2Si, which is
manifested as the black spots. In the weld bead's fusion zone (FZ), Mg2Si dissolves and
subsequently precipitates and coarsens the grains [58,59]. Those black spots negatively
impact the surface profile and mechanical properties of the bead. Weld bead with layer

45
of activated flux is showing better microstructures as compared to weld bead without flux
and also the smaller number of pores and better bead aesthetics.

a b

c d

Figure 4.14: (a) FB at 90 A. Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM, (c) FZ (d) WZ

a b

c d

Figure 4.15: (a) FB at 100 A. Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM, (c) FZ (d) WZ

46
 a b

c d

Figure 4.16: (a) FB at 110 A. Microstructure images at 200 µm (b) BM, (c) FZ (d) WZ

4.5. EFFECTS OF PROCESS PARAMETERS

4.5.1. Effect on Heat Input (HI) and Dilution (D)
Heat input (HI) and dilution (D) exhibit a direct relationship, whereby an augmentation
in heat input leads to a greater volume of substrate material being melted, consequently
resulting in an increase in dilution. Conversely, a decrease in heat input corresponds to
reduced dilution. As previously mentioned, dilution is defined as the ratio of the area of
penetration to the total area of the weld, as shown in equation (4.1). The dimensions of
the weld bead primarily influence this factor. The heat input curve is illustrated in Figure
4.17, while the dilution curve is shown in Figure 4.18 for the weld beads fabricated using
both flux and without flux, employing the CMT welding technique with respect to
welding speed (S). Heat input is calculated using equation (4.2) to determine the
relationship between these factors. The influence of welding speed on various factors
such as plate deformation, thickness of heat-affected zone (HAZ), and arc stability make
it an important response in the welding process. Increasing welding speed leads to less
dilution, which can be attributed to the lower heat input. Figure 4.17 illustrates that, for
both cases, dilution (D) decreases as the welding speed (S) increases from 30-50 cm/min,

47
due to a decrease in heat input on the weld and less melting of the substrate material,
resulting in a smaller penetration area as indicated by macro-images. Conversely,
decreasing the welding speed (S) increases the heat input on the base material, causing
more melting of the base material and resulting in higher DOP, leading to a higher
percentage of dilution. Additionally, an increase in current from 90 A to 110 A results in
an increase in dilution for both the cases. This is due to the higher heat input generated
by the higher current (as illustrated in Figure. 4.17), leading to the melting of the substrate
material for deeper penetration and a subsequent increase in the percentage of dilution.

250

210
Heat input (J/mm)

170

130

90

50
5 6 7 8
Welding speed (mm/sec)

@ 90 A @ 100 A @ 110 A

Figure 4.17: Heat input vs welding speed curve

From Figure 4.18, it is evident that as the current is raised from 90 A to 100 A, the dilution
of the weld beads formed without flux increases to 9.37% while it increases to 12.03%
when weld beads formed using activated flux in comparison to 6.47% for the weld beads
formed using without flux while it increases 10.71% when weld beads formed using
activated flux w.r.t. weld speed. When comparing current periods of 90-100 A and 100-
110 A, higher values of dilution (D) are observed for the former due to a higher heat input,
as illustrated in Figure 4.17. The trend of dilution with respect to heat input is clearly
demonstrated in Figure 4.19. In this graph, a noticeable change in dilution is observed as
the current is increased from 90 A to 100 A across all welding processes. This change in
dilution is primarily attributed to the varying heat input.

48
 75

70

Dilution (%)
65

60

55

50

45
4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5
Welding speed (mm/sec)

90 A without flux 100 A without flux 110 A without flux

90A with flux 100A with flux 110A with flux

Figure 4.18: Comparison of percentage dilution between weld beads formed without and with flux

75

70
Dilution (%)

65

60

55

50

45
75 95 115 135 155 175 195 215
Heat input (J/mm)

90A without flux 100A without flux 110A without flux

90A with flux 100A with flux 110A with flux

Figure 4.19: Percentage Dilution vs Heat input between weld beads formed without and with flux

4.5.2. Effect on Penetration

Achieving a good joint efficiency depends significantly on penetration, as more depth of
penetration results in high efficiency of joint by allowing the filler material to fuse more
thoroughly into the substrate material. In order to achieve a superior joint, it is vital to
attain deeper penetration and higher tensile strength, while minimizing the heat-affected
zone (HAZ), width, and weld reinforcement to reduce the consumption of weld metal.
This requirement holds true for all types of welding [40]. As depicted in Figure 4.20, it is
commonly observed that penetration is positively affected by a decrease in welding speed,
and an increase in welding current.

49
 3

2.8

2.6

Penetration (mm)
2.4

2.2

1.8

1.6

1.4
25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Welding speed (cm/min)

90 A without flux 100 A without flux 110 A without flux

90 A with flux 100 A with flux 110 A with flux

Figure 4.20: Comparison of penetration between weld beads formed without and with flux

3.25
3.05
2.85
Penetration (mm)

2.65
2.45
2.25
2.05
1.85
1.65
1.45
1.25
90 110 130 150 170 190 210
Heat input (J/mm)

90 A without flux 100 A without flux 110 A without flux

90 A with flux 100 A with flux 110 A with flux

Figure 4.21: Penetration vs Heat input between weld beads formed without and with flux
The Wire Feed Rate (WFR) also has a crucial role in enhancing the penetration. As the
WFR increases, the current also increases, causing an elevated heat input during the
welding process. This, in turn, results in more substrate material melting. When it comes
to CMT welding, the oscillatory movement of the wire plays a crucial role in controlling
the penetration by managing the length of arc. In CMT, a higher wire feed rate results in
increased current, leading to more frequent droplet detachments and consequently deeper
penetration. As depicted in Figure 4.21, it is observed that weld beads formed using
activated flux achieve a comparable level of penetration to those formed without flux, but
with a lower amount of heat input, thereby resulting in energy savings.

50
4.5.3. Effect on Micro-hardness
The heat input during the welding of AA6082 base plate with ER4043 filler wire can have
an effect on the microhardness of the weld. Heat input refers to the amount of energy
transferred to the base metal during the welding process, and it is influenced by factors
such as welding current, voltage, welding speed, and travel angle. In general, increasing
the heat input in the welding process can lead to changes in the microstructure of the
weld, which can subsequently affect the microhardness.
The current and welding speed in CMT (Cold Metal Transfer) welding can both influence
the microhardness of a weld. At higher welding currents CMT welding generally result
in increased microhardness in the weld zone. This is due to the higher heat input, which
leads to more complete fusion and refinement of the microstructure. However,
excessively high currents can also cause overheating and potential issues like increased
heat-affected zone size and weld defects [60]. Therefore, it is important to find the optimal
current range that balances higher microhardness with acceptable weld quality. The
welding speed in CMT welding refers to the rate at which the welding torch moves along
the joint. Increasing the welding speed typically leads to a decrease in microhardness.
This is because a higher welding speed results in less heat input and shorter heat exposure
time, which may not allow for sufficient diffusion and grain refinement in the weld zone.
Conversely, slower welding speeds provide more time for heat transfer and allow for
better microstructural development, resulting in higher microhardness [61]. It is worth
noting that the microhardness of a weld is influenced by various other factors such as base
metal composition, heat treatment, and post-welding processes. Therefore, optimizing
both the current and welding speed in CMT welding requires careful consideration of
these factors to achieve the desired microhardness and overall weld quality.
It is observed from Figure 4.22 that as we move from sample 1 to 3 there is an increase
in welding speed which leads to decrease in total heat input. This reduced heat input
results in lower micro hardness. But for the same process parameters, the weld beads
fabricated using flux gives more hardness. The main reason behind this is when we apply
SiC layer as activated flux, due to more affinity of ER4043 and AA6082 towards silicon,
it easily deposited and mixed properly inside the weld pool. Due to which the pores
formation limits to negligible in comparison to those without activated flux. Process
parameters corresponding to sample number can be seen from Table 3.4.

51
 90
85
80

Micro-hardness (HV)
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Sample No.
without flux with flux

Figure 4.22: Comparison of penetration between weld beads formed without and with
flux
Microhardness analysis is also carried out on the optimized process parameter at which
welding current is 110 A and the welding speed is 30 cm/min and the gas flow rate is kept
constant at 15 ltr/min. Vickers hardness testing with load of 300 gm is employed for
testing with indentation time of 10s. Total eight indentations has been made on one
specimen from centre of weld bead to base metal, as shown in Figure 4.23, and five
indents are also made to check the variation of hardness in vertical direction as own in
Figure 4.24.

Figure 4.23: Hardness testing at various points taken in horizontal direction

Figure 4.24 Hardness testing at various points taken in vertical direction

52
 90
85

Micro-hardness (HV)
80
75
70
65
60
55
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance from centre of weld bead (mm)

without flux with flux

Figure 4.25: Weld bead hardness distribution in horizontal direction

5
Indentat Point

0
55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Micro-hardness (HV)

Without flux With flux

Figure 4.26: Weld bead hardness distribution in vertical direction

From the Figure 4.25, it is clearly seen that how the hardness varying from center of weld
bead to BM. This graph is corresponding to Figure 4.23. At the bead center the hardness
is very less because of coarse grains. As we move towards FZ, the size of grain decreases
which results in higher micro-hardness. There is little variance in micro-hardness of BM
when comparing both the cases. Also, from Figure 4.26, it is seen that as we come
vertically downwards from weld bead to base metal, the hardness increases up to the
fusion zone as the size of grain decreases in fusion zone which results in more hardness.

53
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

5.1 Conclusion

In this research, metal matrix composite samples were produced using an active flux and
the wire cold metal transfer (CMT) process. The focus of the study was to examine the
impact of SiC particles on grain orientation, grain evolution, and mechanical properties.
A comparison was made with samples that were deposited in their original state. The
following findings were deduced:

1. Weld beads fabricated using activated flux has higher penetration and reduced
bead width in comparison to those which obtained using without flux for the same
current and welding speed. To enhance joint efficiency, it is essential to achieve
sufficient dilution and penetration while minimizing the heat input.
2. The macrostructure, microstructure, and hardness of the bead on plate welds were
significantly influenced by the use of activated flux.
3. Taguchi method is used to optimize process parameter that affects the dilution and
microhardness of AA6082 alloy joint with filler wire ER4043.
4. The optimal process parameters are 110 A and 30 cm/min for dilution and 90 A
and 50 cm/min for micro-hardness.
5. With the optimal process parameters, the dilution is 66.74% and micro-hardness
is 71.86HV for weld bead formed without using flux. But the dilution is 75.2%
and microhardness is 79.77 HV for the weld bead formed using flux.
6. The relationship between current and penetration is directly proportional, while
the relationship between welding speed and penetration is inversely proportional.
When considering weld speed, the percentage increase in penetration is
significantly higher compared to the welding current. Overall, use of active flux
in weld beads results in reduced weld width and higher penetration for the same
current and welding speed compared to those which formed without using active
flux.

54
5.2 Scope for Future Work

1. The setup can be adjusted to accommodate different process parameters, including

the utilization of various filler wire types, fine-tuning the contact tip to workpiece
distance (CTWD), etc. These modifications can lead to improved mechanical
properties and desired outcomes.
2. Aluminum composites can be manufactured by incorporating natural or synthetic
reinforcements, followed by the implementation of welding processes.
3. Further exploration is required to examine the impact of preheating and post-
heating on achieving optimal joint quality when welding aluminium alloys.
4. The application of robotic CMT enables the precise and accurate joining of metals.
5. To attain more precise outcomes, the optimization process can be conducted using
artificial neural network (ANN) in conjunction with genetic algorithm (GA).

55
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