Topics:-

Group A Physical Chemistry

Atomic structure
Chemical Bonding
Ionic equilibrium and electrochemistry
Group B Inorganic Chemistry
Transition metals
Co-ordination chemistry
Group C Organic Chemistry
Organic reaction mechanism
Steriochemistry
Organometallic compounds and Explosives
Polymerization

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Chemical Bonding
8 marks
Electrovalent Bond
Metallic Bond
Crystal lattice

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Chemical Bond:-
The attractive force which holds the various atoms
together in a molecule is called chemical bond. During
formation of chemical bond energy is released.
Types of chemical bond:-
Depending upon the nature of the bonding atoms
chemical bond is classified in to following types.
1. Electrovalent or ionic bond
2. Covalent bond
3. Co-ordinate covalent bond
4. Metallic bond
5. Hydrogen bond
6. Vander Waal’s bond

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1. Electrovalent or ionic bond:-
The chemical bond which is formed by the
complete transfer of electron from the valence shell of
one atom to another is called electrovalent or ionic bond
and the corresponding valency is called electrovalency.
It is mostly formed between metal and non metal.
It is denoted by dotted lines.
Compounds having electrovalent bond are called
electrovalent or ionic compounds. Eg. NaCl, KCl, CaO,
MgO, Na2S , Na2O etc.

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i. Formation of NaCl:
Na= 11 = 2,8,1
Cl= 17= 2,8,7
Here sodium must loss 1 electron and Cl must gain 1
electron to be in octet state so during bonding between Na
and Cl ,one electron is transferred from Na to Cl to form
electrovalent bond.

Na + Cl ----→ [ Na+ Cl- ] → NaCl

2,8,1 2,8,7 2,8 2,8,8

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2. Formation of MgO
Mg= 2,8,2
O = 2,6
The electron dot formula of Mg and O show that Mg
must loss its two electron and oxygen must gain two
electron to get in octet state Hence they form ionic
bond

Mg + O → [Mg++ O-- ] → MgO

2,8,2 2,6 2,8 2,8
3. Formation of MgCl2

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Conditions for the formation of electrovalent bond:-
1. One atom must have lower value of ionization
energy.(metal)
2. Another atom must have higher value of electron
affinity.(Non metal)
3. There should be large difference of
electronegativity between two bonding atoms.
4. The lattice energy of the compound(salt) must be
higher.

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Properties of electrovalent compounds:-
1. State:-
Electrovalent compounds mostly exist in solid state
at room temperature.
->Since ionic compounds are formed by strong force
of attraction between two oppositely charged ions so the
oppositely charged ions come closer to each other hence
they exist in solid state.
2. Melting and boiling point:-
They have higher melting and boiling point.
-> Since, ionic compounds are formed by strong
force of attraction between two oppositely charged ions
.This requires large amount of heat to break down such
attractive force .Hence they have higher melting and
boiling point. 8
3. Solubility:-
->Since ionic compounds are mostly polar in nature
so they are soluble in polar solvents like water but
insoluble in non polar solvents.
4. Electrical conductivity:-
Ionic compounds are bad conductor of electricity in
dry solid state but good conductor in molten or aqueous
state.
->Since in dry state ionic compounds do not contain
free electron as well as ions so they are bad conductor of
electricity but in molten or aqueous state they ionize to
give cations and anions which can move towards
oppositely charged electrodes hence they can conduct
electricity.
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5. Nature of reaction:-
Ionic compounds undergo ionic reaction which takes
place faster in aqueous state.
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3(aq) -fast→ NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl
6. Directional Character:-
Ionic bond does not have directional character so
ionic compounds do not show isomerism.

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2. Metallic bond:-
The chemical bond which holds metal atoms
together in a metal is called metallic bond. It is a
special and strong bond.
There are various theory to explain metallic
bond. Among them metallic bond is explained by
electron sea model given by Drude and Lorentz.
According to this model, metal consists of three
dimensional frame work of metallic kernels bounded by
large no. of mobile or free electrons.
“ The simultaneous force of attraction between
metallic kernels and free electrons in crystal lattice of
metals is called metallic bond.”

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The factors that affect the strength of a metallic bond
include:
• Total number of delocalized electrons.
• Magnitude of positive charge held by the metal cation.
• Ionic radius of the cation.

Properties of metals explained by electron sea model:-

The properties of metals that are a consequence of
metallic bonding include:
• Malleability
• Ductility
• High melting and boiling point
• High electrical and thermal conductivity
• Metallic lusture 13
 i) Electrical Conductivity:-
According to electron sea model metal consists
of large no. of free electrons . Since the electrons
remains delocalized in either part of metal so when the
metal is connected with external source then electrons
from negative terminal of source move towards metal
then this electron move towards the another terminal
of source and finally reach to the positive terminal of
source. In this way current flows through metal.
This is the reason why metals are generally good
conductors of electric current.

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Flow of electrons in crystal lattice of metal
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 ii)Thermal Conductivity:-
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of
its ability to conduct/transfer heat.
According to electron sea model metal consists of large
no of free electrons. When one end of a metallic substance is
heated, the kinetic energy of the electrons in that area
increases. These electrons transfer their kinetic energies to
other neighboring electrons in the sea through collisions . In
this way heat is transferred to the cooler part of metal
.Hence metals are good conductor of heat.

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 iii) Metallic lusture:-
When light is incident on a metallic surface, the energy
of the photon is absorbed by the sea of electrons that
constitute the metallic bond. The absorption of energy
excites the electrons, increasing their energy levels. These
excited electrons quickly return to their ground states,
emitting light in the process. This emission of light ( or due to
the de-excitation of electrons )attributes a shiny metallic
lusture to the metal.

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 iv) High Melting and Boiling Points:-
As a result of powerful metallic bonding, the
attractive force between the metal atoms is quite strong. In
order to overcome this force of attraction, a great deal of
energy is required. This is the reason why metals tend to
have high melting and boiling points. The exceptions to this
include zinc, cadmium, and mercury (explained by their
electron configurations, which end with ns2).
(The metallic bond can retain its strength even when
the metal is in its melt state. For example, gallium melts at
29.76oC but boils only at 2400oC. Therefore, molten gallium
is a nonvolatile liquid.)

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 v) Malleable and ductile:-
Malleability is the property of metal by which it can
be beaten in to sheet and ductility is the property of metal
by which it can be drawn in to wire.
According to electron sea model metal consists of
large no of layers of metallic kernels. When stress is given
to metal then one layer can slip over the surface of
another layer with out disturbing the crystal lattice so
metals are malleable and ductile.

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What are the Factors Affecting the Strength of Metallic
Bonds?
The three factors are:
• The number of electrons delocalized from the metal; the
greater the number of delocalized electrons, the
stronger the bond.
• Charge held by the metal cation; the greater the
magnitude of the charge, the stronger the force of
attraction between the electron sea and the cations.
• Size of the cation; the smaller the ionic radius, the
greater the effective nuclear charge acting on the
electron sea so stronger will be the bond.

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Unit Cell
Primitive Unit Cells
Centred Unit Cells
Formation of Lattice

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Crystal Lattice
Crystal Lattice is a three-dimensional representation of
atoms and molecules arranged in a specific order/pattern in
crystal. In other words, a crystal lattice can be defined as a
geometrical arrangement of constituent particles of matter
(atoms, ions or molecules) as points in space. There are total
14 possible three-dimensional lattices. Crystal lattices are
also known by Bravais Lattices, named after the scientist
Auguste Bravais

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Characteristics of Crystal Lattices
The following characteristics are depicted by Bravais lattices:
• Each point in a lattice represents a lattice site or we can
say lattice point.
• Each point denotes a particular type of constituent
particles of matter . It may be an atom, molecule or an
ion.
• By joining the lattices points inside the lattice we can
define geometry of the lattice.

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Unit cell:-

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 The smallest possible portion or part of the crystal
lattice which repeats itself in different directions of the
lattice is called the unit cell. Many unit cells combine
geometrically to form the crystal lattice.
Characteristics of Unit Cell
The following characteristics define a unit cell:
• A unit cell has three edges a, b and c and three angles α,
β and γ between the respective edges.
• These a, b and c may or may not be mutually
perpendicular.
• The angle between edge b and c is α, a and c is β and that
of between a and b is γ.

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Types of unit cell:-
1. Primitive Unit Cells
The unit cell in which the constituent particles
(atoms, ions or molecules) are located only
on the corners of the lattice is called
Primitive Unit Cell.

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2. Centred Unit Cells

The unit cell in which the constituent particles

(atoms, ions or molecules) are located on the corners, as
well as other positions of the lattice, is known as Centred
Unit Cells. A centred unit cell is further divided into three
types:
Body Centred Unit Cells
Face Centred Unit Cells
End Centred Unit Cells

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Body Centred Unit Cells
The unit cell which contains one constituent particle (atom,
molecule or ion) at its body centre and other constituent
particles are located on the corners is called Body Centred
Unit Cells.
Face Centred Unit Cells
The unit cell which contains constituent particles (atoms,
molecules or ions) on each face of the unit cell and other
constituent particles on the corners is called the Face
Centred Unit Cell.
End Centred Unit Cells
In an end centred unit cell, one constituent particle (atom,
molecule or ion) is present at the centre of opposite faces
along with each corners.
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Seven types of crystal system

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