Chapter 22

Short-Circuit Analysis

22.1 Introduction

Power systems as well as industrial systems are designed so that loads are supplied safely and reliably.
One of the major aspects taken into account in the design and operation of electrical systems is the
adequate handling of short-circuits. Although systems are designed to stay as free from short circuits
as possible, they can still occur. A short-circuit condition generally causes large uncontrollable current
flows, which if not properly detected and handled can result in equipment damage, the interruption of
large areas (instead of only the faulted section) as well as placing personnel at risk. A well-designed
system should therefore isolate the short-circuit safely with minimal equipment damage and system
interruption. Typical causes of short-circuits can be the following:

• Lightning discharge in exposed equipment such as transmission lines.

• Premature ageing of the insulation due mainly to permanent overloading, inappropriate ventilation,
etc.

• Atmospheric or industrial salt “Build-Up" in isolators.

• Equipment failure.
• Inappropriate system operation.

One of the many applications of a short-circuit calculation is to check the ratings of network equipment
during the planning stage. In this case, the planner is interested in obtaining the maximum expected
currents (in order to dimension equipment properly) and the minimum expected currents (to aid the
design of the protection scheme). Short-circuit calculations performed at the planning stage commonly
use calculation methods that require less detailed network modelling (such as methods which do not
require load information) and which will apply extreme-case estimations. Examples of these methods
include the IEC 60909/VDE 0102 method [11], the ANSI method and the IEC 61363 method [9] for AC
short circuit calculation and the IEC 61660 method [8] and ANSI/IEEE 946 method [5] for DC short
circuit calculation. A different field of application is the precise evaluation of the fault current in a specific
situation, such as to find out whether the malfunction of a protection device was due to a relay failure or
due to the consequence of improper settings (for example an operational error). These are the typical
applications of exact methods such as the superposition method (also known as the Complete Method),
which is based on a specific network operating point.

The short-circuit calculation in PowerFactory is able to simulate single faults as well as multiple faults
of almost unlimited complexity. As short-circuit calculations can be used for a variety of purposes,
PowerFactory supports different representations and calculation methods for the analysis of short-circuit
currents.

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This chapter presents the handling of the short-circuit calculation methods as implemented in Power-
Factory. Further background on this topic can be found in Section 22.2.

22.2 Technical Background

Beside load flow calculations, short-circuit is one of the most frequently performed calculations when
dealing with electrical networks. It is used both in system planning and system operation.

Typical application examples of short-circuit analysis in system planning include:

• Ensuring that the defined short-circuit capacity of equipment is not exceeded with system expan-
sion and system strengthening.
• Co-ordination of protective equipment (fuses, over-current and distance relays).
• Dimensioning of earth grounding systems.

• Verification of sufficient fault level capacities at load points (e.g. uneven loads such as arc
furnaces, thyristor-driven variable speed drives or dispersed generation).
• Verification of admissible thermal limits of cables and transmission lines.

Example applications of short-circuit analysis in system operation include:

• Ensuring that short-circuit limits are not exceeded with system reconfiguration.

• Determining protective relay settings as well as fuse sizing.

• Calculation of fault location for protective relays, which store fault disturbance recordings.
• Analysis of system faults, e.g. misoperation of protection equipment.

• Analysis of possible mutual interference of parallel lines during system faults.

AC short circuit calculation quantities available in PowerFactory are shown in Figure 22.2.1, also a
graphical representation of the AC short-circuit current time function is illustrated in Figure 22.2.2. Note
that the quantities relating to the IEC 61363 standard [9] and DC short-circuit quantities calculated in
DC short circuit standards IEC 61660 and ANSI/IEEE 946 are not shown in Figure 22.2.1.

Note: The current waveform for a DC short circuit calculation is dependent on the type of DC current
source(s), for more information please refer to Section 22.2.5 and Section 22.2.6 and the relevant
IEC and ANSI/IEEE standards.

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Figure 22.2.1: Areas of Application of Short-Circuit Calculations

According to IEC 60909 [11] the definition of the currents and multiplication factors shown in Fig-
ure 22.2.1 are as follows:

• 𝐼𝑘𝑘𝑠 initial symmetrical short-circuit current (RMS),

• 𝑖𝑝 peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value),

• 𝐼𝑏 symmetrical short-circuit breaking current (RMS),
• 𝐼𝑡ℎ thermal equivalent short-circuit current (RMS),
• 𝜅 factor for the calculation of the peak short-circuit current,

• 𝜇 factor for the calculation of the symmetrical short-circuit breaking current,

• 𝑚 factor for the heat effect of the d.c. component,
• 𝑛 factor for the heat effect of the a.c. component, besides the above currents, the Complete
Method introduces the following current definition:

• 𝑖𝑏 peak short-circuit breaking current (instantaneous value).

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Figure 22.2.2: Short-Circuit Current Time Function

The fundamental difference between the assumptions used by the calculation methods is that for
system planning studies the system operating conditions are not yet known, and therefore estimations
are necessary. To this end, the IEC (and VDE) methods which use an equivalent voltage source at
the fault location have become generally accepted in countries using IEC based standards. For AC
fault calculation, the IEC 60909 [11] (and VDE 0102) methods work independently of the load flow
(operating point) of a system. The methods are based on the nominal and/or calculated dimensions
of the operating point of a system and uses correction factors for voltages and impedances, to give
conservative results. For the calculation of minimum and maximum short-circuit currents, different
correction factors are applied. However, it should be mentioned that both IEC 60909 and VDE 0102 do
not deal with single phase elements (except single phase elements in the neutral conductor).

Another very similar method for AC fault calculation is the ANSI method, predominately used in North
America but accepted in other countries as well. The ANSI method is based on the IEEE Standards
C37.010 [1] which is for equipment applied in medium and high voltage systems (greater than 1000
Volts) and C37.13 [4] which is for power circuit breakers in low voltage systems (less than 1000 Volts).

Other short circuit calculation methods available in PowerFactory include:

• IEC 61363 [9]: Calculation of short-circuit currents on marine or offshore electrical systems such
as ships.
• IEC 61660 [8]: IEC standard for the calculation of short-circuit currents in DC auxiliary systems in
power plants and substations.
• ANSI/IEEE 946 [5]: ANSI/IEEE standard for the calculation of short-circuit currents in DC auxiliary
systems in power plants and substations.

For AC and DC short-circuit calculations in a system operation environment, the exact network operating
conditions are well-known. If the accuracy of the calculation according to approximation methods such
as IEC 60909 [11] is insufficient - or to verify the results of these methods - the superposition method
can be used. The superposition method calculates the expected short-circuit currents in the network
based on the existing network operating condition. If the system models are correct, the results from
this method are always more exact than the results of the approximation method (such as IEC 60909).
Often the system analyst must, however, ensure that the most unfavourable conditions are considered
with respect to the sizing of plant. This may require extensive studies when using a superposition
calculation method.

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22.2.1 The IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method

The IEC 60909/VDE 0102 [11] method uses an equivalent voltage source at the faulted bus and is a
simplification of the superposition method (Complete Method). It is illustrated in Figure 22.2.3. The goal
of this method is to accomplish a close-to-reality short-circuit calculation without the need for the pre-
ceding load-flow calculation and the associated definition of actual operating conditions. Figure 22.2.3
illustrates how the equivalent voltage source method can be derived from the superposition method.
The main simplifications are as follows:

• Nominal conditions are assumed for the whole network, i.e. 𝑈 𝑖 = 𝑈 𝑛, 𝑖

• Load currents are neglected, i.e. 𝐼𝑂𝑝 = 0.

• A simplified simulation network is used, i.e. loads are not considered in the positive and negative
sequence network.
• To ensure that the results are conservatively estimated, a correction factor, c, is applied to the
voltage at the faulted busbar. This factor differs for the calculation of the maximum and the
minimum short-circuit currents of a network.

The short-circuit calculation based on these simplifications may be insufficient for some practical ap-
plications. Therefore, additional impedance correction factors are applied to the physical impedances
of the network elements. This method is described in detail in the following section. Please note in
addition that both IEC 60909 [11] and VDE 0102 do not deal with single phase elements (expect single
phase elements in the neutral conductor).

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Figure 22.2.3: Illustration of the IEC 60909/VDE 0102(shcgrafiec.gif) Method

As illustrated in Figure 22.2.1, IEC 60909 requires the calculation of the initial symmetrical short circuit
current in order to derive the rest of the physical quantities, each of which is a function of the following:

• R/X ratio,
• Machine characteristics
• Synchronous generator type of excitation system,
• Contact parting time,
• Type of network (if it’s radial or meshed),
• Determination if the contribution is “near to" or “far from" the short-circuit location,

Regarding the type of network, IEC 60909 describes three methods for the calculation of (peak short-
circuit current) in meshed networks which are defined as follows:

Method A: Uniform Ratio R/X The 𝜅 factor is determined based on the smallest ratio of R/X of
all the branches contributing to the short-circuit current.

Method B: Ratio R/X at the Short-Circuit Location For this method the 𝜅 factor is multiplied by
1.5 to cover inaccuracies caused by using the ratio R/X from a network reduction with complex
impedances.

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Method C: Equivalent Frequency An equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑐 of the system as seen from

the short-circuit location is calculated assuming a frequency 𝑓𝑐 = 20𝐻𝑧 (for a nominal frequency
𝑓𝑐 = 50𝐻𝑧) or 𝑓𝑐 = 24𝐻𝑧 (for a nominal frequency 𝑓𝑐 = 60𝐻𝑧). This is the recommended Method
in meshed networks.

Note: In PowerFactory methods B and C are available to the user. Method C is the one recommended
in meshed networks. For more information please refer to Section 22.4.4

IEC Impedance Correction Factors

The IEC 60909 method uses only the rated parameters of network elements. This is advantageous in
that only little information is necessary to perform a short-circuit calculation. However, considering that,
for example, the short-circuit contribution of a synchronous generator depends heavily on the excitation
voltage and on the unit transformer tap changer position, the worst-case value of this impedance is
considered by applying a correction factor (< 1).

This idea is illustrated in Figure 22.2.4. The correction factor c should be determined so that 𝐼𝑘′′ =
′′
𝐼𝑘,𝐼𝐸𝐶 . The IEC 60909 standard defines an equation for the correction factor for each element type.

Figure 22.2.4: Principle of Impedance Correction (IEC/VDE Method)

As the IEC 60909 standard includes a worst-case estimation for minimum and maximum short-circuit
currents, some PowerFactory elements require additional data. These elements are:

Lines In their type, the maximum admissible conductor temperature (for minimum short-circuit currents)
must be stated (Figure 22.2.5). Line capacitances are not considered in the positive/negative sequence
systems, but must be used in the zero-sequence system.

Figure 22.2.5: Maximum End Temperature Definition in the Line Type (TypLne)

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Transformers Require a flag indicating whether they are unit or network transformers as shown in
Figure 22.2.6. Network transformers may be assigned additional information about operational limits
which are used for a more precise calculation of the impedance correction factor. Unit transformers are
treated differently depending on whether they have an on-load or a no-load tap changer (Figure 22.2.7).

Figure 22.2.6: Unit Transformer Definition in the Transformer Element (ElmTr2)

Figure 22.2.7: On-Load Tap Changer Definition in the Transformer Type (TypTr2)

Synchronous Machines Subtransient impedances are used. Additionally, information regarding the
voltage range must be given as seen in Figure 22.2.8

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Figure 22.2.8: Voltage Range Definition in the Synchronous Machine Element (ElmSym)

Asynchronous Machines The ratio of starting current to rated current is used to determine the short-
circuit impedance (Figure 22.2.9)

Figure 22.2.9: Locked Rotor Current Definition in the Asynchronous Machine Type (ElmAsymo)

Please refer to the IEC 60909 standard to find detailed information regarding specific equipment models
and correction factors for each element.

22.2.2 The ANSI Method

ANSI provides the procedures for calculating short-circuit currents in the following standards:

• ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.010 [1], IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis.
• ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.13 [4] , IEEE Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers
Used in Enclosures.
• ANSI/IEEE Standard 141 [6], IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution of
Industrial Plants (IEEE Red Book).
• ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.5 [2], IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
Rated on a Total Current Basis. (Standard withdrawn).

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ANSI C37.010 details the procedure for equipment applied in medium and high voltage systems con-
sidering a classification of the generators as either “local" or “remote" depending on the location of
the fault, as well as taking into account motor contribution. The procedure also covers first cycle and
interrupting time currents, with emphasis on interrupting time currents.

ANSI C37.13 details the procedure for power circuit breakers applied in low voltage systems (less than
1000 Volts), while mainly focusing on first-cycle currents, impedance of motors and the fault point X/R
ratio. Typically, fuses and low voltage circuit breakers begin to interrupt in the first half cycle so no
special treatment for interruptive current is given. It could be the case however, that nevertheless the
equipment test include a dc component specification.

Due to the differences in the high and low voltage standards, it would be understandable to say that
two first-cycle calculations are required. The first calculation would be for high voltage busbars and a
second calculation would be for low-voltage busbars.

In IEEE/ANSI Standard 141-1993 [6] (Red Book) a procedure for the combination of first cycle network is
detailed. There is stated that in order to simplify comprehensive industrial system calculations, a single
combination first-cycle network is recommended to replace the two different networks (high/medium-
voltage and low voltage). This resulting combined network is then based on the interpretation of the
ANSI C37.010 [1], ANSI C37.13 [4] and ANSI C37.5 [2] there given.

Total and Symmetrical Current Rating Basis of Circuit Breakers and Fuses according to ANSI
Standards

Depending on the circuit breaker year of construction different ratings are specified. High-voltage circuit
breakers designed before 1964 were rated on “Total" current rating while now a day’s high-voltage circuit
breakers are rated on a “Symmetrical" current basis. The difference between these two definitions is on
how the asymmetry is taken into account. While a “Total" current basis takes into account the ac and
dc decay, “Symmetrical" current basis takes into account only the ac decay. To explain further these
definitions please refer to Figure 22.2.10.

Figure 22.2.10: Asymmetrical Short-Circuit Current

The DC component “DC" is calculated according to the following equation:

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝐷𝐶 = (22.1)
2

The RMS value of the ac component (RMS) is then calculated as:

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𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑅𝑀 𝑆 = (22.2)
2.828

The total interrupting current in RMS is then:

√︀
𝑇 𝑜𝑡 = 𝐷𝐶 2 + 𝑅𝑀 𝑆 2 (22.3)

From the above, Equation (22.2) corresponds to the “Symmetrical" current calculation and Equation
(22.3) to the “Total" current calculation. Some of the main ANSI guidelines for the calculation of short-
circuit currents are the following:

• The pre-fault busbar voltage is assumed to be nominal (1.0 p.u.).

• The fault point X/R ratio is calculated based on a separate resistance network reduction which is
latter used to calculate the peak and total asymmetrical fault current.
• Depending on the location of the fault, the generator currents being fed to the short circuit are
classified as “local" or “remote". A remote source is treated as having only a dc decay, while a local
source is treated as having a dc and ac decay. Depending on this classification, corresponding
curves are used in order to obtain the multiplication factors.

According to ANSI standard, the following short-circuit currents are calculated:

• 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 symmetrical momentary (first cycle) short-circuit current (RMS),

• 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑖 symmetrical interrupting short-circuit current (RMS),
• 𝐼16𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 asymmetrical momentary (Close and Latch - Duty) short-circuit current (RMS). Obtained
by applying a 1.6 factor to 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚
• 𝐼27𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑚 peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value). Obtained by applying a 2.7 factor to
𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 ,
• 𝐼𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 asymmetrical momentary (Close and Latch - Duty) short-circuit current(RMS). Obtained
by applying a factor to 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 according to the calculated X/R ratio,
• 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑚 peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value). Obtained by applying a factor to 𝐼𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚 ,
according to the calculated X/R ratio.

22.2.3 The Complete Method

The complete method (sometimes also known as the superposition method) is, in terms of system
modelling, an accurate calculation method. The fault currents of the short-circuit are determined by
overlaying a healthy load-flow condition before short-circuit inception with a condition where all voltage
supplies are set to zero and the negative operating voltage is connected at the fault location. The
procedure is shown in Figure 22.2.11. The initial point is the operating condition of the system before
short-circuit inception (see Figure 22.2.11a). This condition represents the excitation conditions of the
generators, the tap positions of regulated transformers and the breaker/switching status reflecting the
operational variation.

From these pre-fault conditions the pre-fault voltage of the faulted busbar can be calculated. For the
pure fault condition the system condition is calculated for the situation where, the negative pre-fault
busbar voltage for the faulted bus is connected at the fault location and all other sources/generators are
set to zero (see Figure 22.2.11b). Since network impedances are assumed to be linear, the system
condition after fault inception can be determined by overlaying (complex adding) both the pre-fault and
pure fault conditions (see Figure 22.2.11c).

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Figure 22.2.11: Illustration of the Complete Method

The Complete Methodfor calculating short-circuits has been improved in PowerFactory Version 14 as
described below. Additionally, the quantities described below are shown in Figure 22.2.1.

• A more precise Peak Short-Circuit Current 𝑖𝑝 is calculated based on the accurate subtransient
short-circuit current (which is calculated using the complete method) and the R/X ratio (which is
based on the IEC 60909 standard[11]);
• The Short-Circuit Breaking Current 𝐼𝑏 (RMS value) is calculated based on the subtransient short-
circuit current and the transient short-circuit current (both of which are calculated by the complete
method);

• The Peak Short-Circuit Breaking Current 𝑖𝑏 is calculated from the RMS short-circuit breaking
current 𝐼𝑏 and the decaying d.c. component;
• The Thermal Equivalent Short-Circuit Current 𝐼𝑡ℎ is calculated based on the IEC standard, using
the m and n factors (see Figure 22.2.1). The n-factor calculation uses the transient current instead
of the steady-state current;

• Additionally, loads can have a contribution to the short-circuit current, which can be defined in the
load element (Fault Contribution section of Complete Short-Circuit tab).

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22.2.4 The IEC 61363 Method

The IEC 61363 standard [9]describes procedures for calculating short-circuit currents in three-phase
AC radial electrical installations on ships and on mobile and fixed offshore units.

The IEC 61363 standard [9]defines only calculation methods for three phase (to earth) short circuits.
Typically marine/offshore electrical systems are operated with the neutral point isolated from the hull
or connected to it through an impedance. In such systems, the highest value of short-circuit current
would correspond to a three phase short circuit. If the neutral point is directly connected to the hull,
then the line-to-line, or line-to ship’s hull short-circuit may produce a higher current. Two basic system
calculation approaches can be taken, “time dependent" and “non-time dependent".

According to the IEC 61363 standard [9], PowerFactory calculates an equivalent machine that feeds di-
rectly into the short circuit location. This machine summarizes all “active" and “non-active" components
of the grid.

The short-circuit procedure in IEC 61363 [9] calculate the upper envelope (amplitude) of the maximum
value of the time dependent short-circuit (see Figure 22.2.2). The envelope is calculated using particular
machine characteristics parameters obtainable from equipment manufacturers using recognized testing
methods, and applying the following assumptions:

• All system capacitances are neglected.

• At the start of the short-circuit, the instantaneous value of voltage in one phase at the fault point
is zero.

• During the short-circuit, there is no change in the short-circuit current path.

• The short-circuit arc impedance is neglected.
• Transformers are set at the main tap position.
• The short-circuit occurs simultaneously in all phases.

• For generator connected in parallel, all generators share their active and reactive load proportion-
ally at the start of or during the short-circuit.
• During each discrete time interval, all circuits components react linearly.

The exact guidelines on how this is achieved is specified in the standard.

Because the standard considers specific system components and models (“active" and “non-active")
some of the models that can be used in PowerFactory will have no description according to the standard
(such as External Grids, Voltage Sources, Static Generators, etc.). How these elements are considered
and transformed to a replacement equivalent machine is described in the corresponding Technical
Reference (appendix C).

According to this method, the following short-circuit values are calculated:

• 𝐼”𝑘 initial symmetrical short-circuit current,

• upper envelope of short-circuit current 𝐼𝑘 (𝑡) ,

• 𝑖𝑑𝑐 (𝑡) decaying (aperiodic) component of short-circuit current,
• 𝑖𝑝 peak short-circuit current,
• 𝐼𝑘 steady-state short-circuit current.

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The calculating formulae and methods described produce sufficiently accurate results to calculate the
short-circuit current during the first 100 ms of a fault condition. It is assumed in the standard that during
that short time the control of the generators has no significant influence on the short circuit values. The
method can be used also to calculate the short-circuit current for periods longer than 100 ms when
calculating on a bus system to which the generators are directly connected. For time periods beyond
100 ms the controlling effects of the system voltage regulators may be predominant. Calculations
including the voltage regulator effects are not considered in this standard.

In PowerFactory besides the standard IEC 61363 [9] method, an EMT simulation method is available
which considers also the first 100 ms of a three phase short-circuit.

22.2.5 The IEC 61660 (DC) Method

The IEC 61660 standard [8] describes a detailed method for calculating short-circuit currents in DC
auxiliary systems in power plants and substations. The standard details considerations for voltages up
to 250 VDC. Such systems can be equipped with the following equipment, acting as short-circuit current
sources:

• rectifiers in three-phase AC bridge connection.

• stationary lead-acid batteries.

• smoothing capacitors.
• DC motors with independent excitation.

The IEC 61660 standard [8] defines equations and equivalent circuits which approximate the time-
dependent fault contribution of different DC current sources. The standard also defines correction
factors and approximation methods to determine the total DC short circuit current at the point of fault. A
graphical representation of the DC short-circuit current time function of different DC sources is illustrated
in Figure 22.2.12.

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