CHAPTER FIVE

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

5.1. Training and development

Training: Is a process whereby people acquire capabilities to aid in the achievement of
organizational goals. It involves planned learning activities designed to improve an employee’s
performance at her/his current job. Training refers to the methods used to give new or present
employees the skills they need to perform their jobs. The heart of a continuous effort designed to
improve employee competency and organizational performance. Training typically focuses on
providing employees with specific skills or helping them correct deficiencies in their
performance.

Development: All efforts to provide employees with the abilities the organizations will need in
the future.

Although training is often used with development, the terms are not synonymous. Training
typically focuses on providing employees with specific skills or helping them to correct
deficiencies in their performance. In contrast, development is an effort to provide employees with
the abilities that the organization will need in the future

5.1.1. Objectives of Training and development

Purpose of Employee Training and Development Process

Reasons for emphasizing the growth and development of personnel include

 Creating a pool of readily available and adequate replacements for personnel who may
leave or move up in the organization.
 Enhancing the company's ability to adopt and use advances in technology because of a
sufficiently knowledgeable staff.
 Building a more efficient, effective and highly motivated team, which enhances the
company's competitive position and improves employee morale.
 Ensuring adequate human resources for expansion into new programs.
Research has shown specific benefits that a small business receives from training and developing
its workers, including:

 Increased productivity.
 Reduced employee turnover.
 Increased efficiency resulting in financial gains.
 Decreased need for supervision.
Employees frequently develop a greater sense of self - worth, dignity and well - being as they
become more valuable to the firm and to society . Generally they will receive a greater share of

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the material gains that result from their increased productivity. These factors give them a sense of
satisfaction through the achievement of personal and company goals.

5.1.2. The Training Process

An effective training program administrator should follow these steps:

 Step 1 Define the organizational objectives.

 Step 2 Determine the needs of the training program.
 Step 3 Define training goals.
 Step 4 Develop training methods.
 Step 5 Decide whom to train.
 Step 6 Decide who should do the training.
 Step 7 Administer the training.
 Step 8 Evaluate the training program.
Following these steps will help an administrator develop an effective training program to ensure
that the firm keeps qualified employees who are productive, happy workers. This will contribute
positively to the bottom line.

Step 1 Define the organizational objectives.

Your business should have a clearly defined strategy and set of objectives that direct and drive all
the decisions made especially for training decisions . Firms that plan their training process are
more successful than those that do not. A well - conceived training program can help your firm
succeed. A program structured with the company's strategy and objectives in mind has a high
probability of improving productivity and other goals that are set in the training mission. For any
business, formulating a training strategy requires addressing a series of questions.

 Who are your customers? Why do they buy from you?

 Who are your competitors? How do they serve the market? What competitive advantages
do they enjoy? What parts of the market have they ignored?
 What strengths does the company have? What weaknesses?
 What social trends are emerging that will affect the firm?
The purpose of formulating a training strategy is to answer two relatively simple but vitally
important questions: (1) What is our business? and (2 ) What should our business be ? Armed
with the answers to these questions and a clear vision of its mission, strategy and objectives, a
company can identify its training needs.

Step 2 Determine the needs of the training program

Training needs can be assessed by analyzing three major human resource areas: the organization
as a whole, the job characteristics and the needs of the individuals. This analysis will provide
answers to the following questions:

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  Where is training needed?
 What specifically must an employee learn in order to be more productive?
 Who needs to be trained?
Begin by assessing the current status of the company how it does what it does best and the
abilities of your employees to do these tasks. This analysis will provide some benchmarks against
which the effectiveness of a training program can be evaluated. Your firm should know where it
wants to be in five years from its long – range strategic plan. What you need is a training
program to take your firm from here to there.

Second, consider whether the organization is financially committed to supporting the training
efforts. If not, any attempt to develop a solid training program will fail. Next, determine exactly
where training is needed. It is foolish to implement a company - wide training effort without
concentrating resources where they are needed most. An internal audit will help point out areas
that may benefit from training. Also, a skills inventory can help determine the skills possessed by
the employees in general. This inventory will help the organization determine what skills are
available now and what skills are needed for future development.

Also, in today’s market - driven economy, you would be remiss not to ask your customers what
they like about your business and what areas they think should be improved. In summary, the
analysis should focus on the total organization and should tell you (1) where training is needed
and (2) where it will work within the organization.

Once you have determined where training is needed, concentrate on the content of the program.
Analyze the characteristics of the job based on its description, the written narrative of what the
employee actually does. Training based on job descriptions should go into detail about how the
job is performed on a task- by - task basis. Actually doing the job will enable you to get a better
feel for what is done.

Individual employees can be evaluated by comparing their current skill levels or performance to
the organization's performance standards or anticipated needs, any discrepancies between actual
and anticipated skill levels identifies a training need.

Step 3 Selections of Trainees

Once you have decided what training is necessary and where it is needed, the next decision is
who should be trained? For a small business, this question is crucial. Training an employee is
expensive, especially when he or she leaves your firm for a better job. Therefore, it is important
to carefully select who will be trained.

Training programs should be designed to consider the ability of the employee to learn the
material and to use it effectively, and to make the most efficient use of resources possible. It is
also important that employees be motivated by the training experience. Employee failure in the

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program is not only damaging to the employee but a waste of money as well. Selecting the right
trainees is important to the success of the program.

Step 4 Define training goals.

The goals of the training program should relate directly to the needs determined by the
assessment process outlined above. Course objectives should clearly state what behavior or skill
will be changed as a result of the training and should relate to the mission and strategic plan of
the company. Goals should include milestones to help take the employee from where he or she is
today to where the firm wants him or her in the future. Setting goals helps to evaluate the
training program and also to motivate employees. Allowing employees to participate in setting
goals increases the probability of success.

Step 5 Develop training methods

There are two broad types of training available to small businesses: on - the - job and off - the –
job techniques. Individual circumstances and the "who, " "what" and " why" of your training
program determine which method to use.

On- the- job training is delivered to employees while they perform their regular jobs. In this
way, they do not lose time while they are learning. After a plan is developed for what should be
taught, employees should be informed of the details . A timetable should be established with
periodic evaluations to inform employees about their progress.

Off the job: Training away from the actual work site. Training is at a Training facility designed
specifically for Training

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Training Techniques

 Lecture: The Lecture is an efficient means of transmitting large amounts of factual

information to a relatively large number of people at the same time. It is traditional
method of teaching and is used in many training programs. A skilled lecture can organize
material and present it in a clear and understandable way. However a lecture doesn’t
allow active participation by learners.
• Case method: A Training method in which trainees are expected to study the
information provided in the case and make decisions based on it.
• Apprenticeship: This type of training refers to the process of having new worker, called
an apprentice, work alongside and under the direction of skilled technician.
• Internships: Internships and assistantships provide training similar to apprenticeship
training; however’ assistantships and internships typically refer to occupations that
require a higher level of the formal education than that required by the skilled trades.
Many colleges and universities used to develop agreements with organizations to provide
internships opportunities for students.
• Coaching and Mentoring: Some organizations assign an experienced to serve as a
mentor for new employees. Effective mentors teach their protégés job skills, provide
emotional support and encouragement. Coaching and mentoring are primarily on-the-job
development approaches emphasizing learning on a one-to-one basis. Coaching is often
considered a responsibility of the immediate boss who has greater experience or expertise
and is in the position to offer sage advice. The same is true with a mentor, but this person
may be located elsewhere in the organization or even in another firm. The relationship
may be established formally or it may develop on an informal basis.
• Discussions: Conferences and group discussions, used extensively for making decisions,
can also be used as a form of training because they provide forums where individuals are
able to learn from one another. A major use of the group discussion is to change attitudes
and behaviors.
• Games: Simulations that represent actual business situations are referred to as business
games. These simulations attempt to duplicate selected parts of a particular situation,
which are then manipulated by the participants
• Role playing: A Training method in which participants are required to respond to
specific problems they may actually encounter in their jobs.
• Computer-based: Computer based training is a teaching method that takes advantage of
the speed, memory, and data manipulation capabilities of the computer for greater
flexibility of instruction.
• Multimedia: Multimedia is an application that enhances computer-based learning with
audio, animation, graphics, and interactive video.
• Virtual reality: It is a unique computer-based approach that permits trainees to view
objects from a perspective otherwise impractical or impossible.
• Video Training: The use of videotapes continues to be a popular Training method. An
illustration of the use of videotapes is provided by behavior modeling. Behavior
modeling has long been a successful Training approach that utilizes videotapes to
illustrate effective interpersonal skills and how managers function in various situations.
• Vestibule training: Training that takes place away from the production area on
equipment that closely resembles the actual equipment used on the job. Effective training
programs are effective only if the trainers re able to effectively transfer to required

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 knowledge to trainees but there are certain reasons due to which training programs
transferring becomes ineffective. The reasons re as under:

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT METHODS:

Some development of the individuals’ ability can take place on the job (Job Rotation, assistant-
to-position and committee assignment) and some times off the job methods (Lectures, Courses,
Seminars, Simulation,

Outdoor Training) are to be used to provide the development opportunity to the workforce. We
will have brief discussion on these methods.

• Job Rotation: It involves moving employees to various positions in organization in an

effort to expand their skills, knowledge and abilities. Job rotation can be either horizontal
or vertical. Vertical rotation is nothing more than promoting a worker in to a new
position.
• Assistant to Position: Employees with demonstrated potential are sometimes given the
opportunity to work under a successful manger, often in different areas of organization.
In doing so, these employees get exposure to wide variety of management activities and
are groomed for assuming the duties of next higher level.
• Committee Assignments: Committee Assignments can provide an opportunity for the
employee to share in decision making, to learn by watching others, and to investigate
specific organizational problems.
• Lectures & Seminars: Traditional forms of instruction revolved around formal lecture
course and seminars. These offered opportunity for individuals to acquire knowledge and
develop their conceptual and analytical abilities.
• Simulations: Simulators are training devices of varying degrees of complexity that
duplicate the real world. Simulation refers to creating an artificial learning environment
that approximates the actual job conditions as much as possible.
• Outdoor Training: A trend in employee development has been the use of outdoor
training. The primary focus of such training is to teach trainees the importance of
working together, of gelling as teams. The purpose of these trainings is to see how
employees react to the difficulties that nature presents to them.
Step 6 Decide who should do the training

Who actually conducts the training depends on the type of training needed and who will be
receiving it. On - the - job training is conducted mostly by supervisors; off - the - job training, by
either in – house personnel or outside instructors.

In - house training is the daily responsibility of supervisors and employees. Supervisors are
ultimately responsible for the productivity and, therefore, the training of their subordinates.
These supervisors should be taught the techniques of good training. They must be aware of the
knowledge and skills necessary to make a productive employee. Trainers should be taught to
establish goals and objectives for their training and to determine how these objectives can be
used to influence the productivity of their departments. They also must be aware of how adults
learn and how best to communicate with adults. Small businesses need to develop their

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supervisors ' training capabilities by sending them to courses on training methods. The
investment will pay off in increased productivity.

There are several ways to select training personnel for off - the - job training programs. Many
small businesses use in - house personnel to develop formal training programs to be delivered to
employees off line from their normal work activities, during company meetings or individually at
prearranged training sessions .

There are many outside training sources, including consultants, technical and vocational
schools, continuing education programs, chambers of commerce and economic development
groups.

Selecting an outside source for training has advantages and disadvantages. The biggest
advantage is that these organizations are well versed in training techniques, which is often not
the case with in - house personnel.

The disadvantage of using outside training specialists is their limited knowledge of the
company's product or service and customer needs. These trainers have a more general knowledge
of customer satisfaction and needs. In many cases , the outside trainer can develop this
knowledge quickly by immersing himself or herself in the company prior to training the
employees . Another disadvantage of using outside trainers is the relatively high cost compared
to in - house training, although the higher cost may be offset by the increased effectiveness of the
training.

Whoever is selected to conduct the training, either outside or in - house trainers, it is important
that the company's goals and values be carefully explained.

Step7 Administer the training..

Having planned the training program properly, you must now administer the training to the
selected employees. It is important to follow through to make sure the goals are being met.
Questions to consider before training begins include :

 Location.
 Facilities.
 Accessibility.
 Comfort.
 Equipment.
 Timing.
Careful attention to these operational details in all process stage of training will contribute to the
success of the training program.

Step 8 Evaluate the training program.

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Training should be evaluated several times during the process. Determine these milestones when
you develop the training. Employees should be evaluated by comparing their newly acquired
skills with the skills defined by the goals of the training program. Any discrepancies should be
noted and adjustments made to the training program to enable it to meet specified goals. Many
training programs fall short of their expectations simply because the administrator failed to
evaluate its progress until it was too late . Timely evaluation will prevent the training from
straying from its goals.

The credibility of training is greatly enhanced when it can be shown that the organization has
benefited tangibly from such programs. Organizations have taken several approaches in
attempting to determine the worth of specific programs. In this phase, the effectiveness of the
training is assessed. Effectiveness can be measured in monetary or non-monetary terms. It is
important that the training be assessed on how well it addresses the needs it was designed to
address.

• Participants’ Opinions: Evaluating a training program by asking the participants’

opinions of it is an inexpensive approach that provides an immediate response and
suggestions for improvements. The basic problem with this type of evaluation is that it is
based on opinion rather than fact. In reality, the trainee may have learned nothing, but
perceived that a learning experience occurred.
• Extent of Learning: Some organizations administer tests to determine what the
participants in training program have learned. The pretest, posttest, control group design
is one evaluation procedure that may be used.
• Behavioral Change: Tests may indicate fairly accurately what has been learned, but they
give little insight into desired behavioral changes.
• Accomplishment of Training Objectives: Still another approach to evaluating training
programs involves determining the extent to which stated objectives have been achieved.
• Benchmarking Benchmarking utilizes exemplary practices of other organizations to
evaluate and improve training programs. It is estimated that up to 70 percent of American
firms engage in some sort of benchmarking.
• A Case for Simplicity: Value is the measure of impact and positive change elicited by
the training.
The most common approaches used to determine the effectiveness of training programs are as
under:

• Post Training Performance Method: In this method the participants’ performance is

measured after attending a training program to determine if behavioral changes have been
made.
• Pre-Post Test approach: Most commonly used approach towards measurement of
effectiveness of training is Pretest Post test approach this approach performances the
employees is measured prior to training and if required training is provided. After
completion if the training again the performance is measured this is compared with
performance before training if evaluation is positive e.g. increase in productivity that
means that training is effective.

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 • Pre- Post Training Performance with control group Method: Under this evaluation
method, two groups are established and evaluated on actual job performance. Members of
the control group work on the job but do not undergo instructions. On the other hand, the
experimental group is given the instructions. At the conclusion of the training, the two
groups are reevaluated. If the training is really effective, the experimental group’s
performance will have improved, and its performance will be substantially better than
that of the control group.

5.2. Career Development

Career is the sequence of positions that a person has hold over his/her life. Traditionally, career
development referred to programs offered by organizations to help employees advance within the
organization. Today, each individual must take responsibility for his or her career.
Organizations now focus on matching the career needs of employees with the requirements of
the organization. While many organizations still invest in their employees, they don’t offer
career security and they can’t meet the needs of everyone in a diverse workforce.

5.2.1. Individual career planning

Career planning begins with self-understanding. Then, the person is in a position to establish
realistic goals and determine what to do to achieve these goals. Learning about oneself is referred
to as self-assessment. Some useful tools include a strength/weakness balance sheet and a likes
and dislikes survey. Strength/weakness balance sheet: A self-evaluation procedure assists
people in becoming aware of their strengths and weaknesses. Likes and dislikes survey: A
procedure that assists individuals in recognizing restrictions they place on themselves.

5.2.2. Career Planning Methods

There are numerous methods for career planning and development. Some currently utilized
methods, most of which are used in various combinations, are discussed next.

• Discussions with Knowledgeable Individuals—In a formal discussion, the superior and

subordinate may jointly agree on what type of career planning and development activities
are best. In other instances, psychologists and guidance counselors provide this service.
In an academic setting, colleges and universities often provide career planning and
development information to students. Students often go to their professors for career
advice.
• Company Material—Some firms provide material specifically developed to assist their
workers in career planning and development. Such material is tailored to the firm’s
special needs. In addition, job descriptions provide valuable insight for individuals to
personally determine if a match exists with their strengths and weaknesses and specific
positions considered.
• Performance Appraisal System—The firm’s performance appraisal system can also be
a valuable tool in career planning and development. Noting and discussing an employee’s
strengths and weaknesses with his or her supervisor can uncover developmental needs. If

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 overcoming a particular weakness seems difficult or even impossible, an alternate career
path may be the solution.
• Workshops—Some organizations conduct workshops lasting two or three days for the
purpose of helping workers develop careers within the company. Employees define and
match their specific career objectives with the needs of the company. At other times,
workshops are available in the community that the company may send the worker to or
workers may initiate the visit themselves.
• Personal Development Plans (PDP)—Many employers encourage employees to write
their own personal development plans. This is a summary of a person’s personal
development needs and an action plan to achieve them. Workers are encouraged to
analyze their strengths and weaknesses.
• Software Packages—Some software packages assist employees in navigating their
careers.
• Career Planning Web Sites—There are numerous Web sites available that provide
career planning and career counseling as well as career testing and assessment.

5.2.3. Career Paths

Career paths have historically focused on upward mobility within a particular occupation. One of
four types of career paths may be used: traditional, network, lateral, and dual.

• Traditional Career Path—An employee progresses vertically upward in the

organization from one specific job to the next.
• Network Career Path—A method of career pathing that contains both a vertical
sequence of jobs and a series of horizontal opportunities.
• Lateral Skill Path—Traditionally, a career path was viewed as moving upward to
higherlevels of management in the organization. The availability of the previous two
options has diminished considerably in recent years. But this does not mean that an
individual has to remain in the same job for life. There are often lateral moves within the
firm that can be taken to allow an employee to become revitalized and find new
challenges.
• Dual-Career Path— A career-path method, that recognizes that technical specialists can
and should be allowed to continue to contribute their expertise to a company without
having to become managers.
• Adding Value To Retain Present Job—Regardless of the career path pursued, today’s
workers need to develop a plan whereby they are viewed as continually adding value to
the organization. If employees cannot add value, the company does not need them, and
much of the evolving work environments cannot use them either. Workers must
anticipate what tools will be needed for success in the future and obtain these skills.
These workers must look across company lines to other organizations to determine what
skills are transferable, and then go and get them. Essentially, today’s workers must
manage their own careers as never before.
• Demotion—Demotions have long been associated with failure, but limited promotional
opportunities in the future and the fast pace of technological change may make them
more legitimate career options.

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5.2.4. Internal Barriers to Career Advancement
There can be following types of barrier that can influence the effectiveness of the career
advancement.

• Lack of time, budgets, and resources for employees to plan their careers and to undertake
training and development.
• Rigid job specifications, lack of leadership support for career management, and a short-
term focus.
• Lack of career opportunities and pathways within the organization for employees

5.2.5. Successful Career-Management Practices

Following steps can be helpful towards successful career management practices in the
organizations.

• Placing clear expectations on employees.

• Giving employees the opportunity for transfer.
• Providing a clear succession plan
• Encouraging performance through rewards and recognition.
• Encouraging employees to continually assess their skills and career direction.
• Giving employees the time and resources they need to consider short- and long-term
career goals.

5.2.6. Career development stages

Many authors have attempted to map out the ideal stages of a successful career, matched against
an age range for each stage. Few careers follow such an idealised pattern, and even historically
such a pattern did not apply for all employees. However, the stage approach offers a useful
framework for understanding career experiences, if we use it flexibly as a tool for understanding
careers rather than as a normative model.

Stage 1: occupational choice: preparation for work/Exploration

Includes school and early work experiences, such as internships, Involves: trying out different
fields, discovering likes and dislikes and forming attitudes toward work and social relationship
patterns

It involves developing an occupational self-image. The key theme is a matching process between
the strengths/weaknesses, values and desired lifestyle of the individual and the requirements and
benefits of a range of occupations.
One of the difficulties that can arise at this stage is a lack of individual selfawareness. There are
countless tests available to help identify individual interests, but these can only complete part of
the picture, and need to be complemented by structured exercises, which help people look at
themselves from a range of perspectives. Other problems involve individuals limiting their
choice due to social, cultural, gender or racial characteristics. Although we use role models to
identify potential occupations, and these extend the range of options we consider, this process
may also close them down. Another difficulty at this stage is gaining authentic information
about careers which are different from the ones pursued by family and friends.

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Stage 2: organizational entry Establishment

Includes: search for work, getting first job, getting evidence of “success” or “failure” and Takes
time and energy to find a “niche” and to “make your mark”. It involves the individual in both
finding a job which corresponds with their occupational self-image, and starting to do that job.

Problems here centre on the accuracy of information that the organization provides, so that when
the individual begins work expectations and reality may be very different. Recruiters
understandably ‘sell’ their organizations and the job to potential recruits, emphasizing the best
parts and neglecting the downside.
Applicants often fail to test their assumptions by asking for the specific information they really
need. In addition, schools, colleges and universities have, until recently, only prepared students
for the technical demands of work, ignoring other skills that they will need, such as
communication skills, influencing skills and dealing with organisational politics.
Stage 3: early career – establishment and achievement

The age band for early career is between 25 and 40 years. The establishment stage involves
fitting into the organization and understanding ‘how things are done around here’. Thorough
induction programmes are important, but more especially it is important to provide the new
recruit with a ‘real’ job and early challenges rather than a roving commission from department to
department with no real purpose, as often found on trainee schemes. Feedback and support from
the immediate manager are also key.

The achievement part of this stage is demonstrating competence and gaining greater
responsibility and authority. It is at this stage that access to opportunities for career development
becomes key. Development within the job and opportunities for promotion and broadening
moves are all aided if the organisation has a structured approach to career development,
involving career ladders, pathways or matrices, but not necessarily hierarchical progression.
Feedback remains important, as do opportunities and support for further career exploration and
planning. Organisations are likely to provide the most support for ‘high fliers’ who are seen as
the senior management of the future and who may be on ‘fast track’ programmes.

Stage 4: mid-career

Greenhaus and Callanan (1994) suggest that the mid-career stage usually falls between the ages of 40 to
55, and may involve further growth and advancement or the maintenance of a steady state. In either case
it is generally accompanied by some form of re-evaluation of career and life direction. A few will
experience decline at this stage. For those who continue to advance, organisational support remains
important. Some people whose career has reached a plateau will experience feelings of failure.
Organisational support in these cases needs to involve the use of lateral career paths,

Stage 5: late career

The organisation’s task in the late career stage is to encourage people to continue performing well. This is
particularly important as some sectors are experiencing skills shortages and there are moves by some

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companies to allow individuals to stay at work after the state retirement age. Despite the stereotypes that
abound defining older workers as slower and less able to learn, Mayo (1991) argues that if organizations
believe these employees will do well and treat them accordingly they will perform well. Greenhaus and
Callanan point out that the availability of flexible work patterns, clear performance standards, continued
training and the avoidance of discrimination are helpful at this stage, combined with preparation for
retirement.

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