What Is Mahram?

Mahram: Derived from the word haraam, which literally means

Women’s
something that is prohibited, mahram in fiqh (Islamic
jurisprudence) refers to a person with whom marriage
is prohibited because of their close blood relationship,

Mobility in
because of radaa’ah (breastfeeding), or because of being
related by marriage. When the Taliban took control of
Kabul... in September 1996, the Supreme Council issued

Islam
edicts forbidding women to work outside the home,
attend school, or leave the house unless accompanied by
a mahram. Since August 2021, the Taliban has increased
control of girls’ and women’s freedom of movement
and reinstalled the requirement to be accompanied by

Islam has always encouraged women to take a public a mahram whenever a woman leaves home. The use of
role in their communities, whether as students, wives, mahram is becoming more prominent, with some women
employees, or in practice of their faith. The requirement reporting that the male-relative escort is nonnegotiable
that a woman travel in the company of a mahram and others sharing that they voluntarily adhere to this
was established centuries ago, but modern Muslim practice for fear of being attacked, punished, or harassed.
women are socially mobile, contributing to al-maslaha
al-mursala (public good) without need of a male escort.

What Does the Holy Quran Say

About Mahram?
There is no specific verse in the Holy Quran prescribing
that a woman be in the company of her mahram when she
leaves home. Surah an-Nisa discusses those with whom
marriage is prohibited:

“Prohibited to you (For marriage) are: Your

mothers, daughters, sisters; father’s sisters,
Mother’s sisters; brother’s daughters, sister’s
daughters; foster-mothers (Who gave you
suck), foster-sisters; your wives’ mothers;
your step-daughters under your guardianship,
born of your wives to whom ye have gone in,
no prohibition if ye have not gone in; (Those
who have been) wives of your sons proceeding
from your loins; and two sisters in wedlock at
one and the same time, except for what is past;
for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.” 1

1 Mahram: Women’s Mobility in Islam

According to this verse, a woman’s mahram is an What About the Hadith?
unmarriageable person because of their close blood
relationship, breastfeeding, or because of being related by Some Muslims point to two hadith to justify requiring
marriage. It follows that a woman is not allowed to marry women to have a mahram during travel, even though no
her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, etc.; her son, verses in the Holy Quran speak to this. The first is reported
grandson, great-grandson, etc.; her paternal and maternal by Abu Hurairah, who states that the Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬said,
uncles; her brother, brother’s son, and sister’s son; the “It is not permissible for a woman who believes in Allah
brother and husband of the woman who breastfed her; and the last day to make a journey of one day and night
the mother’s husband, the husband’s father, grandfather, unless she is accompanied by a mahram (husband or male
etc.; or the husband’s son, grandson, etc. relative whom she is prohibited to marry).”4

Other verses used by some Muslims to insist that women The second hadith is reported by Ibn ’Abbas, who states
always leave home with a mahram are the 33rd and 59th that the Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬said,
verses of Surah al Ahzab:
“No man must be alone with a woman
“Settle in your homes, and do not display except in the presence of her mahram. No
yourselves as women did in the days of woman should travel except in the company
˹pre-Islamic˺ ignorance. Establish prayer, of a mahram A man said: ‘O Messenger of
pay alms-tax, and obey Allah and His Allah! I have been enrolled for such and
Messenger. Allah only intends to keep such expedition, and my wife left for Haj.’
˹the causes of˺ evil away from you and He (‫ )ﷺ‬said to him, ’Go and perform Haj
purify you completely, O members of the with your wife.’” 5
˹Prophet’s˺ family!” 2
The sunnah of the Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬and his companions,
“O Prophet! Say to your wives, your however, show that women during the time of the Prophet
daughters and the women of believers that, (‫ )ﷺ‬traveled without a companion. For example, “Ibrahim
(whilst going out,) they should draw their narrated from his father, that his grandfather narrated that
veils as coverings over them. It is more Umar in his last Hajj allowed the wives of the Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬to
likely that this way they may be recognized perform Hajj and he sent with them Uthman bin Affan and
(as pious, free women), and may not be Abdul Rahman bin Auf as escorts.”6 This tradition shows
hurt (considered by mistake as roving slave that Aisha and several of the Prophet’s (‫ )ﷺ‬wives traveled
girls). And Allah is Most Forgiving, Ever- from Madinah to Makkah without being accompanied by
Merciful.” 3 a mahram. Scholars Siti Fatimah Salleh et. Al note that,
“It is based on this incident that the religious scholars and
These verses, which instruct the wives of the Prophet (‫)ﷺ‬ the mujtahid issued a legal ruling regarding a particular
to not “imitate pagan women” by wandering the streets, issue by taking into consideration the surrounding factors
however, do not apply to all Muslim women nor at all times. at that time.”7
Neither verse prohibits a woman from leaving her house
or traveling without a mahram, nor does either require Rulings of Islamic jurists about women traveling differ.8
having a mahram in the workplace. The verses stipulate According to the Hanafi legal school, the requirement
that when she leaves the house, a woman should observe for a traveling woman to be accompanied by a mahram
the veil while outside. These commandments, in fact, are only applies when the one-way journey to a destination
great justification for women stepping out of their homes exceeds a travel time of three days.9 The emphasis here
and becoming active members within society. is on actual travel time, not on the entire duration of a trip
or stay elsewhere. This is explicitly clear in a respected

Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security 2

compendium for Hanafi legal opinion, the Fatawa al- Mahram and Women’s Mobility
Hindiyya, in reference to women traveling for the hajj
pilgrimage: “One of the conditions for a woman, young in Islamic History
or old, to travel for hajj is that she be accompanied by a
mahram if the distance between her and Mecca is of three Making women’s social mobility dependent on the
days. If the traveling distance is less than that, then she presence of a male relative is not a traditional practice
may perform her hajj without a mahram.” 10
of Islam. The Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬legitimized participation of
women in major political and social movements and
Under the rules of ijtihad, including looking at the asbab encouraged group activities according to their abilities.
al wurud (reasons why a hadith was said by the Prophet For example, after the Prophet’s (‫ )ﷺ‬death, his widow
(‫))ﷺ‬, isnad (chain of narration), and illah (the effective Aisha, one of the most revered sahaba, a talented poet,
reason), various Muslim scholars 11
have concluded that and a knowledgeable scholar of hadith and sunnah, was
women were restricted at the time of the Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬out an important public figure who received men and women
of concern for their safety. If the woman’s safety concerns seeking her expertise.15 Abd’al Barr (d.1070), who focuses
were addressed, there was nothing to prevent her from mainly on Aisha’s public role, shares a narration by Ata
traveling without a mahram. Scholars support this view by ibn Abi Rabah, who said: “A’isha was the most revered
referring to the hadith narrated by Adiy bin Hatim, which person on issues of fiqh. She was the most knowledgeable
states that the Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬said: of all people and was known to have the best opinion in
public.”16
“If you live a long life you will see a woman
traveling from Hirah (Iraq) to perform tawaf Kitab al-nisa (Women’s Volume) of the famous Kitab al
(in Mecca) fearing no one except Allah.” 12 Tabaqat al Kubra (The Great Generations) by Abu Abd
Allah Mohammed ibn Sa’d (d.845) shows that many
The Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬foresaw that in the future, a woman would women participated in the bay’ah (pledge of allegiance to
travel without her spouse or mahram; the prohibition the Prophet (‫))ﷺ‬, in demanding divorce, or working and
at the time existed because women were threatened by earning money.17 Other women, as mentioned earlier,
innumerable types of crime and their safety could not be including family members of the Prophet (‫)ﷺ‬, traveled
guaranteed. 13
Numerous Muslim scholars have opined to Mecca for pilgrimage without a mahram. On many
that a woman can travel without a mahram as long as her occasions, even physical danger did not stop women from
life and safety can be assured. This opinion is supported by participating in public life or traveling, including traveling
modern-day scholars and institutions such as Sheikh Yusuf with armies. After the Prophet’s (‫ )ﷺ‬death, for example,
Al Qaradawi, 14
the European Fatwa Council, Darul Ifta of Aisha led the army against caliph `Ali in the Battle of the
Egypt, Shaykh Qaradaghi, Camel.
and scholars from Al-
Azhar, who state that it is If the act of a woman stepping out of her home was
permissible for a woman to prohibited, even under the conditions of insecurity, why
travel without a mahram. did the revered wives of the Holy Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬and many
others participate in battles? Aisha was not the only
woman who went to the battlefield: Ibn Sa’d states that
Umm Umara, also known as Nusayba bint Ka’b, fought
using a sword and arrows at the battles of Uhud, Khaybar,
Hunayn, and Yamama, suffering 12 wounds and losing
a hand.18 She also was one of the women at the Aqaba
pledge (bay’ah) as well as the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. Ibn
Sa’d also mentions that Umm Salim participated in the

3 Mahram: Women’s Mobility in Islam

Battle of Uhud while pregnant and reports that when and other challenges made traveling difficult for all. To
Umm Salim asked the Prophet’s (‫ )ﷺ‬permission to join address such issues, the Abbasid queen Zubayda (Zubaida
the battle, he replied that many women had already asked bint Ibn Mansur) (d.831) commissioned a series of wells,
him and been granted permission and gave her the option reservoirs, and pools from Baghdad to Mecca and Medina
of joining his troop or remaining with her own tribe. 19
In to ease travel for pilgrims.
addition, the first martyr in Islam was a woman named
Sumayya bint Khayyat. During these centuries, mahram was not a requirement. If
it had been, many of these women would have been unable
Women participated in their communities and traveled to get an education; work; or travel for work, family, or
without a mahram during the course of Islamic history. pilgrimage. The requirement of mahram developed later,
This practice continued in the period of the rightly guided when wars and social turmoil caused Muslim civilization
caliphs after the period of Prophethood. It is relayed in to disintegrate into feudalism around the time of the
the books of Sira that women were part of the parliament Crusades. Disorder threatened the public sphere, leading
(majlis al-shura) during the period of ‘Umar b. al-Khattab jurists to rule that women had to be accompanied by a
(may Allah be well pleased with him). 20
During the rule mahram for their safety. Over time, these rulings became
of ‘Uthman (may Allah be well pleased with him), women extreme, and secluded and barred women altogether
were designated as ambassadors to other countries. 21
from the public sphere.
Women studied in various fields, including tafsir, fiqh, and
hadith, math, science, music, rhetoric, and poetry, among
others. For example, Sunni scholar Mohammad Akram
Nadwi, in his work Al-Muhaddithat, identifies over 8,000
women scholars of hadith throughout Islamic history
and shows that women attained high rank in all spheres
of knowledge of the religion; were sought after for their
fiqh, for their fatwas, and for tafsir; and taught both men
and women.22 Amat-Al-Wahid Sutaita Al-Mahamli from
Baghdad (d.987), an expert in arithmetic and successoral
calculations, excelled in many other fields including Arabic
literature, hadith, and jurisprudence, and was praised
by leading scholars of her time.23 Lobana (or Lubna) of
Córdoba, a tenth-century Muslim woman, was known for
her knowledge in the sciences and was private secretary
to al-Hakam II, the Umayyad caliph of Islamic Spain.24
Consequences of Restricting
Maryam Al-Ijliya (d.967), a maker of astrolabes in Northern Women’s Mobility
Syria, is mentioned in Ibn al-Nadim’s bibliographical work
Al-Fihrist.25 Requiring a woman to be in the company of a mahram
to leave home or travel — to go to the hospital, attend
Participation in public life required women to leave their school, or reach her workplace, for example — has serious
homes and at times travel long distances, often without implications for a woman’s family and her community.
a mahram. Means of travel included camels (in Arabia), Decades of war have changed gender dynamics in
horses (Anatolia and Asia), and boats. Historical accounts Afghanistan. More women have become heads of
and journals of famous travelers such as Ibn Battuta household, a role traditionally reserved for men, as
(d.1369) and Evliya Celebi (d.1682) show that women’s men have been killed or injured. For these women, it is
presence in caravans, hostels, or aboard ships was not practically impossible to be accompanied by a mahram,
infrequent or unusual. Often, bad roads, difficult terrain,
26
as their male relatives may be dead, have gone missing,

Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security 4

or have migrated. This impedes them from safely leaving
home to attain basic services such as health care (with
negative impacts on maternal, children’s prenatal,
and early-childhood health) or access water, food, and
medicine.

Islam urges Muslim men and women to pursue spiritual

and intellectual knowledge, participate in the life of their
communities, seek justice, and have gainful employment.27
None of these can be accomplished if a woman is restricted
to the home and denied access to public places such as
universities, mosques, hospitals, workplaces, and voting
stations. Especially today, many women need to work to
contribute to the economic well-being of their families.
They need to travel to get an education or to take their
children to the doctor. They need to go to the grocery store
and pharmacy; to travel for work; to attend conferences,
seminars, or charity missions; and to perform pilgrimage.
Mahram and Women’s Mobility
Today
In particular, restricting women’s movement impacts
those women who are heads of household and must work Today, the tradition of mahram is falling away in many
to care for their family. Preventing them from accessing Muslim countries. No other Muslim nations have strict
sources of livelihood and taking care of their family clearly mahram rules like Afghanistan. Most recently, Saudi Arabia
goes against the Islamic principles of justice and maqasid of changed its laws regarding mahram: since August 2019,
shariah. Asking men to accompany women to accomplish
28
women over the age of 21 do not need a male guardian’s
basic chores, to work, or to attend school adds to men’s permission to travel.29
burden and restricts their movement, as well. The result
is the undermining of the central Islamic principles of It is important to remember that the rule of mahram came
maqasid of shariah and masalih al-mursalah. about at a time when long-distance travel was extremely
difficult. Travel has modernized and is much safer and
more comfortable: neither women nor men need to
travel long distances over difficult terrain on the back of
a donkey, camel, or horse, and innovations in science and
technology mean that long distances can be covered in
less time and more securely.

Many contemporary fiqh scholars are of the opinion that

women can travel without a mahram. For example, after
evaluating the hadith that prohibits women from traveling
and identifying the purpose (maqasid) of the legal ruling
through the legal reasoning (illah) behind the prohibition,
Al-Qaradawi concluded that women today can travel
without their mahram. The reason for the prohibition, he
says, was concern for women traveling alone without their
spouse or mahram during an era where animals were

5 Mahram: Women’s Mobility in Islam

the only mode of transportation, journeys could entail in Indonesia, reminds us that the prohibition of women
crossing vast deserts, and women were subject to attacks traveling without a mahram is a conditional thing and that
and other violations. 30
the spirit of mahram is protection of weak people, whether
physically (dha’ief) or socially (mustadl’afin).
Islamic advisory body Dar al-Ifta Al-Misriyyah concluded:
“The opinion appropriate for fatwa at present is that it is The prohibition of women to work, travel, or go to school
permissible and there is no objection to a woman traveling without a mahram is a violation of women’s God-given
alone by the various safe routes and means of travel via rights to work, get an education, and have freedom
their venues such as airports, harbors and the like. This of movement.34 In society today, the state must be
applies whether she is traveling for something obligatory, responsible for women’s public safety and security and
recommended or permissible. The hadiths forbidding must not depend on others.35 A state is not entitled to
a woman to travel without a mahram pertain to lack of prohibit rights given by God if it is unable to provide for
security which was the case in previous times. Based on the security and safety of its people.
this, if a woman’s safety is ensured, the prohibition is
lifted.”31

There also are contemporary fatwas on women traveling

to acquire knowledge, which say that it is permissible
for a woman to travel to peaceful countries in order to
acquire knowledge provided that the woman abides by
the ethics of Islam.32 Renowned Iraqi scholar Abdul Karim
Zaydan (d.2014) was of the opinion that it is permissible
for a woman to travel without a mahram for the purpose
of obtaining knowledge. However, he said, a woman who
wishes to travel alone abroad should ensure the safety and
peaceful condition of the country and refer to its embassy
or ministry to sustain the Islamic values of protection over
women’s safety and self-dignity.33 Faqihuddin Abdul Kodir,
a Muslim scholar and founder of the Fahmina Institute

Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security 6

Endnotes
1 Holy Quran 4: 22-23. 27 Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, “Women and Girls
Education in Islam,” (Brief, Washington, DC, 2022; Georgetown Institute for
2 Holy Quran 33:33.
Women, Peace and Security, “Women’s Right to Gainful Employment and Political
3 Holy Quran 33:59. Participation in Islam” (Brief, Washington, DC, 2022).

4 Sunan Al Bukhari and Muslim 28 Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, “Women and Girls
Education in Islam.”
5 Sunan Al Bukhari and Muslim
29 “Saudi Arabia 2021,” Amnesty International, https://www.amnesty.org/en/
6 M.I. Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari dalam Mausu‘at al-Hadith al-Sharif: al-Kutub al-
location/middle-east-and-north-africa/saudi-arabia/report-saudi-arabia/; Hena
Sittah, ed. Salih bin ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Al al-Shaykh (Al-Riyad: Maktabah Dar al-Salam,
Pejdah, “Evolution of Women’s Rights in Saudi Arabia,” The Borgen Project, October
1999); Siti Fatimah Salleh, Engku Muhammad Tajuddin Engku Ali, and Tengku
16, 2020, https://borgenproject.org/womens-rights-saudi-arabia/; Emma Graham-
Fatimah Muliana Tengku Muda, “The Influence Of Social Changes On The Islamic
Harrison, “Saudi Arabia allows women to travel without male guardian’s approval,”
Legal Ruling Concerning Travelling Women,” International Journal of Academic
The Guardian, August 2, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/01/
Research in Business and Social Sciences 7, no. 8 (2017): 540-550.
saudi-women-can-now-travel-without-a-male-guardian-reports-say.
7 Siti Fatimah Salleh et al., “The Influence Of Social Changes…,” (2017): 544.
30 Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Kayfa Nata‘amal Ma‘a al-Sunnah al-Nabawiyyah (Cairo: Dar
8 Siti Fatimah Salleh et al., “The Influence Of Social Changes…,” (2017). Shorouq, 2000) in Siti Fatimah Salleh et al., “The Influence Of Social Changes…,”
(2017): 546.
9 Zafar Ahmad Usmani Thanvi, I‘la’ al-Sunan (Multan: Maktaba Imdadia, n.d.), 3:30-1.
31 “Can I travel alone with no mahram?,” Dar al-Ifta Al-Misriyyah, accessed March 11,
10 Shaykh Niẓam et al., Al-Fatawa al-Hindiyya (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya, 2000), 2022, https://www.dar-alifta.org/Foreign/ViewFatwa.aspx?ID=6128.
1:241-2.
32 Siti Fatimah Salleh et al., “The Influence Of Social Changes…,” (2017): 546.
11 Yusuf al-Qaradawi, “What is The Ruling Regarding a Women Going to Hajj Without
a Mahram?,” trans. Sister Marwa, Virtual Mosque, July 3, 2009, accessed March 33 A. K. Zaydan, Huquq wa Wajibat al-Mar’ah Fi al-Islam (Lubnan: Mu’assasah al-
1, 2022, https://www.virtualmosque.com/islam-studies/faqs-and-fatwas/what- Risalah, 2004) in Siti Fatimah Salleh et al., “The Influence Of Social Changes…,”
is-sharia-ruling-regarding-a-women-going-to-hajj-without-a-mahram-dr-yusuf- (2017): 547.
al-qaradawi/; “What is the ruling on women performing the pilgrimage without a
34 Georgetown Institute for Women, Pease and Security, “Women and Girls
mahram?,” Dar al-Ifta Al-Misriyyah, http://www.dar-alifta.org/Foreign/ViewFatwa.
Education in Islam;” Georgetown Institute for Women, Pease and Security,
aspx?ID=8127; Faqihuddin Abdul Kodir, “The Concept of Mahram (Guardianship)
“Women’s Right to Gainful Employment and Leadership in Islam.”
and Women Protection,” Swara Rahima, October 2, 2020, https://swararahima.
com/en/2020/10/02/the-concept-of-mahram-guardianship-and-women- 35 Faquhuddin Abdul Kodir, “The Concept of Mahram (Guardianship) and Women
protection/. Protection,” Swara Rahima, October 2, 2020, accessed March 11, 2020, https://
swararahima.com/en/2020/10/02/the-concept-of-mahram-guardianship-and-
12 Al-Bukhari
women-protection/.
13 Siti Fatimah Salleh et al., “The Influence Of Social Changes…,” (2017): 545.

14 Yusuf al-Qaradawi, “What is The Ruling Regarding a Women Going to Hajj Without
a Mahram?”

15 Amira Abou-Taleb, “Constructing the Image of Model Muslim Women: Gender

Discourse in Ibn Sa’d’s Kitab al tabaqat al-kubra,” Islamic Interpretive Tradition and
Gender Justice: Process of Canonization, Subversion, and Change, ed. Nevin Reda and
Yasmin Amin (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2020), 191.

16 Ibn Abd’al-Barr, Al Istirab (1939) in Amira Abou-Taleb, “Constructing the Image of

Model Muslim Women…,” (2020), 191.

17 Amira Abou-Taleb, “Constructing the Image of Model Muslim Women…,” (2020), 182.

18 Amira Abou-Taleb, “Constructing the Image of Model Muslim Women…,” (2020), 193.

19 Amira Abou-Taleb, “Constructing the Image of Model Muslim Women…,” (2020), 193.

20 ‘Abd al-Razzaq, al-Musannaf, 6:180 §10420.

21 Al-Tabari, Tarikh al-Umam wa al-Muluk, 2:601.

22 Mohammad Akram Nadwi, Al-Muhaddithat: The Women Scholars in Islam (Interface

Publications, 2007), 3.

23 Salim al Hassani, “Early Women of Science, Technology, Medicine and

Management,” Muslim Heritage, https://muslimheritage.com/early-women-of-
science/.

24 Salim al Hassani, “Early Women of Science, Technology, Medicine and Management.”

25 Nageen Khan, “Astrolabes and Early Islam: Mariam ‘Al-Astrolabia’ Al Ijliya,” Why
Islam, https://www.whyislam.org/muslim-heritage/astrolabes-and-early-islam-
mariam-al-astrolabiya-al-ijliya/.

26 Marina Tolmacheva. “Medieval Muslim Women’s Travel: Defying Distance and

Danger,” FORUM: Travel and Travel Accounts in World History, Part 2, World
History Connected, accessed March 2, 2022, https://worldhistoryconnected.press.
uillinois.edu/10.2/forum_tolmacheva.html.

We are grateful to the reviewers who read this manuscript and provided valuable feedback, including Zainab Movahed and the Afghan Women’s Advocacy Group in Albania.
These briefs are written mainly within the framework of the Hanafi tradition of Islam.

7 Mahram: Women’s Mobility in Islam