Describe the synthesis, properties and applications of Kevlar.

KEVLAR is one of the most important man-made organic fibers ever developed.
Because of its unique combination of properties, KEVLAR is used today in a wide
variety of industrial applications.

KEVLAR para-aramid fiber possesses a remarkable combination of properties that

has led to its adoption in a variety of end uses since its commercial introduction in the
early 1970s.

Synthesis

Kevlar is a polyamide formed from 1,4-diaminobenzene and terphthalic acid

Fibers of KEVLAR consist of long molecular chains produced from poly-

paraphenylene terephthalamide. The chains are highly oriented with strong inter chain
bonding, which result in a unique combination of properties. Strength of Kevlar is
mainly due to hydrogen bonding between N-H and C=O groups of two polymeric
chains.
Properties of Kelvar

 High tensile strength at low weight

 Low elongation to break
 High modulus (structural rigidity)
 Low electrical conductivity
 High chemical resistance
 Low thermal shrinkage
 High toughness (work-to-break)
 Excellent dimensional stability
 High cut resistance
 Flame resistant, self-extinguishing

The physical properties of Kevlar make it a suitable material for many applications,
such as:

 Body armour: bullet-proof vests and helmets

 Ropes and cables.
 Belts and hoses for industrial applications
 Composites for aircraft body parts, boats, and sporting goods (e.g. skis)
 Fibre-optic cables for communication, data transmission and ignition.
 Friction products such as brake pads, clutch linings, gaskets. It is often
employed as a replacement for the carcinogenic asbestos
 Sailing/motorcycle outerwear
 Adhesives and sealants.
  Kevlar is a synthetic fiber frequently used for bulletproof vests. Some of its
characteristics make it worth evaluating for robot exteriors, because the
material does not melt or drip when exposed to hot environments. Covering on
robots that require safeguarding from extreme temperatures.
 Also, Kevlar does not degrade in Arctic temperatures of -50 degrees
Fahrenheit, nor do cryogenic conditions adversely affect the fibers.

Describe the synthesis, properties and applications of cellulose acetate.

 Cellulose acetate is the acetate ester of cellulose.

 PAUL SCHUTZENBERGER discovered that cellulose could react with acetic
anhydride to form cellulose acetate in 1865.
 Cellulose acetate is used as a film base in photography, as a component in
some coatings, and as a frame material for eyeglasses.

Synthesis
Properties

 Cellulose acetate is a thermoplastic polymer.

 It is transparent, glossy and reasonably hard for a thermoplastic.
 High impact and mechanical strength.
 Selective absorption and removal of low levels of certain organic
chemicals.
 Easily bonded with plasticizers, heat, and pressure.

Applications

 Cellulose acetate is an important polymer used in manufacturing of cellulose

acetate yarn, plastic, photographic films etc.
 Used in all kind of women's & men's wear.
 Sheets are used as transparent wrapping materials.
 Used for insulating purposes.
 Semi permeable membranes made from cellulose acetate fibers have a
remarkable potential in desalination of water.
 Cellulose acetate hollow fibers are suitable for gas separation and
hemodialysis.

Describe the composition, properties and applications of duralumin.

 Duralumin is an alloy, a trademark name given to the earliest types of the

age hardenable aluminum alloys. It is an alloy made up of 90% to 94%
aluminum,4% copper, 1% magnesium and 0.5% to 1% manganese.
 It is a very hard alloy. These alloys are used in places where hard alloys are
required, for example in the vehicle armor that is used in the defense
industry. These alloys were the first widely used deformable aluminum
alloys.
 Duralumin is hard, but a lightweight alloy of aluminum. It has a typical yield
strength of 450 MPa, and there are a few other variations, that depend on
the composition, type, and temper.

Duralumin Properties

 Duralumin is a strong, light-weighted, and hard alloy of aluminum.

 It is also reflective and impermeable.
  It is a malleable metal and can be easily shaped.
 It is a very good conductor of heat and electricity.
 It is odorless, and reacts with the oxygen that is around, and forms
aluminum oxide. It is resistant to corrosion.
 It has a thin surface, which is made up of a layer of pure aluminum, which
is corrosion-resistant and covers the core of the strong duralumin.
 Generally, Duralumin alloys are soft, ductile, and workable when they are in
a normal state. They can be easily rolled, folded, or forged.
 They can also be drawn into a variety of shapes and forges. It has a high
strength, which can be easily lost during wielding. So it can be easily
transformed, and hence is used in aircraft construction. It is suited for aircraft
construction because of its lightweight and high strength.

Applications

 It is used for making wire, bar, and rods for screw machine products. It is
used in places where good strength and good machinability are required.
 It is used in heavy-duty forgings, wheels, plates, extrusions, aircraft fittings,
space booster tankage and truck frame, and other suspension components.
It finds applications in places where high strength is required, and services
at elevated temperatures.
 It is used for making Aircraft structures, truck wheels, screw machine
products, rivets, and other structural application products.
 It is used as a sheet for the auto body panels.
 It is also used in forgings, in aircraft engine pistons, impellers of the jet
engines, and compressor rings.
 It is also used for making die and hand forgings.

Application in Robotic

 Aluminum has a higher price point than steel, it’s easier to shape and is lighter.
 Aluminum is also a good material if you’re worried about a robot’s exterior
becoming rusty over time because aluminum does not rust. However, because
it can corrode in some wet environments, you might consider treating the
surface to give it more protection against possible corrosion.
 Another thing that makes aluminum a popular option for robot exteriors is that
it can be polished to a high shine. So, if you’re building a commercial robot that
your client will eventually want to show off, aluminum makes the body look nice
while offering ample durability. You can also work with specialists that provide
aluminum polishing technology with three-way machines, which enable
programming to meet double-sided processing needs.

What is steel? Describe the composition, properties and applications of low-

carbon, medium-carbon and high-carbon steel.

Carbon steel is an iron-carbon alloy, which contains up to 2.1 wt.% carbon. For
carbon steels, there is no minimum specified content of other alloying elements,
however, they often contain manganese. The maximum manganese, silicon and
copper content should be less than 1.65 wt.%, 0.6 wt.% and 0.6 wt.%, respectively.

Types of carbon steel and their properties

Carbon steel can be classified into three categories according to its carbon content:
low-carbon steel (or mild-carbon steel), medium-carbon steel and high-carbon
steel. Their carbon content, microstructure and properties compare as follows:

Low-carbon steel

Low-carbon steel is the most widely used form of carbon steel. These steels usually
have a carbon content of less than 0.25 wt.%. They cannot be hardened by heat
treatment (to form martensite) so this is usually achieved by cold work.

Carbon steels are usually relatively soft and have low strength. They do, however,
have high ductility, making them excellent for machining, welding and low cost.

High-strength, low-alloy steels (HSLA) are also often classified as low-carbon

steels, however, also contain other elements such as copper, nickel, vanadium and
molybdenum. Combined, these comprise up to 10 wt.% of the steel content. High-
strength, low-alloy steels, as the name suggests, have higher strengths, which is
achieved by heat treatment. They also retain ductility, making them easily formable
and machinable. HSLA are more resistant to corrosion than plain low-carbon
steels.
Medium-carbon steel

Medium-carbon steel has a carbon content of 0.25 – 0.60 wt.% and a manganese
content of 0.60 – 1.65 wt.%. The mechanical properties of this steel are improved
via heat treatment involving autenitising followed by quenching and tempering,
giving them a martensitic microstructure.

Heat treatment can only be performed on very thin sections, however, additional
alloying elements, such as chromium, molybdenum and nickel, can be added to
improve the steels ability to be heat treated and, thus, hardened.

Hardened medium-carbon steels have greater strength than low-carbon steels,

however, this comes at the expense of ductility and toughness.

High-carbon steel

High-carbon steel has a carbon content of 0.60– 1.25 wt.% and a manganese
content of 0.30 – 0.90 wt.%. It has the highest hardness and toughness of the
carbon steels and the lowest ductility. High-carbon steels are very wear-resistant
as a result of the fact that they are almost always hardened and tempered.

Tool steels and die steels are types of high-carbon steels, which contain additional
alloying elements including chromium, vanadium, molybdenum and tungsten. The
addition of these elements results in the very hard wear-resistant steel, which is a
result of the formation of carbide compounds such as tungsten carbide (WC).

Applications

Low-carbon steel

Low carbon steels are often used in automobile body components, structural
shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron), pipes, construction and bridge
components, and food cans.

Medium-carbon steel

As a result of their high strength, resistance to wear and toughness, medium-

carbon steels are often used for railway tracks, train wheels, crankshafts, and
gears and machinery parts requiring this combination of properties.
High-carbon steel

Due to their high wear-resistance and hardness, high-carbon steels are used in
cutting tools, springs high strength wire and dies.

Describe the synthesis of CdX (CdSe) quantum dots. Find its applications in
electronic gadgets.

A cadmium compound is heated to 320 oC and dissolved in an organic solvent. At

room temperature selenium compound dissolved in a different organic solvent is
injected into the reaction vessel, causing supersaturation of the resultant CdSe
solution. As the temperature drops to around 290C, nucleation of new crystals
stops and existing crystals grow. After a period of growth, the length of which
determines the size of the QDs, the solution is cooled to 220C, stopping growth. A
small amount of zinc sulfide is injected into the reaction vessel to coat the QDs and
prevent them from reacting with the environment.

TOP trioctylphosphine, TOPO trioctylphosphine oxide

Applications

 emitters for color displays

 color modifiers for light emitting diodes (LEDs)
 optical fiber amplifiers
 low threshold lasers
 self-assembled photonic sphere arrays
 polymer-based photovoltaic cells
  optical temperature probes
 chemical sensors
 high-speed signal-processing filters.

What is meant by lacquer? Describe its various constituents and their functions
with example.

Lacquer is a colloidal dispersion of cellulose derivatives, resins and plasticisers in

solvents and diluents. Lacquers dry by the evaporation of the solvent and diluents. It
is used for interior decoration.

Constituents Functions Examples

Cellulose derivatives They provide hardness Cellulose acetate and
and durability to the film. Cellulose nitrate
Resins and They provide thickness, Copal, Phenol-
glossy and adhesion to the formaldehyde
film.
Plasticisers They provide smooth and Dibutyl phthalate
flexible film.
Solvent They dissolve resin and Acetone and ethyl acetate
cellulose derivatives.
Diluents The decrease the Benzol and Petroleum
viscosity and cost of the spirit
lacquers.
Write a note on the nitrogen doped silicon.

 When one of the silicon atom is replaced by an atom with five valence electrons,
such as the Group 5 atoms Nitrogen (N).

 In this case, the impurity adds five valence electrons to the lattice where it can
only hold four. This means that there is now one excess electron in the lattice
(see figure below).

 Because it donates an electron, a Group 5 impurity is called a donor. The

material remains electrically neutral.

 Donor impurities donate negatively charged electrons to the lattice, so a

semiconductor that has been doped with a donor is called an n-type
semiconductor.

 Free electrons outnumber holes in an n-type material, so the electrons are the
majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers.
Describe the applications of nano incorporated polycarbonate.

Nowadays the enormous use of polymer materials is attributed to their extraordinary

combination of properties, low weight and ease of processing. However, for
improvement of some properties such as thermal and mechanical stability, large
numbers of additives were added to the polymeric matrix and formed polymer matrix
composite. Polymer nanocomposites (PNC) are the polymers that have been
reinforced with small quantities (less than 5% by weight) of nano-sized inorganic
particles typically 10-100 A 0 in at least one dimension, particles having high aspect
ratios.

Polycarbonates are high-impact resistance and low-scratch resistance.

Electronic components
 Construction materials
 Data storage
 Automotive, aircraft, and security component
 Medical applications
 Phones
Electronic components
 Construction materials
 Data storage
 Automotive, aircraft, and security component
 Medical applications
 Phones
What is meant by ferromagnetism? Describe its applications in data storage.

Ferromagnetism is a physical mechanism where certain materials attract each other,

for example, iron.

 When ferromagnetic materials are put in a magnetic field, all the domains get
oriented in the direction of the magnetic field which creates a powerful magnetic
effect.
 When we withdraw the magnetic field, then those materials become a
permanent magnet.
 Ferromagnetism is the strongest form of magnetism among all other forms and
it is also responsible for the widespread occurrence of magnetism in magnets
that we experience in our everyday life.
Properties of Ferromagnetism

 A ferromagnetic material rod can quickly regain itself in the direction of the
magnetic field.
 Ferromagnetic substances show permanent magnetism even in the absence of
a magnetic field.
 When ferromagnetic substances are heated at high temperatures, the
ferromagnetic substances get to transform into paramagnetic substances.
 Ferromagnetic materials have Permeability greater than 1.
 The mechanism of ferromagnetism is absent in gases and liquids.
 The intensity of magnetization (M), magnetic susceptibility (χm), relative
permeability (µr), and magnetic flux density (B) of ferromagnetic material will be
positive always.

What Causes Ferromagnetism?

 The main cause of ferromagnetism arises due to the interaction between the
alignment of permanent dipoles in atoms and the neighboring atomic dipoles.
 Domains are oriented in the same direction in a ferromagnetic substance
without the presence of an external magnetic field that exhibits a net magnetic
moment.
  The neighboring domain magnetic moments are geared in opposite directions.
So they cancel out each other and hence, the material's net magnetic moment
is zero.
 Those domains align themselves in the direction of the external magnetic field
 The material is strongly magnetized in this way in a parallel direction to the
magnetizing field.

Applications of Ferromagnetism

 There are numerous applications of Ferromagnetic materials for magnetic

storage, electrical, and electromechanical equipment.
 Permanent Magnets: Ferromagnetic materials are often used for making
permanent magnets because their magnetization lasts longer.
 Transformer Core: Ferromagnetic materials are suitable for making the
transformer core and choke which is subjected to very rapid cyclical changes
because of its strong magnetic induction.
 Magnetic Tapes and Memory Store: It will serve the purpose of a memory
storage unit as the magnetization of a magnet depends on the magnetization
field and the magnetization cycle it has undergone. Therefore, the
magnetization cycles that it has undergone are recorded as the specimen's
magnetization value.

What is meant by super-paramagnetism?

The situation is very different for magnetic materials, which are technically defined as
ferro and ferrimagnetic materials. In magnetic materials, each dipole interacts with its
nearest neighbors. This inter-dipole interaction creates a high magnetic response
throughout the material, with susceptibilities that can reach values higher than 10e3.
The drawback is that the materials show magnetic hysteresis: after applying a
magnetic field, the material will have ‘memory’, meaning that when the applied field
returns to zero the material remains at a certain magnetization.
This is a very useful property for developing permanent magnets, but it is a
problem for many Life Science applications. Ferromagnetic beads will remain
magnetized after the removal of an applied magnetic field, and the beads will form
irreversible clumps or aggregates. The ideal material for biological applications would
have a high magnetic susceptibility, but no magnetic ‘memory’. They would combine
a high response to applied magnetic field with a non-magnetic behavior once the
magnetic field is removed. Advances in nanotechnology have provided a way to
obtain these superparamagnetic properties of nanoparticles by reducing the size
of the ferro- or ferrimagnetic material to few nanometers (below the so-called
superparamagnetic diameter), When they are below the superparamagnetic diameter
the nanoparticles are able to return quickly to a non-magnetized state after an external
magnet is removed. Larger ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials have remnant
magnetism after the applied magnetic field returns to zero.

What is meant by optical disk? Give any two examples.

An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and
technology to read and write data. It is a computer storage disk that stores data digitally
and uses laser beams (transmitted from a laser head mounted on an optical disk drive)
to read and write data.

An optical disk is primarily used as a portable and secondary storage device. It can
store more data than the previous generation of magnetic storage media, and has a
relatively longer lifespan. Compact disks (CD), digital versatile/video disks (DVD) and
Blu-ray disks are currently the most commonly used forms of optical disks. These disks
are generally used to:

 Distribute software to customers

 Store large amounts of data such as music, images and videos
 Transfer data to different computers or devices
 Back up data from a local machine.

Optical disks rely on a red or blue laser to record and read data. Most of today's optical
disks are flat, circular and 12 centimeters in diameter. Data is stored on the disk in the
form of microscopic data pits and lands. The pits are etched into a reflective layer of
recording material. The lands are the flat, unindented areas surrounding the pits.

The type of material selected for the recording material depends on how the disk is
used. Prerecorded disks such as those created for audio and video recordings can
use cheaper material like aluminum foil. Write-once disks and rewritable disks require
a more expensive layer of material to accommodate other types of digital data storage.

What is meant by flash memory storage? Give any two examples.