TMP-00359; No of Pages 9

Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management Perspectives

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Yoga tourism: Commodification and western embracement of eastern

spiritual practice
Hana Bowers a, Joseph M. Cheer b,⁎
a
World Weavers, Australia
b
Monash University, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Available online xxxx This paper examines the growth of interrelated tourism phenomena yoga tourism and spiritual tourism - both sit
Keywords: under the wider umbrella of wellness tourism. Tourism has long been linked with spirituality and where this is
Spiritual tourism the case (for example pilgrimage travel), it is considered to pave the way for personal transformation. Linking
Yoga travel spiritual tourism to yoga tourism is a fait accompli, as is drawing similar associations with wellness and pilgrim-
Yoga
age tourism on account of allied and abiding motivations predicated on uniting mind, body and spirit and these
Wellness
India
ruminations are central to this paper. More recently, there has been a growing chorus calling for the
decolonisation of yoga on account of its commodification and industrialisation, and especially concerning what
is argued to be a shift away from its spiritual and transformative tenets. The underlying meaning of the Sanskrit
word yuj from which yoga is derived alludes to the pursuit of achieving a sense of union with something higher
than oneself, and this is arguably one of the key drivers for its contemporary acceptance. Linkages between spir-
ituality and yoga tourism through an examination of the motivations of Western yoga devotees in Maharashtra,
India provide the canvas for this analysis. The motivations for yoga related travel and the broader implications for
yoga and spiritual tourism are discussed. This article draws from two periods of exploratory fieldwork conducted
in 2014 and 2015 in Maharashtra, India. A qualitative, case study scaffold underpinned by serious leisure as a con-
ceptual framework (Stebbins, 2001) was constructed.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and mindfulness (Aggarwal, Guglani, & Goel, 2008; Laing & Weiler,
2008; Lehto, Brown, Chen, & Morrison, 2006). Yet the growing fondness
for yoga globally and its inevitable commercialisation has raised a range
of unintended contestations that are emblematic of Desikachar's senti-
Yoga is also a relationship, not a mass movement. It is a one-to-one
ments above. This implies that the binary about maintaining deep
relationship between people, not commercialization.(T.V.K
yoga traditions versus enabling its evolution into newer forms and for
Desikachar in Yoga Beyond Asana: Hindu Thought in Practice (HAF,
wider ranging purposes not necessarily aligned to its pedigree is fore-
2016)).
most (Figs. 1–4).
At the 2016 International Conference on Frontiers in Yoga Research India is undeniably the birthplace of yoga and its renown as the glob-
and its Applications, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi opined: al epicentre for holistic healing is underpinned by its capacity to offer
“yoga is a symbol of the universal aspiration for health and well- unique health and wellness experiences (Aggarwal et al., 2008: 459).
being” (Modi, 2016). Such sentiments are central to the underlying Referred to as the “yoga bhumi”, India is the gateway to yoga and argu-
principle of yoga and speak to the universal appeal of it as lifestyle ably one of the main spiritual hubs of the world on the basis that many
and practice. This also reiterates the increasing trend to connect yoga religions have their genesis in the nation (Aggarwal et al., 2008). In sig-
to health, wellness and fitness. In non-traditional (this acknowledges nifying the exalted place of yoga in the country's national psyche, the In-
Indians who have westernised lifestyles) and Western contexts, yoga dian government appointed Shri Shripad Yesso Naik as its inaugural
is a well-established phenomenon, not only as health and well-being “Minister for Yoga” in 2014 as part of the Ministry of AYUSH - Ayurveda,
practice but also as a conduit for the pursuit of spirituality, meditation Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy. Thus, for India,
yoga is arguably more than just a populist undertaking, but an intrinsic
⁎ Corresponding author.
part of India's national identity, psyche and history.
E-mail addresses: hanakaibowers@gmail.com (H. Bowers), joseph.cheer@monash.edu This article draws from two periods of exploratory fieldwork con-
(J.M. Cheer). ducted in 2014 and 2015 in Maharashtra, India. A qualitative, case

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.013
2211-9736/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Bowers, H., & Cheer, J.M., Yoga tourism: Commodification and western embracement of eastern spiritual practice, Tour-
ism Management Perspectives (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.013
2 H. Bowers, J.M. Cheer / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. Yoga practitioners at GEV (Source: Authors).

study scaffold underpinned by serious leisure as a conceptual frame- motivations of foreign yoga devotees in India following Sharpley and
work (Stebbins, 2001) was constructed. The study and data collection Sundaram's (2005) exposé of Western spiritual tourists in Pondicherry,
site was the Govardhan Eco Village (GEV) located 108 km north of South-eastern India.
Mumbai and in close proximity to the Western Ghats that straddles Accordingly, the key research question posed asks: What factors mo-
India's west coast. Respondents to this study comprised of foreign na- tivate attendance at yoga retreats? Most importantly, the extent to
tionals in attendance at GEV's yoga retreat and teacher training pro- which yoga-related travel is imbued with spirituality is a key underpin-
gram. Key emphasis in this paper is examination of the underlying ning linkage to the research question, as well as considerations of ties to

Fig. 2. GEV yoga workshop flyer.

(Source: Authors).

Please cite this article as: Bowers, H., & Cheer, J.M., Yoga tourism: Commodification and western embracement of eastern spiritual practice, Tour-
ism Management Perspectives (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.013
 H. Bowers, J.M. Cheer / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 3

Fig. 3. Govardhan Eco Village.

(Source: Authors).

health and wellness motivations. In coming to terms with yoga tourism, Importantly, this study contributes to the growing literature on what
this paper adopts Smith and Kelly's (2006: 17) definition that it is “tour- are referred to as “Eastern movement forms as body-self transforming
ism which focuses on the union of body, mind and spirit, but which is practices in Western cultural contexts” (Brown & Leledaki, 2010: 125).
essentially areligious”. In examining yoga and the aligned yoga tourism phenomenon, this

Fig. 4. Practitioners at GEV (2014), Govardhan Eco Village (GEV) (2014).

(Source: Authors).

Please cite this article as: Bowers, H., & Cheer, J.M., Yoga tourism: Commodification and western embracement of eastern spiritual practice, Tour-
ism Management Perspectives (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.013
4 H. Bowers, J.M. Cheer / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

paper is underpinned by what Brown and Leledaki (2010: 144) refer to physical, psychological and spiritual benefits. Central to the promotion
as “Western social forces working on Eastern movement forms” with of yoga are beneficial outcomes including the attainment of a sense of
the upshot being “the possibility of better understanding what kinds calm, relief from pressures of the material world and improvement of
of transformational possibilities are being experienced through ‘doing’ physical and mental conditioning (Puustinen & Rautaniemi, 2015).
Eastern movement forms over extended periods of time”. Yoga tourism That yoga has moved from a purely physical activity to a tool for holistic
is an exemplification of this East-West intersection where the yearning healing is driving its contemporary popularity (Pilon, 2016). The wide
to satisfy a wellness or spiritual need drives visitation to destinations ranging benefits of yoga as well as the increased secularisation of West-
that enable the attainment of physical, psychological and well-being ern societies and reactions against the excesses of materialism has argu-
transformations. Yoga embodies the nurturing of mind, body and spirit ably helped precipitate the growing fondness for yoga.
and as Smith (2007: 40) argues, for Westerners, this preoccupation is
not “simply mimicking practices drawn from ‘another culture’” and in- 3. The commodification of yoga
stead is “a mode of self-inquiry and self-encounter” that travel to spiri-
tual centres like India can help facilitate. The overt commodification of yoga in the contemporary context and
in contrast to its genesis is striking, considering roots that date back over
2. Contemporary yoga discourse five thousand years where materiality and worldly aims emblematic of
yoga today are far removed from ideals of practice centred on spiritual-
Central to contemporary yoga discourse is “the very question of ity, compassion and peace (Fish, 2006; Lehto et al., 2006). These ten-
whether yoga is secular or religious has its origins in the history of the sions are highlighted by Gregoire (2013) whose central contentions
Western enlightenment which separated the secular from religion” are that “yoga's journey from ancient spiritual practice to big business
(Jain, 2010: 1). Jain links claims of ownership over yoga and the extent and premium lifestyle” is abhorrent and that “a practice originally
to which its contemporary manifestations are legitimate or not, as anti- intended as a vehicle for transcending the ego has become a seemingly
thetical to the underlying thesis that it is beyond demarcations and bi- vanity-driven pursuit”. Gregoire's sentiments underline the ethical and
naries and instead should be open to all who wish to draw from it. spiritual dilemmas behind the phenomenal growth of yoga as spiritual,
The practice of ‘taking back’ or decolonising yoga is considered more fitness and lifestyle pursuit in Western contexts and how it has seem-
than just staking claim to cultural heritage by diaspora, but more ingly transcended beyond its humble genesis focused on spirituality,
about bio-piracy and the potential patenting of cultural assets (Jain, universal access and egalitarianism. The tension imbued in the yoga dis-
2010). The call for decolonization revolves around the sense that yoga course invokes Buddhist scholar Chogyam Trungpa's (2002) theoretical
has become subject to misappropriation and domination for commer- premise of spiritual materialism where spirituality is pursued not for its
cial gain with little regard given to the sacred symbolisms and signifi- principal and underlying ethos, but instead presents as a narcissistic and
cances that underpin its genesis. egoistic undertaking.
The broader discourse on yoga extends beyond the particular remit The 2016 study Yoga in America exemplifies the growth of the yoga
of this paper and its linkage to spirituality and tourism with wider impli- industry outlining that “the number of American yoga practitioners
cations for interdisciplinary dialogues that encompass yoga studies, the- has increased to over 36 million in 2016, up from 20.4 million in
ology, philosophy, psychology, anthropology, sociology, geography, 2012” and “28% of all Americans have participated in a yoga class at
development, business and medicine, among others. As Koch (2013: some point in their lives”. The same report highlights that “yoga practi-
225) points out “the dynamic of the yoga discourse today can only be tioners report spending over $16 billion on yoga clothing, equipment,
explained through its embeddedness in other discourses or, in reiligio- classes and accessories in the last year, up from $10 billion in 2012”. In
economic terms.” More recently the pursuit of returning it to its more a sense, this typifies the growth of yoga as business and yoga for
austere and spiritual roots has emerged largely as a response to what wellbeing (Anon., 2013). Furthermore, it draws sharp contrasts be-
is criticised as profane industrialisation of its central tenets. tween yoga's genesis as an inclusive practice and its present manifesta-
Muddagouni (2016) typifies such reactions arguing that “commodifica- tion as a business and commodified health and wellbeing pursuit, as
tion of yoga in a way that is entirely dismissive or ignorant of its roots or well as yoga as religious tradition or yoga as a secular maintenance prac-
connections to an existing religion is appropriation at its worst”. Simi- tice for the maintenance of mental and physical health. Yoga tourism is
larly, visual artist Chiraag Bhakta (2016) is critical of the appropriation an upshot of the wider yoga ‘movement’ where travel is for the express
of yoga culture and heritage by global brands such as Nike and Lulu purpose to engage in yoga.
Lemon who he argues, profit from yoga's rich tapestry and narratives
yet “the South Asian face and voice is relegated to an exotic caricature.” 4. Yoga and tourism
The question concerning the drift away from the provenance and
traditions of yoga is central to contemporary debates about its rele- In the 2015 Draft National Tourism Policy for India, three key sectors
vance, authenticity, ownership and evolution (Singleton, 2005). In the were outlined as holding enormous opportunity for tourism product de-
documentary Who Owns Yoga? (Al Jazeera, 2016), the question as to velopment including spirituality, yoga and wellness (Government of
whether Eastern traditions that underpin yoga's preeminent heritage India, 2015: 14). The primacy of yoga-related tourism was also ac-
and ethos have given way to crass and abhorrent westernised versions knowledged with the Indian Ministry of Tourism citing that “yoga
echoes loudly. The Hindu American Foundation (HAF) has been vocifer- is India's gift to the world” and that “India has the potential to
ous in its criticisms of modern and westernised invocations of yoga in- brand itself as the land of yoga”. Recent momentum has culminated
cluding new forms that bear little semblance to its roots. Moreover, in the introduction of a special yoga visa to help reinforce its status
that yoga should espouse a pluralistic view and one that advocates as the premier yoga destination and signalling its deliberate endeav-
that it belongs to everyone and anyone, and whether its implications our to build yoga-related travel to the country. Furthermore, the
are physical, spiritual or religious populates the central discourse. How- township of Rishikesh, regarded as the cradle of yoga's origins,
ever as Graham (2014: 86) argues, when it comes to what she terms brands and markets itself as the ‘Yoga Capital of the World’. These
modern yoga, “authenticity is grounded in a series of binaries but was are all indications of the multivalent conceptualisations of yoga as
not fixed, remaining open to negotiation.” nationally symbolic and sacred, yet commodified as a vehicle for
In typifying yoga's contemporary expression, studios with a range of the promotion of international tourism.
ideological and spiritual leanings have flourished including Hot Yoga, A corollary to the growth of yoga related travel is wellness tourism
Vinyasa Flow Yoga, Core Power Yoga, Bikram (or hot yoga) and Iyengar centred on the consumption of meditation and spa retreats (Laing &
yoga among others that leverage the growing awareness of yoga's Weiler, 2008). Additionally, yoga related travel as a mechanism for

Please cite this article as: Bowers, H., & Cheer, J.M., Yoga tourism: Commodification and western embracement of eastern spiritual practice, Tour-
ism Management Perspectives (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.013
 H. Bowers, J.M. Cheer / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 5

spiritual advancement is another of its key drivers (Bone, 2013: 296–7). 5. Yoga and the links to wellness and spiritual tourism
The rapid expansion of wellness tourism is especially noticeable in
Southeast Asian countries and especially India where medical and The overall study of wellness tourism and its many permutations
healing traditions in contrast to Western medicine is promoted to en- have been largely overlooked (Lehto et al., 2006; Wray, Laing, & Voigt,
courage visitation (Parmar, 2013). In India, this can include ancient 2010). However, investigations linking yoga and tourism are seemingly
practices such as Pranic healing (derived from the Sanskrit word more commonplace (Aggarwal et al., 2008; Lehto et al., 2006: 26). Yet
Prana meaning life-force) and the Vedic science of Ayurveda despite a long history of yoga as a key motivator, for travel there re-
(Aggarwal et al., 2008: 459), as well as conventional medical tourism in- mains a dearth of knowledge surrounding yoga's role (or potential
cluding elective and complex specialised procedures including cardiac, role) as a driver for the expansion of the tourism sector (Ponder &
dental and cosmetic surgeries, and joint replacement (Parmar, 2013). Holladay, 2013: 105). Furthermore, links between spirituality and tour-
Sharpley and Sundaram's (2005: 170) examination of the motiva- ism have rarely been drawn (Bone: 295–7), with much research draw-
tion of spiritual tourists to Ashrams in Pondicherry India is pertinent ing the connections with yoga's impact on communities and its
in its argumentation regarding the “artificiality about the Ashram expe- alignment with particular branches of practice, especially Ashthanga,
rience” for some, while others conceive of this as “a serendipitous spir- one of the most popular (Ponder & Holladay, 2013). Insofar as drawing
itual experience”. This typifies the variegated nature of spiritual tourism particular connections between religion, pilgrimages and tourism, while
and its variants including yoga tourism where “although a variety of investigations of the bonds between tourism and spirituality have been
motives, from knowledge-driven secular curiosity to more purposeful sparse (Singh, 2009: 145), there is growing consensus that spiritual
need satisfaction, were identified in the research, it is evident that, albeit tourism is shaping as the next wave pilgrimage tourism (Bone, 2013:
unintentionally, different intensities of spiritual fulfilment were experi- 265).
enced” (Sharpley and Sundaram's (2005: 170)). Notwithstanding, the According to Sharpley, “spirituality” is the post – modern culmina-
drivers of yoga tourism are argued to be restorative and therapeutic tion of religion, which calls for harmony with the individual and the sur-
where “a yoga trip is deemed as the 'best balming effect' and 'best rounding world of which s/he is a part” (Sharpley and Jepson, 2011: 54).
dose of calming effect’” (Lehto et al., 2006: 33). Haq and Yin Wong (2010: X) defines spiritual tourism as: “the provision
Rishikesh in India is seen as the vanguard of yoga's global heartland of customized leisure and recreational experience demanded by the
as well as an exemplification of its explosive growth perhaps driven by spiritual interest of individuals and groups” (Haq and Yin Wong
the arrival of The Beetles in the 1960s. In the documentary Yoga Wars, (2010: X)). A spiritual tourist, according to Haq and Yin Wong (2010),
famed guru Swami Chidanand Saraswati outlines that the growth of is anyone who travels for the purpose of transformation. In much the
yoga-related visitation to his spiritual home Parmarth Niketan Ashram, same way Smith (2003: 103) also remarks that spiritual tourism (in-
has been phenomenal and predicated on the quest for learning and the cluding yoga tourism) can be a form of “escapism” whereby travellers
search for inner peace. Yet although the trajectory of yoga-related travel seek scape from the anxieties and demands of the so called ‘real
to Rishikesh has been on an incline for decades, little has been done to world’. Notwithstanding the research gaps, the wellness tourism indus-
match this expansion with commensurate development of essential in- try, including spiritual, medical, yoga, and spa tourism, has experienced
frastructure. Pilon (2016) points to the stressed sewerage system in significant growth in recent years (Laing & Weiler, 2008: 380).
Rishikesh and its impact on water quality in the Ganges questioning Laing and Weiler (2008: 380–2) outline that Asia overall is becom-
the extent to which yoga tourism has been beneficial at a local level. ing an increasingly popular site for Westerners wishing to embark on
This is at odds with Strauss and Mandelbaum's (2013) view that yoga wellness tourism, specifically yoga, Ayurveda and spa related tourism.
practice stimulates environmental sustainable living practices provid- Techniques such as yoga, meditation, and Ayurveda date back centuries,
ing personal benefit on the one hand yet oblivious to the wider environ- and enable travellers connect to nature more than beach holidays can
mental impacts. (Laing and Weiler (2008: 380–2)). Laing and Weiler explain this growth
When it comes to yoga tourism, it seems clear that the attraction to it as functioning in conjunction with the need to travel in a more sustain-
is underlined by its more general perceived benefits especially in a able and environmentally conscious manner. Apart from physical trans-
Western context where “yoga has come to be seen as something of a formation and wellness that spas and medical tourism can produce,
panacea for the ailments of modern society - tech overload, disconnec- tourism for the purposes of yoga and spirituality has been said to pos-
tion and alienation, insomnia, stress and anxiety” (Gregoire, 2013). sess “transformative” potential, as it can broaden a traveller's perspec-
Therefore linking the practice of yoga to tourism, especially within the tive on the world through new experiences and a possibility (Bone,
broader canvas of wellness tourism and whether it is synergistic or 2013: 265–6; Reisinger, 2013).
not to its origins seems a natural question. Indeed, yoga tourists are ar- Indeed, while there are types of tourism which bring about change
guably akin to Smith and Kelly's (2006: 15) notion of holistic tourists to the physical body, there are also journeys which can alter the corpo-
who “appear to crave the enhancement rather than the avoidance of real self and yoga is central to such touristic endeavours (Cook, 2010).
self, and many go away to confront the very problems that other tourists Apart from being motivated by wellness, yoga tourists exhibit a tenden-
are only too happy to leave behind”. cy to be open to new experiences and change than other tourist types
Thus, yoga tourism as serious leisure underpins this analysis and (Ponder & Holladay, 2013: 98). In developing a conceptual model of
linking it to yoga tourism follows Patterson, Getz, and Gubb (2016) the transformative power of yoga tourism, Ponder and Holladay
who investigate yoga as lifestyle and event-tourism experience. Serious (2013: 102) found that practitioners first go through a stage of self-dis-
leisure is defined variously but in principal, it is defined as activity or covery in their home community and once this is solidified, they have
pursuit centred on acquiring and expressing special skills, knowledge, an outstanding desire to travel. Whether or not each individual has a
and experience (Stebbins, 2001: 3). The alignment of yoga tourism spiritual experience or gains wellness benefits is ultimately an individ-
with serious leisure is predicated on the sense that travel that is under- ual and personal question. Ultimately, yoga tourism and spiritual travel
taken with the intention to engage in yoga practice as a central intention have an innate connection linked with inquiry and self-discovery, be it
and as a conduit to personal development and enhanced wellbeing. This spiritual or otherwise.
concurs with what Stebbins describes as leisure partly driven by the
motivation to partake in an authentic experience. The yearning for an 6. Methods and case study site: Govardhan Eco Village, Maharashtra
authentic and uniquely spiritual experience drives the sense that yoga
tourists to India will experience something far “more genuine than Insofar as the approach to methods, this study utilized a multimodal
that practiced in the West due to its location and groundedness in a dis- approach to data collection centred initially on direct participant obser-
tinct lineage” (Maddox, 2015: 330). vation during the pilot phase, then followed with semi-structured in-

Please cite this article as: Bowers, H., & Cheer, J.M., Yoga tourism: Commodification and western embracement of eastern spiritual practice, Tour-
ism Management Perspectives (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.013
6 H. Bowers, J.M. Cheer / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

depth interviews and a survey of foreign visitors to GEV in 2014 and 7.1. Survey
2015. Additionally, a review of secondary data sources from GEV includ-
ing reports and newsletters as well as informal conversations with GEV Insofar as respondent demographics are concerned, the majority of
staff was undertaken. Data analysis comprised of manual coding of qual- respondents to the survey were from the West and tended to be, female
itative data and the use of SPSS for survey data collected. Lastly, partic- and in their thirties or mid-forties. Of the surveyed respondents, 48.5%
ipant observation was undertaken in yoga and teacher training sessions, were Americans, 9.1% were British and Canadians and Australian
during meals and at other down times. made up 24.2%. The vast majority, 78.8% of respondents were female ex-
Govardhan Hill, the site of Govardhan Eco Village (GEV) is consid- emplifying preponderance for females to take up yoga and yoga-related
ered sacred to devotees of preeminent Hindu god Lord Krishna. travel. 51.5% of respondents surveyed were in the 31 to 45 year age
Govardhan Hill is located in Vrindavan, a rural village 175 km from group with 42.4% in the 18 to 30 year group and 54.4% of all respondents
the capital, New Delhi in Uttar Pradesh. As Govardhan Hill has grown had a university level degree. This demonstrated that the propensity to
in popularity for international visitors, its surrounds have become sub- be young, highly educated and female was a recurring theme.
ject to development and are no longer as pristine as they once were. This study also sought to understand the travel style of respondents
The Govardhan Eco Village serves as the antithesis to such change. as a vehicle to better exemplify the drivers of visitation to GEV. The ma-
GEV was established by Radhanath Swami (formerly Richard Slaven) jority of respondents, around 57.6% identified themselves as traveling
and is operated in concert with villagers from the Thane area, as well with a Jivamukti yoga group with around 30.1% self-identifying as solo
as devotees of the Hare Krishna temple in Chowpatty, Mumbai. Slaven travellers. Moreover, 78.8% of respondents remarked that they primarily
was raised in in Chicago, Illinois during the Vietnam War era and was identify as “yoga or spiritual” traveller, as opposed to identifying as an
an iconoclastic teenager disenchanted with the socio-political and eco- independent traveller, tourist, or backpacker. 54.5% of respondents sur-
nomic backdrop of the time (Swami, 2008). In search of spiritual truth, veyed were on their first trip to India with remaining respondents hav-
Slaven hitchhiked overland from England to Eastern Europe, Turkey and ing travelled through India before. As for the number of respondents
the Middle East until he arrived destitute at the border of Pakistan and who had been to GEV before, only 17.2% of respondents were repeat vis-
India. After living as a hermit in the Himalayas and learning about itors and only 60.6% of respondents remarked that this was the first
mystic yoga practices, Slaven met his guru, A.C. Bhaktivedanta time they had been on a yoga and wellness related holiday before.
Swami Prabhupada who schooled him in the spiritual traditions of 48.5% of GEV respondents surveyed noted that they “strongly agree”
Bhakti yoga. that they prefer to have some comfort while traveling at home. Only
After studying Bhakti yoga and the Vedas in India and the United 18.2% of respondents surveyed said that they strongly agree that the
States, Slaven became a monk devoted to spiritual life and was named like to travel to ‘off the beaten path’ locations, avoiding other travellers.
Radhanath Swami by his spiritual master, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami The majority (57.6%) of respondents surveyed also remarked that
Prabhupada. Radhanath Swami's vision to promote spirituality for they did not utilize travel websites (for example Trip Advisor) as a
every living being underlines the ethos of GEV and the village is present- tool for planning their trip. 60.6% of respondents said that they “strongly
ed as a hybrid of a spa resort, farm community and holistic retreat centre disagree” with the statement that they “use[d] an internet search engine
promoting spiritual ecology. GEV's preeminent aims are to teach re- to research GEV or any aspect of [their] trip to India”. Only 21.2% of re-
spondents how to live in harmony with nature alongside essential spir- spondents noted that the internet played a role in their holiday making
itual aspects of life. For the most part, GEV's respondents are highly plans. Even fewer respondents (9.1%) utilized a Government site to plan
educated, professional Westerners, especially Americans and Europeans their trip to India. Slightly more respondents (21.1%) said that other
(Gauranga Das, 2015). In addition, business leaders and entrepreneurs travel sites influenced their planning. Rather, most respondents
interested in integrating yogic philosophies into their personal and (42.4%) depended on word of mouth and advice from members of the
business practice visit GEV. It is also a popular yoga retreat destination yoga community, specifically individuals from a yoga group like
primarily for groups from the United States alongside advanced yoga Jivamukti or the International Society for Krishna Consciousness
teacher training. (ISKCON).
In keeping with its central philosophies, GEV has set itself on being a Most respondents remarked that they “strongly disagree” that the
leader in sustainable operations and received the Renaissance Platinum Vedic culture represented at GEV had been the main influence for
Award for Water Conservation. All of the built structures at GEV are con- their trip. This is particularly interesting because an overwhelming ma-
structed using cow dung and all water utilized is recycled. Most strik- jority of respondents (81.8%) said yoga is a primary purpose of their trip
ingly, all of the food produced at GEV is grown organically in and that yoga stems directly from Vedic culture. 63.6% of respondents
synchrony with seasonal variations and referred to as prasadam or spir- strongly disagree that they had excess stress in their daily routines,
itualized food whereby monks use this as offering to deities, and as food and were looking for an escape. Perhaps the lack of stress can be attrib-
for respondents. Not only is the food produced sustainably and nutri- uted to the fact that 36.4% were on extended leave without pay from
tious, but it is also considered imbued with spiritual vibrations and de- their work, and 24.2% were taking a paid leave from their job. However,
votion. Ayurvedic medicine, a natural ally to yoga and spirituality is also the majority of respondents who participated in the questionnaire
central to the GEV experience where therapies offered are centred in an- (45.5%) stated that they strongly agree that the spiritual aspect of the
cient techniques found in the Vedas; a body of Indian scriptures that trip was a deciding factor for them to take this trip.
codifies the philosophies and practice of the Vedic religion that has its As a result of attending GEV, a significant response was that yoga had
roots in Hinduism. made demonstrable impacts to their lives. 72.8% of respondents
commented that their trip to GEV has inspired them to make positive
changes in their health and wellness rituals. Furthermore, most respon-
7. Findings dents strongly agree that their trip to the Govardhan Eco Village aug-
mented their overall wellness knowledge. Additionally, the majority of
The total sample for this study was n = 55 respondents for the respondents (45.5%) remarked that they strongly agree that their trip
survey questionnaire an n = 25 for one-on-one in-depth interviews. to GEV has inspired them to travel elsewhere in India. The most popular
The presentation of findings from this survey is demarcated between region to be visited was Maharashtra (the region in which GEV is locat-
quantitative and qualitative methods employed. That the two methods ed). The majority (51.5%) of respondents surveyed reported that they
complement each other is acknowledged and enhance deeper under- planned to return to India within 1–3 years and 39.4% remarked that
standings of respondent motivations for partaking in yoga tourism to they think they would return to GEV. However, the majority of respon-
the study site. dents stated that coming to GEV was not the main purpose of their trip.

Please cite this article as: Bowers, H., & Cheer, J.M., Yoga tourism: Commodification and western embracement of eastern spiritual practice, Tour-
ism Management Perspectives (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.013
 H. Bowers, J.M. Cheer / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 7

7.2. In-depth interviews villagers put on a huge festival for the Jivamukti yoga respondents.
Holman (2011) posits that spiritual tourism cannot effectively be
To complement surveys conducted, in-depth interviews aware also discussed without taking into account cultural issues such as impact
employed as an acknowledgement of the pursuit of balance in approach on the host community and at GEV it was evident that the host commu-
to methods and the limitation of bias employed by utilising only one ap- nity coexisted harmoniously survey respondents. AT GEV there was a
proach to this study. As evidenced from in-depth interviews conducted Rath-Yatra, a symbolic and spiritual parade which involved the trans-
at GEV, a common theme was the expression by respondents that the portation of deities on a large chariot through the village with kirtan,
main motivations were based on the utilisation of yoga related travel chanting, and dancing. The local villagers painted traditional tilak (a tra-
for improvements in well-being for career and life advancement. Further- ditional and symbolic marking) on respondents and danced and sang in
more, respondents tended to have entrepreneurial goals that greater harmony together exemplifying closeness and acceptance of each other.
physical health and mental clarity from yoga travel would help achieve: It was also evident Western yoga-related travellers in India tended
to follow a well-worn trajectory when traveling in India. Most respon-
“My main goal after this is to go back to Switzerland and set up a dents started their travels at GEV and did not travel prior to their retreat.
smoothie and yoga business. Like a health food shop with yoga. The few practitioners who did, went to the South of India and visited ei-
There are lots of spiritual people in Switzerland who like health, ther the state of Kerala, or the neighbouring southern city of Mysore (in
yoga, and being outdoors, so I want to invest in that. There are also Karnataka). Kerala is renowned for Ayurveda and yoga, and Mysore is
lots of open – minded people there. Being in India at the retreat famous for Ashtanga and is home to many yoga schools including the
has also helped me relax and learn more about myself, as well as K. Pattabhi Jois Astanga Yoga Institute. It is considered by some to be
how I would like to set up my business”. (J14). the birthplace of physical yoga. Additionally, a few travellers visited
West Bengal beforehand, which is known as the birthplace of chanting
Additionally, respondents viewed their time at GEV as an invest- and is important for practitioners to visit for more esoteric yogic pur-
ment in their various business initiatives. For example, a respondent poses. Connectivity to the origins of yoga was reported as a strong influ-
mentioned that her trip to GEV was in order to help her advance in ence over travel in India and explains why Rishikesh and Vrindavan in
her textile and graphic design business (J19). She also stated that she the North are heavily visited and a ‘must see’ for yoga devotees.
wanted to plan her own retreats to India in the future and act as a Other respondents did mention personal problems with the auster-
guide for Westerners and that her to GEV was instructive before leading ity of traveling in India and although intending to avoid extravagance,
her own tour in the future. Another respondent stated that he was using most respondents were reluctant to stay in completely barren condi-
this trip as a social media platform to advance his own retreat business tions, bereft of hot water and the comforts of home. Even though re-
and noted a sincere desire to have spiritual transformation from coming spondents may have wanted to have a spiritual experience and see
to India and staying at a ‘spiritual place’ (J17). Similarly, several other India ‘warts and all.’ they were not completely willing to relinquish
respondents noted the transformative impact of traveling to a spiritual comfort. Many respondents, especially women did express apprehen-
locale and that GEV is not a place someone who is detached visits: sions about traveling on trains in India given recent safety concerns.

“The Govardhan Eco Village is not a place for someone who is

detached from the material world to come… I mean, if you are too 7.3. Phase 2 post-fieldwork visit
detached from reality and meditating on nothingness, you cannot
be spiritual and you would not be happy here. You need to connect In September 2015 (around twelve months later) the first author
to something higher. Here in India, especially here at GEV, a spiritual revisited GEV to contextualise findings of the previous phases of re-
reality is presented to us travellers. As tourists, we have to be realis- search and to attend for the purposes of engaging in yoga practice. It
tic. Travelers can take advantage of this place learn principals here was evident that the volume of yoga travellers to GEV had increased
and dovetail them into our lives at home in the West.” (J10). markedly and that increased revenues had enabled GEV too undertake
repairs and expansion to the facilities on site. Nimai Lila Das, head of
However, the spiritual and mystical importance of a visit to GEV re-
guest services mentioned that many ‘top secret’ celebrities and tourist
mains prominent: groups had been at GEV recently and that they were much busier than
I needed to come here. I left my two young sons and my husband at normal. During this time, an organised group yoga retreat was taking
home looking after them. Something higher was pulling me … a place with 50 practitioners from the New York/Tri State area in the Unit-
need to improve upon my spirituality. I could also advance my tex- ed States.
tile and graphic design business, and look at the retreat centre to Also, a small number of interviews were conducted with around 20
get ideas and information for yoga retreats which I am planning in respondents in residence at GEV. Although many respondents had sim-
the future.” (J19). ilar sentiments to those interviewed during the first phase of fieldwork,
there were some distinct differences, respondents in Phase 2 fieldwork
Other travellers remarked how their spiritual and/or religious lives appeared to be more engaged in yoga spiritual practices at GEV. For ex-
had changed during the retreat, and they were going to continue the ample, during the kirtan (spiritual chanting and singing) on the rooftop
new yogic practices (such as bhakti, chanting mantras and living simple with Radhanath Swami, many respondents were jumping up and down
sustainable lives) which they had learned at GEV when they return singing and were elated. However during Phase 1 fieldwork, respon-
home. Hence, it can be determined that travellers to retreats seek ad- dents were demonstrably less excited and more detached and subdued
vancement and transformation on a material as well as spiritual level and only interested in partaking in physical asana (poses). Phase 2 re-
depending on the individual. spondents seemed to assimilate into the yoga lifestyle and spiritual
One of the most striking observations is the seemingly easy integra- and religious practices at the retreat centre without much coaxing. Dur-
tion and intermingling of the local villagers, GEV staff and respondents. ing Phase 2 fieldwork, there was a corporate seminar taking place with
GEV was built in a rural area which was already inhabited by people of executives of Fortune 500 companies and they has all had come to speak
the state of Maharashtra. These individuals still live in extremely close with Radhanath Swami and receive spiritual guidance from him.
proximity to the GEV, and oftentimes visit the temple community. In conducting Phase 2 fieldwork, it was evident that during the inter-
Many of the respondents were taking “selfies” with the retreat centre vening period between the two phases of fieldwork, GEV has expanded
workers, adding them on Facebook and sharing meals with them on a its capacity and that the quality of accommodation suited western
regular basis. Furthermore, on the first day of field research, the local needs more closely. There were also new additions such as an ice

Please cite this article as: Bowers, H., & Cheer, J.M., Yoga tourism: Commodification and western embracement of eastern spiritual practice, Tour-
ism Management Perspectives (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.013
8 H. Bowers, J.M. Cheer / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

cream parlour and wood fired pizza oven to accommodate respondents, primary needs of self-improvement and career enhancement echoing
as well as new landscaping to replicate the aesthetic in Vrndavana. the pursuits described in Elizabeth Gilbert's bestselling tome Eat, Pray,
Love.
8. Discussion and conclusion There is ample evidence to suggest that yoga tends to be an inacces-
sible and exclusive undertaking (especially in in non-Indian contexts)
In contextualising the findings from this study, it appears that yoga and its obvious commodification is arguably adverse to its origins and
tourism is distinct from wellness tourism and spiritual tourism. While central ideals. This begs the question as to whether or not yoga tourism
there can be some crossover, respondents to this study articulated is inclusive or restricted for the elite and those who can afford it. Thus,
that yoga symbolises particular purposes. For many, yoga related travel the chorus baying for the decolonisation of yoga is intensifying, espe-
embodies opportunities for growth and transcendence and that the cially for southern Asians who consider that an intrinsic aspect of their
benefits of this can be significant for their careers and personal lives. heritage has been hijacked. While this is partly about reclaiming heri-
In addition, receipt of spiritual knowledge and guidance is paramount. tage, it is also a reaction against others who have managed to parlay
Indeed respondents are principally motivated to partake in yoga-related yoga into commercial enterprises with little to no acknowledgement
activity, first and foremost and that India as the cradle of the yoga move- of its sacred traditions.
ment was considered to be the best place for this. In a sense, this vindi- In conclusion, the links between yoga-related travel and spiritual
cates their choice of India as yoga tourism destination and this is in tourism are clear if we consider that wellness and well-being gains are
alignment with Hasselle-Newcombe's (2005: 319) point that the ma- intrinsic goals of participation. However, the extent to which yoga tour-
jority of yoga practitioners are less interested in religiosity and more ism can be considered spiritual is less convincing. This accords with
concerned with spirituality - and as the spiritual home of yoga, an Indian Singleton's (2005: 290) contestation that modern yoga is a “home-
experience is most apt. grown hybrid rather than as an unadulterated scion of an extant, pre-
One of the key emergent themes evident from this research high- modern tradition”. There is little doubt that spirituality and yoga are
lights that yoga travellers have a higher tendency to be from developed aligned in terms of its generalised values, however whether yoga prac-
countries in the West and be well educated females in professional oc- tice offers spiritual gains or not is contested. That yoga travel embodies
cupations. For the most part, yoga travellers demonstrated a high pro- the self-centred pursuit of enriching one's well-being is clear and most
pensity to travel as part of a collective rather than as an individual likely uncontested by yoga purists and those who claim a heritage
highlighting the community minded nature of practitioners. Additional- link. However, that yoga has become monetised and commodified and
ly, they tended to define themselves as yoga or spiritual traveller and transformed into a tool for corporate expansion and profit makes it ab-
not tourists. This demarcation between yoga and spirituality as horrent to its deeply spiritual and humble roots.
contrasted with plainly traveling is a distinct attitudinal difference. Future directions for research suggest that wider ranging examina-
While it is generally argued that yoga-related travel is a type of es- tions of yoga traveller motivations across the globe can shed greater in-
capism enabling participants to leave the woes of the West behind in sight into the variables that incite such activity. This will be especially
pursuit of the wisdom of the East, this study found that travellers are useful in Indian and less developed country contexts where yoga-relat-
not necessarily seeking to escape anything. Instead, they are using ed tourism enterprises are predominant and might offer community de-
yoga for its spiritual tenets and as a way to improve their life circum- velopment and micro-enterprise opportunities (Indonesia, Sri Lanka,
stances, especially around personal well-being and career enhance- Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos are other examples). Addition-
ment. Furthermore, yoga-related travellers are mostly motivated by ally, the wider socio-political ramifications of yoga's global expansion
the chance to undergo fundamental life changes and personal transfor- warrants further research, especially notions of how it may be
mation and the spiritual attachments to it are secondary. This accords ‘decolonised’ to better acknowledge its ideals. Namaste as an epitaph
with Puustinen and Rautaniemi's (2015: 60) sentiments that “spiritual- that underpins yoga has morphed into a term that is widely understood,
ity is sometimes used to differentiate yoga from other forms of exercise, yet its very proliferation has arguably led to its oversimplification and
as well as a tool for constructing a particular type of consumer identity”. bastardisation, distanced from the sacred action of offering a greeting.
The essence of yoga underlined by spirituality and what is arguably According to the India based Spiritual Science Research Foundation
an anti-materialism stance although detected, was not enough for yoga (2016):
travellers to relinquish all of the comforts of home. This has led to GEV
developing upgraded and expansive accommodation for all of their vis- “…this greeting is about acknowledging the Divine in another, it en-
itors. However, with little exception, it seems that yoga travel tends to hances the spiritual potency and attracts Divine consciousness
place slight emphasis on the collection of information via traditional (Chaitanya). When done with the spiritual emotion (bhāv) that
marketing channels but instead, enormous credence is placed on word one is actually paying obeisance to the soul in the other, it inculcates
of mouth referrals and recommendations. While it is plausible to as- the attitude of surrender and gratitude.”
sume that yoga's Vedic roots is an overriding influence on attitudes to-
wards yoga travel and the desired outcomes from it, spirituality Thus, yoga-related travel is doubtless part of the wider adoption of
underpinned by the pursuit of wellness and well-being were by far yoga as spiritual practice, exercise regimen and as an intrinsic means
the most significant sought-after consequences. of attaining physical and emotional well-being. Its place as a legitimate
It is clear that partaking in yoga travel is far from a selfless search for motivator for travel is also undoubted and this is particularly pertinent
spirituality. In many ways the commoditisation of yoga into yoga tour- to geographical locations in southern Asia where its origins lie. Whether
ism is antithetical to yoga's traditional tenets. This is especially evident the rise of yoga in tourism builds on the notions of profanity in the way
in what are arguably self-centred and nihilistic motivations for partici- it is practiced places little attention on its genesis and values, and this is
pants to benefit themselves first and foremost. This aligns with the com- a legitimate concern that purists express. However, the embodiment of
modification of yoga in the West through yoga apparel, books and other yoga for tourism is inevitable as it exploits the exotic and in combination
related merchandise as evidenced in the proliferation of yoga lifestyle as with the spiritual and links to wellness, its increased commodification is
an aspirational goal as exemplified in mega global brand Lulu Lemon certain. Regrettably, for heritage owners and the gatekeepers of yoga's
whose growth has been centred on yoga and wellness themes. More- inheritances, this is little consolation and the question ripe for further
over, attendance at yoga retreats outside of India tend to be niche, high- research asks: how can yoga-related travel eschew the profanities im-
ly priced and targeted at the premium traveller (with the exception of plicit in large scale industrialisation, yet remain true to its spiritual
Ashrams that are run by secular and non-secular organisations). Spiritu- heart? And when it comes to tourism, is this need for authenticity
ality, while still a recognised ideal of practitioners, is secondary to the reflected in the motivations of yoga-related travellers anyway? Lastly,

Please cite this article as: Bowers, H., & Cheer, J.M., Yoga tourism: Commodification and western embracement of eastern spiritual practice, Tour-
ism Management Perspectives (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.013
 H. Bowers, J.M. Cheer / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 9

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Please cite this article as: Bowers, H., & Cheer, J.M., Yoga tourism: Commodification and western embracement of eastern spiritual practice, Tour-
ism Management Perspectives (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.013