you believe to be true is going to be

You're hired does not mean the end of your task in true)
IO P. Continually improving the skills of the
company's workforce is essential for staying ● Training - is systematic acquisition of
updated in the fast-moving business world. This is skills, rules, concepts, or attitudes that
the reason why training and development covers a result in improved performance
wide field in the world of I/O P. The I/O
psychologists have many career options: Coaching, ○ Rules – means what is the norm
training program implementation, instructional of the organization
design, training evaluation and management
training are just some path options available. It is a ● Knowledge - gained via learning and
rewarding and exciting part of I/O psychology. training

○ Declarative Knowledge - refers

The training process has many steps, and other to factual information about a
books will give you different steps. Below is the specific topic
Training Cycle which follows simple, basic steps to
a training program: ○ Procedural Knowledge - refers to
routines on how to do something
(application)

● Development - growth of a person’s

ability and potential through the
provision of learning and educational
experience

○ Training is the systematic

application of formal processes
that involves the acquisition of
knowledge, skills, attitudes to
increase the performance of
employees. (Goldstein and Ford,
2002)

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT: A

Systematic Training: the basic cycle (Cole, COMPARISON
Employee development and Training, pp: 351)
Employees, whatever ranks in the company, are TRAINING
our heroes. Investing in them as a legitimate
resource of the company is a view that is shared by ● is concerned with teaching technical skills
progressive and empowered companies. ● is useful in the case of non-managerial
personnel
Thus, individual or team improvement will lead to ● seeks to develop skills already possessed
organizational improvement show: by workers
● Makes use of on-the-job training methods
● Training linked to desired behaviors such as apprenticeship, assistant to
positions, vestibule training etc.
● Behaviors linked to desired outcomes ● Seeks to make workers proficient in their
existing jobs
● Improvement implies change
DEVELOPMENT
● Thinking of the big picture and impacts
long term outcomes
● Is concerned with teaching technical,
NOTES 1st VID human, and conceptual skills
● Is useful in the case of managerial period
Why train? ● Seeks to develop hidden qualities and talent
of personnel
1. May not be able to select qualified ● Makes use of on-the-job training methods
individuals to fill positions such as job rotation, lecturers,
2. Ensure employees can maintain brainstorming, role-playing, sensitivity
performance training, etc.
3. Develop employees for different positions ● Seeks to prepare employees for handling
and/or roles in organization more responsible and challenging jobs

- Make the newly hired employers an Hypers - people who are already performing really
everyday hero. (To be more competent) well in their jobs (technical trainers)

Definition of the components of training and Hypos - High possibilities (In leadership, etc.)
development
Training is a short term for a specific purpose
● Learning - Is the act by which the
individual acquires knowledge skills and Development is long term and educational
attitudes that result in relatively
permanent change in behaviour. (What
Training Cycle 2. Task analysis - identifies which task is a
job should be targeted to improve
What is a need’s assessment? performance (specifics of the job) (based on
organizational analysis)
● Systematic analysis of specific training a. Job analysis
activities required for job holders i. Tasks
● Organization to achieve the objectives of ii. Conditions under which task
the job are performed
● (systematic - reach a certain subjects) iii. KSAO’s needed to perform
tasks under those conditions
Training Cycle b. Task analysis identifies how task are
learned
1. Identification of training needs i. Expected at time of hire
Different types of processes ii. Easily taught on-the-job
1. Organizational analysis iii. Current training program
2. Task analysis iv. No training
3. Person analysis
3. Person analysis - identifies which individuals
- Comes up with training objectives within an organization should receive training
(identifies specific needs in a person's
2. Training and development attributes to improve in order for them to
1. Selection and design of the perform well. (-third and final for determining
programme training needs)
2. Presentation of the programme
3. Evaluation (should hit the target) - Every employee needs to be trained
4. Development of criteria
● Performance appraisal scores -
5. Use of evaluation modes
the easiest method of needs
Training need - there is always a gap when analysis to use. However, rating
identifying a training need eros can reduce the accuracy of
performance appraisal scores
● Very first step in developing your employee and system may not provide the
training system type of information needed
● Purpose of needs analysis - determine the ● Surveys- asks employees what
type of training needed in a type of knowledge and skills they
organization. believe should be included in
● Identify gap future training
● Discrepancy between actual performance
and ● Interviews - more in-depth
○ An ideal answers about training needs.
○ A norm Data are often difficult to quantify
○ A minimum and analyze
○ A desired state
○ An expected state ● Skill and knowledge tests-
employees are tested to
What is need’s assessment? determine training needs.
Usually to test knowledge or
● Tells us the types of training (if any) that are concepts
needed in an organization
● Critical incidents (from employee
Analysis of need (4 key questions) - There should records)- written notes or test
be an ROI return of investment in making a training files employees who have either
proposal done outstanding job or had a
problem with an assignment or
1. What are we trying to accomplish? customer
2. Why do we think there is a need for our
training program 2nd video
3. Is there an actual need for our training
program Developing training program
4. Is our idea for a training program practical/
Establishing goals and objectives
3 methods for determining training needs
1. Organizational analysis - determine what ● What do you want to accomplish?
organizational factors facilitate or inhibit ○ Knowledge
training ○ Skills
● Goals and objectives ● What goals should be
● Economic analysis ○ Concrete
● Organizational climate ○ Attainable
○ Employee readiness ● Can you accomplish your objectives
■ Attitudes ● Set goals
■ Time ○ What’s expected
■ Commitment ○ Level at which it’s expected
○ Management support ○ Condition at which it’s expected
● Resource analysis
Examples: ➢ Confident
➢ Speak at normal pace
By the end of the training session you will be able ❖ Make the presentation
to answer customer questions about loan rates Training methods
without asking others 90% of the time
1. On the job training
By the end of the training session you will be able 1. To learn by doing itself
to balance teller drawer without assistance in 30 2. Learns the method involved and
minutes with no errors gets perfection over a specific task
3. On experience, job performance will
Motivating employees be high and become more efficient
2. Demonstration
To encourage attendance, provide incentives 1. Describes and displays
2. More effective - mechanical
● Self-improvement related to immediate operations
job 3. Combined with lectures and group
● money, promotion opportunities, college discussions
credit, certificates 3. Job instruction training (IJT)
● Let employees choose the training
offered
● Offer food and reduce workload
Developing training programs

❖ Motivating employees - for the training

program to be effective, employees
must be motivated to attend training and
apply training to their jobs
❖ Attend training
➢ Relate training to an employee’s
immediate job
➢ Make the training interesting
➢ Increase employee buy in 4. Vestibule training
➢ Provide incentives
➢ Provide food ❖ Learn and develop skills in the
➢ Reduce the stress associated similar situations
with attending ❖ 2 parts
❖ Perform well in training ➢ Lecture method
➢ Providing incentives ➢ Practical exercise
➢ Make it interesting (workshops)
➢ Provide feedback so employees ❖ Training with equipment and
know if they are on the right track machines, but an artificial work
❖ Apply training to their jobs - the environment is created
atmosphere set by management plays
5. Apprenticeship
the biggest role in employee motivation
that is employees are most likely to ❖ Oldest and the most commonly
apply their new knowledge used method
Motivating employees to use training in the job ❖ More times spent on productive
job
● Provide an opportunity to use newly
❖ Programme of assignments
learned skills
according to predetermined
○ when?
schedule
● Ensure supervisory support
❖ Employees-paid
○ Recognize performance
❖ Usually with a supervisor
improvement
6. Coaching
○ Why?
Conduct the training ❖ Direct personal instructions
and guidance
❖ Choose the best training
❖ Continuous evaluation and
➢ Classroom training
correction
➢ Distance learning
❖ Quick feedback
➢ On-the-job
- The understudy
❖ Then decide
❖ Assist and will be supervised
➢ Who will conduct?
❖ To develop family
➢ Where will it be held?
members/sponsored candidates
➢ How long should it be?
Comparing methods
Delivering the training program
❖ Learning through coaching
❖ Introduce the trainer and the training
session - Experience employee works with
➢ Short and credentials new employee
➢ Objective and schedule
❖ Using icebreakers and energizers
➢ Introductions and activities
❖ Delivering presentation
 Problems 3RD VIDEO

● Not all employees are good MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES TO PERFORM WELL

coaches IN TRAINING:
● Coaching can lower the coach’s ● Completion and degree based
work productivity ● Knowledge based
● Skill based
- Pass through programs and corporate
● Job performance based
coaches can alleviate problems
TYPE OF INCENTIVE
❖ Learning through mentoring - is less
formal than coaching
● Self- improvement/ esteem
➢ Good mentors can be difficult to ● Job security
find ● Money advancement

❖ Learning through performance MAINTAIN INTEREST

appraisal
● Relevance
➢ The supervisor and the ● Activity
employee can determine what ● Fun
training methods would best help ● Variety
the employee to improve his job, ● Interaction
knowledge, or skills. ● Expertise
● Sharing
Job Rotation ● Provide feedback

❖ Move from one job to another

❖ Broader view on system frame of
reference
❖ Cooperative approach to different
functions
❖ Some employees may be confused and
affects performance
Simulation training

❖ Duplication of organizational situations

in a learning environment
❖ A single brief session
❖ Trained participation is full Evaluation of training results
❖ Will be provided with feedbacks and self
evaluation by themselves - Involves practicality and experimental
rigor

● Practicality- the most simple and

practical of research designs
implements as training program and
then determines whether a significant
change is seen in performance or job
knowledge

● Experimental rigor - control group that

consists of employees who will be tested
and treated in the same manner as the
Stating the problem experimental group except that they will
not receive training.
- Is that important skill of starting a
problem-solving discussion with Evaluation Criteria:
someone who failed to fulfill a
commitment or didn’t follow through a Five levels of which training effectiveness can be
responsibility measured

- The process involves setting a safe tone, Evaluation: Was it worth it?
sharing your observations, and then
asking the right questions to start the ● Content validity - validity training is
discussion evaluated by comparing training content
with the knowledge skills and abilities
- Select scenario above to walk through required to perform a job
the process of Stating the Problem
● Employee reactions - (Reaction
Evaluation) considers topics such as
program content, program structure and
format, instructional techniques,
instructor abilities and style, quality of
the learning environment, the extent to
 which training objectives were achieved Training effects to measure
and recommended for improvement
● Employee learning - evaluating the ● Reaction
learning after a training program ○ Evaluate trainees' reactions to the
answers the following questions program. Did they like the
○ What facts, principles, and programs?
concepts were learned in the ○ Did they think it worthwhile?
training program? ● Learning
- Learning evaluation is concerned ○ Test the rainees to determine
with how well the facts, principles whether they learned the
and skills were understood by principles, skills, and facts they
trainees. were supposed to learn
❖ Evaluation of training results ● Behaviour
➢s ○ The trainees on-the-job behavior
changed because of the training
➢ The post training program
appraisal should be made ● Results
several month Paper ○ Probably most important
and pencil or skill tests ○ What results did we achieve in
can be used to evaluate terms of the training objectives
learning. previously set?
➢ In order to obtain an
accurate picture of what
was learned, training
should be tested before
and after the training
program.
● Application of training - Did the job
behavior of trainees change because of
the program?
- A systematic appraisal is made
on the job performance on a
before and after basis. This
means that the appraisal of
performance should be made by
the trainer, the trainee’s
supervisor, their subordinates or Succession Planning
their peers.
What is succession planning?
❖ Evaluation of training
results after the training - A deliberate and systematic effort by an
so that the trained have organization to ensure leadership
an opportunity to put into continuity in key positions, retain and
practice what they have develop intellectual and knowledge
learned capital for the future, and encourage
● Business impact individual advancement.
● Return of investment
What is bench strength?

❖ An assessment of the organization’s

preparedness to replace departing staff
in critical positions. Identifying people
who are ready to step into someone
else’s shoes at the appropriate time
under the appropriate circumstances
with seamless transition.

➢ people with key positions (people

with specialized skills)

❖ Pipeline - ready pool of potential

candidates to fill up relevant positions as
soon as it it vacant

Steps in the process

● Phase 1 Identify key/critical positions

● Phase 2 Conduct task analysis
● Phase 3 Conduct a competency analysis
● Phase 4 Create replacement charts
● Phase 5 Monitor, evaluate, revise
- First step is always the most important
step.
- Assessment is key. A wrong identified
need means a wrong intervention
4th VID - Self- appraisal

Evaluating employee performance ● Rare

● Employee self-appraisals tend to
9 step process suffer from leniency
● U.S (liniency) versus Japan and
Step 1 Determine the reason for evaluating Korea (too modest)
employee performance - More research is needed

- Some goals of performance appraisal Step 4 Select the best appraisal methods to
● Providing employee training and feedback accomplish your goals
(65)
● Determining salary increases (86%) ● 3 major decisions to make
● Making promotion decisions (45%)
● Making termination decisions (30%) a. Determine the focus of the
● Conducting personnel research (20%) appraisal dimensions

Step 2 Identify environmental and cultural ● Trait focused

limitations performance dimensions
○ Commonly used,
- Identify and consider the type of yet not the best
environment and culture the company for feedback
has ● Competency focused
performance dimensions
Some issues: ○ Feedback is
easier to provide
● Supervisors are overworked and with these
don't want to PA. dimensions than
● No money available for merit the trait focused
● Peer ratings may reduce dimensions
cohesiveness ● Task focused
performance dimensions
Step 3 Determine who will evaluate ○ Are organized by
performance the similarity of
tasks that are
● Typically organizations rely solely on performed
supervisors to conduct performance ● Goal focused
appraisals performance dimensions
○ Organizes the
○ Anybody see a problem with this?
appraisal based
on the goals that
● 360 Degrees Feedback looks at
the employee
evaluations from everybody the
needs to have
employee works with
accomplished
○ Used usually for training and ● Contextual performance
feedback ○ Organizational
citizenship
○ Seldom for salary increase or to behaviors
determine promotion, and
termination decisions b. Decide if the dimensions should
be weighted (Should dimensions
360 Degree Feedback be weighted?)
- Supervisors
● More than 90% of organizations ● Advantages
use some form of supervisor’s ○ Some tasks are more
rating for performance. They see important than others
results
■ For example, it is
more important for a
- Peers
firefighter to be able
● Successful in predicting the future
to fight a fire than
success of promoted employees.
have a clean fire
They see the behavior
fighting suit
- Subordinates
● Disadvantages
● Difficult to obtain…. Why?
○ Tough from an
administration
- Customers
standpoint
■ Weighting dimensions
● Filing complaints, notifying
makes ratings more
manager, secret shoppers,
difficult to compute
company surveys
ratings and
communicate the
ratings to employees
 C. Determine how to rate the
employees

● At this point,
organizations must
decide how to rate the
employees

● They must choose

whether to compare them
to one another, use
objective measures, or to
have supervisor’s rate
their performance on
each dimension

(C. Continued) Employee comparisons

● Employees are compared to one another

instead of having their performance
individually rated

○ Ex. Rank order is the most

common method
Using Objective Measures
○ Paired comparisons comparing
each possible pair of employees ● Measure concrete performance
and choosing which of the two is dimensions
the better employee
○ Dimensions may include
○ Forced distribution predetermined
percentage of employees are ■ Quantity of work
placed in five categories ■ Quality of work
■ Attendance
■ Terrible 10% Below - Tardiness
Average 20% Average - Safety
40% Good 20% and - Time theft
Excellent 10% ■ Safety

■ Why could this cause ● Different from subjective measures

issues?
Ratings of Performance
- Rank and yank
● Most commonly used way organizations
- Normal distribution evaluate performance is through
supervisors rating employees on
- Someone has to be established dimensions
at the bottom
● Many variations of these rating scales

● Two most common:

○ Graphic rating scales

○ Behavioral checklist

- Consists of lists of
behaviors, expectations,
or results for each
dimension
 - Constructed by converting
task statements into
behavioral statements,
indicating the level of
performance expected

- Example:

- Task statement:Types
correspondence

- Behavioral statement:
Types of Rating Scales
Correspondence is
typed accurately and
● Performance based (extent to which
does not contain
expectations have been met)
spelling or
○ Exceeds expectations
grammatical errors
○ Meets expectations
● Normative based (comparison to other
employees)
○ Above average
○ Average
● Frequency based
○ Always
○ Sometimes

Example of Scale Types - Comparison to Other

Employees

Behavioral Checklist

- Advantage: Specific feedback is given

immediately

- Disadvantage: Can be contaminated

● Outside factors can lead to the employer

not getting the results desired from the
employee
Step 5: Train Raters
○ Bank’s loan rates are not
competitive ● Raters who receive frame-of-reference
○ Police officer patrols a road with training make fewer rating errors
few cars (severity, leniency, halo) and recall more
○ Selling air conditioners in Cebu training information than do untrained
versus Baguio raters

● Frame of reference training - provides

raters with job-related information,
practice in rating, and examples of
 ratings made by experts as well as the ○ Keep in mind, the supervisor
rationale behind those expert ratings should read this to help eliminate
errors of primacy, recency, and
Step 6: Observe and document performance keep attention directed at
unusual information
Supervisors observe employee behavior and
document critical incidents as they occur ● Completing the Rating Forms

Critical incidents ○ Once a supervisor completes

reviewing objective criteria and
● Examples of good and poor employee critical-incident logs, they need
performance to complete rating forms

● Should be communicated as they occur ○ A supervisor needs to be careful

not to make rating errors
● Document! Document! Document!
1. Distribution error - occurs when the rater
○ Forces supervisors to focus on only uses part of the scale instead of rating
behaviors rather than personal using the full range of numbers
traits
Example: a supervisor rates his employees
○ Helps recall behaviors when they all out of 4 or 5
are evaluating performance
Types of Distribution Errors:
○ Provides examples to use when
receiving performance ratings ● Leniency error
with employees ● Central tendency error
● Strictness error
○ Helps organizations defend
themselves in case of legal 2. Halo Error- occurs when a rater believes
actions the one being rated is high in one attribute
which convinces them to rate other
What do we tend to remember and forget when it attributes high as well
comes time to document?
Example: teacher assuming creative is
- We remember only a small percentage of smart.
actual behavior:
3. Proximity error - when the dimension
● First impressions (primacy effect) immediately following another dimension is
given the same rating purely because they
● Recent behavior (recency effects) are physically next to each other
● Unusual behaviors 4. Contrast error - occurs when the
performance rating receives is influenced by
● Extreme behaviors the employee rated previously
● Behavior consistent with Ex. best employee the company
supervisor’s opinion
5. Low reliability across raters
Step 7: Evaluate Performance 1. What are some causes\common
rating errors
● Obtaining and Reviewing Data 2. Different standards and comparisons
3. Observation of different behaviors
○ When it is time for a supervisor to
4. One sergeant views paperwork, one
appraise an employee’s
sees field action
performance, they should collect
their objective data - Train managers to reduce errors
■ Ex. a sales manager Sampling Problems
keeping track of how
much a salesperson is 1. Recency effect - occurs when the most
selling each month recent behaviors are weighted heavier than
behaviors earlier in the evaluation period
■ Ex. Tardiness 2. Infrequent observation - the manager simply
doesn’t have time to evaluate an employee
● Reading Critical-Incident Logs
Cognitive Processing of Observed Behavior
○ After obtaining the objective data,
the supervisor should go back I. Observation of Behavior – several
and read all the critical incidents factors can distort the ratings of
they have recorded observed behavior (RECALL)
 → For example, the longer the § Goals should be set for future performance and
rater takes to rate the behaviors
performance after observing
the behavior, the more Step 9: Employee Termination
distorted the rating will be
Public Sector
→ More familiar with job =
recall more information ● Violation of rules
● Inability to perform
II. Emotional State – the emotional ● Probationary period (period in which to
state of raters can distort the prove they can perform well. Usually 3-6
ratings months, 1 year for police, 6 years for
professors)
→ In fact, research finds that ● Employment-at-will doctrine - employees
the more stress the rater is can quite their jobs at will, so too are
under, the more rating errors organizations free to terminate an
that are made (appraisals employee at will
often cause stress)
○ Limitations: the right to security
III. Bias – the raters own perception of of tenure
the employee effects the rating.
● A regular employee shall remain
→ For instance, if a supervisor employed unless his or her services are
likes an employee they may terminated for just or authorized cause
give that employee a better and after observances of procedural due
rating than an employee they process
dislike
Legal Reasons for Terminating Employees

a. Just causes – an employer may dismiss an

● One of the most important uses of the employee on the following causes:
performance-evaluation data is to
provide feedback to the employee and ● Serious misconduct
asses their strength and weaknesses so ● Willful disobedience
that further training can be implemented ● Gross and habitual neglect of duty
● Fraud or breach of trust
● Some research suggests that certain ● Commission of a crime or offense
techniques can be used to make the against the employer, his family or
performance appraisal interview more representative
effective: TIME, SCHEDULING, ● Other similar causes
PREPARATION
B. Authorized causes – other grounds for
❖ Prior to the performance interview: terminating an employment:
Allocating time-to prepare for the
interview ● Installation of labor-saving devices
● Redundancy
➢ Allocating time to prepare for the ● Retrenchment to prevent losses
interview ● Closure and cessation of business
● Disease/illness
➢ Scheduling the interview-neutral
place ensuring privacy Legal reasons for terminating Employees

➢ Preparing for the interview-review 1. End of probation period

ratings with examples as back up 2. Violations of the organization’s rules
3. Inability to perform (documented failure to
During The Interview meet the standard)

§ Start out by breaking the ice The Termination Meeting (Prior to the Meeting)

§ Supervisor should communicate the following § Ensure that the legal process has been followed
§ Decide how much help you want to offer the
● The role of the performance appraisal employee
● How the performance appraisal was → References, severance pay,
conducted outplacement assistance
● How the evaluation process was § Choose a neutral, private place
accomplished § Plan enough time for the meeting
● The expectations that the appraisal § Schedule the meeting for the beginning of the
interview will be interactive week
● The goal of understanding and improving
performance The Termination Meeting (During the Meeting)
§ Get to the point
§ Next, the employees should give their ratings § Rationally state the reasons for the decision
along with their justifications for their ratings § Express gratitude for the employee's efforts (if
sincere)
§ Offer whatever assistance you wish to provide EMPLOYMENT MOTIVATION
→ Severance pay
→ Recommendation Definition
§ Perform administrative duties ● IO Psychologists generally define work
§ Ask employee to gather personal belongings and motivation as the internal force that drives a
escort them out worker to action, as well as the external
factors that encourage the actions.
The Termination Meeting (After the Meeting) ● Motivation is a force that serves three
§ Maintain your self-esteem functions namely
§ Protect yourself from guilt by reviewing the facts ○ Energizes
→ “Through your behavior, you fired ○ Directs
yourself. I'm just completing the ○ And Sustains
paperwork"
§ Help other employees cope Motivation and work
→ Be honest with them ● Ability and skill determine that the employee
→ This will avoid "water cooler whispers" can do the job
§ Avoid negative public statements about the fired ● Motivation determines whether the
employee's character employee will do the job properly
§ Notify all organizational units affected by ● Generally psychologists agree that
employee's departure increased employee motivation results in
increased job performance

NEEDS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

● Needs involve specific physiological or
psychological deficiencies that the
person/organism is driven to satisfy.
● Love to satisfy the need to be loved and to
love (psychological)
● Need theories are based on the idea that
there are psychological needs that lie
behind human behavior.
● When our needs are unmet we experience
tension or disequilibrium which we try to put
right which means we behave in ways that
satisfy our needs.
● Needs theories of motivation propose that
motication is the process of interaction
among various needs and the drives to
satisfy those needs.

THE DIFFERENT NEEDS, THEORIES OF

MOTIVATION:
● BASIC NEEDS THEORIES
○ Need Hierachy Theory by Abraham
Maslow, 1954; 1970
○ ERG Theory by Alderfer, 1972

“Maslow believed that employees would be

motivated by and satisfied with their jobs at any
given point in time if certain needs were met.”

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

● HIERARCHICAL
○ Meaning that the lower level needs
must be satisfied before one is
concerned with the next level.
● EACH LEVEL IS TAKEN A STEP AT A
TIME
○ Each level is taken a step at the time
and thus the higher-level need
cannot be reached until the lower
level need is satisfied.
● THE TWO BOTTOM LEVELS ARE
CALLED THE “DEFICIENCY NEEDS”. THE
TOP TWO ARE CALLED THE “GROWTH
NEEDS”

EVALUATION OF MASLOW’S THEORY

● Maslow's theory is popular and stood the
test of time but not very much supported by
research. The biggest problem with regards
to the levels “need there be five or two or
three are enough” :what about people who
 skip levels” “what about overlapping level” pictures for a few moments and then “write the
story it suggests.”
ERG THEORY
● Existence = basic physiological and safety One of the criticism towards Mc Clelland’s theory is
needs the use of TAT as the scoring can be unreliable.
● Relatedness = social needs However, meta-analyses show that TAT is a
● Growth = needs to develop one's potential reasonable good measurement tool (Spangler,
● Also postulates that once the lower-level 1992 in Riggio 2009)
needs have been satisfied, the next higher
level becomes a stronger motivator. REINFORCEMENT THEORY
● Can explain why a higher level need do not ● A consequence that follows a behavior and
become more important once a lower level serves to increase motivation to repeat the
need has been satisfied. behavior is called a reinforcer.
● Difference from Maslow’s theory is that ● Reinforcers are of two types:
people can skip levels. ○ Positive reinforcers (rewards)
■ Desirable to the person
BASIC NEEDS THEORY: CRITICISM ○ Negative reinforcers
■ Increase the motivation to
● Received a great deal of attention from perform the desired behavior
people in various fields. again in as an effort to keep
● Differentiating the lowe-form and the away the unwanted
higher-order contiditon
● Not very useful for prediction but Maslow’s ○ Both positive and negative
theory is useful as guidelines. reinforcers increase motivation to
repeat a behavior.
“Central to work motivation, are the needs for
Achievement, Power and Affiliation.” Schedules of Reinforcement
● Reinforcement in the workplace takes place
The achievement motivation theory by David Mc on a partial or occasional reinforcement
Clelland is a more comprehensive need theory of schedule which can be either the interval or
motivation and one that deals specifically with work ratio type.
motivation.
Reinforcement Theory: Punishment
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY (Mc ● Punishment is the unpleasant consequence
Clellan 1960, 1975) that directly follows the performance of a
● THE NEEDS FOR AFFILIATION behavior.
○ The desire to be liked and accepted ● The role of the punishment is to weaken the
by other tendency to perform a behavior which is
○ Motivated by cooperative rather than considered inappropriate.
competitive situations. ● Reinforcement theory holds that
● THE NEEDS FOR POWER reinforcement is better than punishment,
○ The need to direct and control the because punishment only stops the
activities of others and be influential unwanted behaviors whereas reinforcement
○ Status oriented. strengthens and motivates the desired
○ Two types of needs of power: behavior.
■ Personal power: used for
personal ends. Reinforcement: Organizational Behavior
■ Institutional power: used to Modification
achieve organizational
objectives. ● Reinforcement principles are used
● THE NEEDS FOR ACHIEVEMENT informally on a day-to-day basis to motivate
○ The compelling drive to succeed and workers through the compensation systems
get the job done. and other forms of rewards for work
○ Associated with task-oriented outcomes Riggio, 2009, page 191)
individuals
● When reinforcement theory is applied
This theory also highlights that each person has formally as a program to increase employee
different basic needs: motivation, it takes in the form of
organizational behaviour modification
● Employees who have a strong need for (OBM)
achievement vs employees who have little
achievement needs. ● In OBM, target behaviours are specified,
● Employees who have strong need for measured and rewarded.
affiliation vs Employees who have strong
need for power Incentives at the Workplace: Considerations
● Applicaation of Mc Clelland’s theory: ● Timing of incentives
○ To match workers’ motivaitonal ● Contingency of the consequences
profiles to the requirements of jobs ● Type of incentives used
○ Achievement traing program. ● Use of individual-based versus group based
incentives
Mc Clelland used a variation of Themativ ● Use of rewards versus punishment
Apperception Test (TAT) in which respondents are ● Fairness of the reward system
asked to study each of a series of fairly ambiguous
 ○ Herzberg’s Theory: How to
GOAL SETTING THEORY Motivate employees
● Emphasis on the role of specific, ■ To eliminate job
challenging performance goals. In the dissatisfaction, basic hygiene
goal-setting theory, employees' commitment must be provided.
to the goals are key determinants to ■ But providing basic hygiene
motivation. Goal setting theory has been factors will only prevent
used in settings outside work such as employees dissatisfaction
weight loss, study and exercise. Goals must and it will not necessarily
be clear, specific, attainable and if possible motivate them.
quantified. ■ Only the presence of both
● In goal setting programmes, large and motivators and hygiene
challenging tasks are broken down into factors can bring job
series of smaller more attainable goals. satisfaction and motivation.
○ Criticisms
● Strategies to influence employees ■ Herzberg’s is one those
commitment. theories that makes sense
○ Extrinsic rewards Peer pressure via but has not received strong
individual or groups research support. In general,
○ Intrinsic motivation by the use of researchers have criticized
feedback the theory because of the
○ Negative reinforcement may be used methods used to develop the
too two factors - the idea that
● SMART factors such as pay can be
○ Specific both hygiene factors and
○ Measurable motivators, and the fact that
○ Attainable few independent research
○ Relevant studies have replicated the
○ Time bound findings obtained by
Herzberg and his colleagues.
JOB DESIGN THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
● Stress the structure and design jobs as key ● Job Characteristics Model (Hackman and
factors in motivating employees. Oldham, 1976)
● The proponents of this theory believe that if ○ States that five core job
jobs are well-designed, having all the characteristics influence three critical
elements that satisfy employees need, then psychological states that in turn lead
employees will be motivated. to motivation.
The different needs, Theories of Motivation:
● Herzberg Two Factor Theory
○ Argues that job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction are two separate and
independent.
○ The two factors:
■ Hygiene Factors
● are those job related
elements that related
from, but not involving
the job itself.
● Factors when absent
tend to cause job
dissatisfaction
■ Motivators
● are related to job
content and are
inherent to the work
itself
● Factors when present
seem to cause job
satisfaction
 JOB CHARACTERISTIC MODEL,
INTERVENTION
● Workers must be high in growth need
strength if programs such as job enrichment
are going to produce motivation.
● Job enrichment involves redesigning jobs
to give workers greater responsibility in the
planning, execution, and evaluation of their
work.

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Cognitive theories of motivation emphasize the role

that cognition plays in determining employee
motivation.

Equity theory states that workers are motivated to

keep their work inputs in proportion to their
outcomes.

Equity Theory - Two Types of Perceived Inequity:

Underpayment inequity

● Will motivate these actions:

● Increasing outcomes
● Decreasing inputs
● Changing the comparison other
JOB CHARACTERISTIC MODEL ● Leaving the situation
● Growth Need Strength, which is an
individuals need and desire for personal Overpayment inequity
growth and development on the job.
● Improving the dimensions of the five core ● Actions that will be taken:
job characteristics have motivating effects ● Increasing inputs
only on those employees who are high in ● Decreasing outcomes
growth need strength. ● Changing comparison others
● Hackman and Oldham developed a ● Distorting the situation
questionnaire to measure the five core
characteristics, called the Job Diagnostic Equity Sensitivity: Three types of Individuals
Survey (JDS).
● The instrument creates a lot of interest and Equity Sensitive: I prefer an equity ratio equal to
the results are favorable. that of my co-workers

Benevolent: I can be comfortable with an equity

ratio less than that of my co-workers

Entitled: I will only be comfortable with an equity

ratio greater than that of my co workers Normative Commitment- the extent to which an
employee feels obligated to the organization and,
as a result of this obligation, must remain with the
organization.

Personality Perspectives
2. What type of people are satisfied with their
jobs?

Individual Differences and Job Satisfaction

Individual Difference Theory- posits that job
satisfaction variation is due to the personal
Employee Satisfaction and Commitment tendencies to enjoy/not to enjoy jobs

Job Satisfaction- a pleasurable or positive Personality Variables

emotional state resulting from appraisal of one’s job Genetic predispositions- job satisfaction not only
or job experiences may be fairly stable across jobs but also may be
- The attitude an employee has toward her genetically determined
job and
Core self-evaluations
Organizational commitment- the extent to which Some type of personalities have tendency
an employee identifies with and is involved with an to be satisfied with their jobs (Judge, Locke,
organization and Durham 1997)
- Emotional stability
Satisfaction and Organization Commitment - Self-esteem
- Meta analyses show that satisfied - Self-efficacy
employees tend to be committed - External/internal locus of control
employees. However, the relationship
between job satisfaction and performance Life satisfactions
are not consistent across people or jobs People who are satisfied with other aspects
of life seems to be satisfied with their jobs
Approaches to Study Job Satisfaction
Culture and Intelligence
Facet approach- refers to feelings regarding - Culture plays great role in determining job
specific job aspects, such as salary, benefits, work satisfaction
hierarchy, growth opportunities, work environment - Intelligence- smart bright people have
and the quality of relationships with one’s slightly lower job satisfaction than do less
co-workers intelligent employees in jobs that are not
complex
Global approach- refers to employees’ overall
feelings about their jobs Job expectation being met

- Job satisfaction and commitment are Discrepancy Theories

multifaceted ERG Theory
- An employee may be satisfied with one ● Growth
facet, (such as pay) but not another (such ● Relatedness
as work facility) ● Existence

Antecedents of Job Satisfaction Discrepancy Theories

1. What causes employees to be satisfied with Two-Factor Theory
and committed to their jobs? ● Motivator
○ Responsibility
Commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1997) ○ Challenge
Affective Commitment- the extent to which an ○ Job Control
employee wants to remain with the organization, ○
cares about the organization and is willing to exert ● Hygiene Factors
effort on its behalf. ○ Pay
○ Benefits
Continuance Commitment- the extent an ○ Coworkers
employee believes that s/he must remain with the ○
organization due to the time, efforts and expense Job Facets
that he/she invested in the organization. ● Are the tasks enjoyable
● Do the employees enjoy working with their
supervisor and coworkers
 ● Are coworkers outwardly unhappy - No matter how hard an employee works
● during an hour, the pway will be computed
Are are Rewards and Resources Given by the hourly rate and no more
Equitably - Wages under this plan are computed by
● Equity Theory multiplying the number of hours worked by
● Components the rate hour
○ Inputs - HxR=W
○ Outputs - H= hours actually worked
○ Input/output ratio - R= rate per hour in pesos
● Possible Situations - W= total wages earned
○ Underpayment
○ Overpayment First Method of Paying Salaries
○ Equal payment Payment on the basis of time worked is more
Organization Justice satisfactory under the following conditions:
● Distributive Justice 1. Employees have little or no control over how
● Procedural Justice much work they produce
● Interactional Justice 2. There is no clear-cut relationship between
Other antecedents of Job satisfaction are: the effort made to produce the work and the
● Good Job- organisational fit amount of work produced
● Job are enjoyable 3. Work delays occur often and are beyond the
● Enjoy working with co- worker and employee’s control
supervisor 4. Quality of work is very important
● Social learning theory at work Equity theory 5. Units of work produced cannot be
● Opportunities for challenge and growth distinguished and cannot be measured
● Job rotation, job enlargement
Monthly Workers
Measuring Job satisfaction and Commitment Applicable daily rate (ADR) x 365 = estimated
equivalent monthly rate (EEMR)
Measuring Job satisfaction
● Job satisfaction can be assessed by asking 12 where 365 days/year=
how employees feel about their job, either 297 ordinary working days
by using questionnaire or interview 52 rest days
● Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire 12 regular holidays
● Job Descriptive index 4 special days
Measuring organisational commitment
● Allen and meyer scale(1990) 365 total equivalent no. of days in a year
● Organizational commitment Questionnaire (Executive order 292, as amended by R.A. 9849)
● Organisational commitment scale
● Custom Designed inventories
Consequences of satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
and negative work attitude
● Absenteeism
● Turnover
● Counterproductive behaviour
○ Aimed individuals
○ Aimed at the organisational

PAYING SALARIES
Compensation and Benefits

1st Method: By the time worked

- Wages are computed in terms of unit of time
- Day-work methods of pay- include weekly,
biweekly, or on a monthly basis
- It is a common to pay workers by the day
and the term day work was adopted

- Non-incentive Wage Plan- paying by the

time worked