Module 34 Heat Treatment of Steel IV Lec

Module 34
Heat Treatment of steel IV
Lecture 34
Heat Treatment of steel IV
NPTEL Phase II : IIT Kharagpur : Prof. R. N. Ghosh, Dept of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering || |
Keywords : Austenitization of hypo & hyper eutectoid steel, austenization temperature, effect
of heat treatment on structure & properties of hypo & hyper eutectoid steel, tempering, effect
of tempering on structure & properties of steel, tempering parameter, recalescence
Introduction
The wide variety of phase transformations that takes place in steel makes it one of the most
attractive engineering materials. We are now familiar with the basic principles of each of these.
The Fe‐Fe3C phase diagram helps one guess the microstructure and properties of steel as a
function of composition provided the cooling rate is extremely slow. It suggests that eutectoid
austenite below a critical temperature (A1) transforms into a mixture of ferrite and carbide. If
the cooling rate is slow or if it is allowed to decompose at a temperature a little below A1 it
gives a coarse lamellar structure consisting of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite plates.
This type of structure is known as pearlite. This is a diffusion controlled process where carbon
atoms move over a long distance in austenite. As against this if it is cooled extremely fast the
carbon in austenite (FCC) is not allowed to come out of the solid solution when it transforms
into ferrite (which is BCC). The resultant structure gets distorted due the presence of excess
carbon in its octahedral interstices. It consists of a homogeneous phase called martensite
having BCT crystal. It is extremely hard and brittle. It forms without any diffusion when the
temperature drops below a critical temperature (Ms) and the process continues until the
temperature reaches Mf. Apart from the two extreme cases there is a range of temperature
over which the austenite decomposes into a very fine mixture of ferrite and carbide. The
carbide size and shape is distinctly different from that of pearlite. This structure is known as
bainite. The structural features of steel as a function of time and temperature are represented
with the help of a TTT diagram. It depends on composition of the steel and the temperature at
which austenitization has been done. We are familiar with the main features of such diagrams
for hypo‐eutectoid, eutectoid and hyper‐eutectoid steels. These are useful in planning heat
treatment schedules based on isothermal holds at different temperatures. However most
commonly used heat treatments processes adopt continuous cooling. A different version of
transformation diagram is needed to guess the type of structure that is expected in steel on
cooling at a given rate. These are known as CCT diagram. Like TTT diagram it is a function of %C
in steel and the temperature at which it is transformed into austenite. Towards the end of the
last module its usefulness in predicting the microstructure of steel during annealing,
normalizing and hardening of eutectoid steel was explained. Table 1 gives a comparison of the
main characteristics of the 3 heat treatment processes with respect to eutectoid steel. Slide 1
2 shows the heating & cooling cycles used and the CCT diagram with cooling curves for the 3
processes. In each of the three common heat treatment processes conversion of ferrite carbide
structure into austenite is important. This occurs through a diffusion controlled process. Let us
begin this module by looking at this process a little critically.
Table 1
Characteristics Annealing Normalizing Hardening

Cooling rate Furnace cooled Air cooled Water quenching
Microstructure Coarse pearlite Fine pearlite Martensite
Hardness Rc (10 – 20) Rc 30 ‐ 35 Rc 64
Ductility Very good Good poor
Residual stress Negligible Low Very high
Structural stability Best Moderate Least
Annealing, normalizing & hardening:

eutectoid steel

Slide 1
A:  A
T N Coarse
FC T H Pearlite
M
H: N:
WQ AC Fine
t Log t Pearlite
Martensite
(RC)H > (RC)N > (RC)A
Austenitization of hypo & hyper eutectoid steel:
This is the first stage of transformation during annealing, normalizing or hardening of steel. The
main purpose is to get a homogeneous austenite. At room temperature steel has two phases:
ferrite and cementite. During heating when the temperature goes beyond A1 cementite reacts
with adjacent ferrite to form austenite.
Austenitization
cm C/cm

temperature

910 Acm
A3
  + cm
3 C
A1
T Fig 1
(a) (b)
 + cm
C

0 C/cm %C
Figure 1: shows what happens at the ferrite cementitite interface when the temperature goes
beyond A1, the lower critical temperature. Tiny nuclei of austenite form at the ferrite cementite
boundary. Figure 1(a) gives an enlarged view of pearlite having alternate plates of cementite
and ferrite. It shows the formation of a tiny austenite nucleus. It would setup a concentration
gradient within the austenite grain. The origin of concentration gradient is easily understood
from fig 1(b). The horizontal line at the austenitization temperature intersects A3 at C. This
represents the concentration of carbon in austenite at the ferrite / austenite boundary.
Similarly the point of intersection of this line with Acm represents the concentration of carbon in
austenite at the austenite / cementite interface. Note that C/cm > C. Therefore carbon would
diffuse from the austenite/ cementite interface to the austenite / ferrite interface. As a result
the cm and ferrite regions would shrink and the austenite nucleus would grow. The diffusion of
carbon in austenite would primarily determine the kinetics of transformation. The mass flow
rate due to diffusion depends on diffusivity and concentration gradient. Exactly at A1 there is
hardly any concentration gradient. Therefore the transformation rate is negligible. Some
amount of superheating beyond A1 is necessary for the transformation of pearlite to austenite.
The extent of transformation is a function of both temperature and time. It can be represented
in the form a time– temperature transformation diagram. An example of such a diagram for
eutectoid steel is given in fig 2. It helps in the estimation of the time needed to transform
eutectoid steel into homogeneous austenite at a temperature above A1. Higher the
temperature the shorter is the time required.
100% 
0% 
Homogeneous 
het
+  +cm
Austenitization
T temperature
Fig 2
A1
 + cm
Isothermal hold time to
get homogeneous 
Log (time)
Hypo-eutectoid steel
 het  hom
A, N, H  Coarse 
A3  T
cm
A3
T
+cm +cm
A1 Slide 2
%C time
Austenitization: aim to get fine homogeneous 
Slide 2 shows the process of austenitization of hypo‐eutectoid steel of a particular composition.

The aim of austenitization is to get homogeneous . Let us look at this process with respect to a
particular grade of steel whose location on the relevant part of the phase diagram is shown by
the dashed line in the sketch on the left in slide 2. The conversion of pearlite to austenite
begins as soon as the temperature goes beyond A1. The sketch on the right shows a time
temperature diagram of this steel representing the various stages of transformation. The time it
takes for this to begin at A1 is extremely long but it decreases with increasing temperature. The
structure now consists of ferrite, austenite and cementite. Although austenite has formed still
there may be a significant amount of pearlite (recall that pearlite is a mixture of ferrite and
cementite). The time at which pearlite disappears from the structure is also a function of
temperature. It is longer at lower temperature. After the conversion of pearlite to austenite the
structure consists of  +. The amount of ferrite decreases with increasing temperature and
time. The transformation diagram in slide 2 shows a line beyond which there is no ferrite.
However still it may not be homogeneous austenite. The region is labeled as het. It takes a little
more thermal exposure for the concentration of carbon in austenite to be uniform. The sketch
includes a line that gives the time needed for this to happen as a function of temperature. If the
samples are kept too long a time beyond that required for homogeneous austenite to form the
grain may become unusually coarse. Coarse grain austenite on subsequent cooling gives
relatively poor toughness. Therefore too high a temperature or too long a time should be
avoided. The phase diagram in slide 2 shows the range of recommended austenitization
5
temperature for annealing (A), normalizing (N), and hardening (H) of hypo‐eutectoid steel. It is
usually 30°‐ 40°C higher than the upper critical temperature (A3).
Hyper eutectoid steel
Acm

N A1

A3 FC
A, H
T T
+cm AC Slide 3
+M
MS
Mf
%C Log (t)
Normalizing: Air cooled from ACm+30 C. Air cooling

suppresses cm network formation. Cm network makes
the steel brittle: unusable
The phase diagram in slide 3 shows the recommended austenitization temperature for
annealing (A), normalizing (N) and hardening (H) of hyper‐eutectoid steel. The purpose of
annealing is to get a soft and ductile structure. If the steel is heated beyond Acm to form
homogeneous austenite, on cooling it is likely to give a continuous network of pro‐eutectoid
cementite around austenite before the remaining austenite transforms into coarse pearlite.
This is because during annealing the component is furnace cooled (FC). The corresponding
cooling curve has been superimposed on the TTT diagram given in slide 3. Precipitation of pro‐
eutectoid cementite begins soon after the temperature drops below Acm. The grain boundaries
are the most preferred site for precipitation. Cementite is brittle. This makes the structure
prone to inter granular cracking. Therefore the purpose of annealing is lost. As against this if
austenitization is done at A1 +30°C before slow furnace cooling begins the structure consists of
globules of cementite surrounding the prior‐austenite grains which subsequently transforms
into coarse pearlite. There is no chance of forming a brittle network around the prior austenite
grain boundaries. Therefore this is the recommended austenitization temperature for annealing
of hyper‐eutectoid steel.
Pearlite
Cementite Fig 3
6
(a) (b)
Figure 3(a) shows the microstructure of hyper‐eutectoid steel if it is furnace cooled (FC) from
Acm + 30°C. This type of structure has poor resistance to withstand shock loading. It is
responsible for poor ductility. Therefore it should be avoided. Figure 3(b) shows the
microstructure of hyper‐eutectoid steel when it is furnace cooled (FC) after soaking at A1 +
30°C. During soaking at a temperature higher than A1 the pro‐eutectoid cementite has enough
time to become spherical. The driving force for such a change is the decrease in total surface
energy of carbide. This is because a sphere has the least surface area to volume ratio. The
amount of pro‐eutectoid cementite may still be the same. However in the absence of a
continuous grain boundary network of brittle cementite there is no easy path for a crack to
grow. Therefore such a microstructure has excellent toughness or resistance to crack growth.
This is the most desired structure of annealed hyper‐eutectoid steel.
The austenitization temperature for normalizing of hyper eutectoid steel is shown on the phase
diagram in slide 3 by a bar labeled N. It is around Acm + 30°C. After homogenization the sample
(or the job) is cooled in air. The cooling rate is relatively fast. The corresponding cooling curve is
superimposed on the schematic TTT diagram given in slide 3. The time allowed for the
precipitation of pro‐eutectoid cementite is much less. Therefore the amount of pro‐eutectoid
cementite will be less than that in the case of annealing. The amount often is not high enough
to form a continuous carbide net work. Figure 4 shows a schematic microstructure of
normalized hyper‐eutectoid steel.
Pearlite Fig 4: Shows the main features of the microstructure of

normalized hyper‐eutectoid steel. It has broken network of
Cementite
pro‐eutectoid cementite around the prior austenite grain
boundaries. The pearlite is expected to be much finer than
that of the annealed steel.
The purpose of hardening is to get maximum possible hardness in steel. The temperature at
which steel is austenitized has a marked influence on its hardness. It would have the maximum
hardness if it has 100% martensitic structure and %C in martensite is greater than 0.6. The
phase diagram in slide 3 gives the austenitizing temperature for hardening of hyper‐eutectoid
steel. It is given by A1 + 30°C. It is same for all hyper‐eutectoid steel. On austenitization at this
temperature it has at least 0.8%C in solid solution. On quenching therefore martensite is likely
to have 0.8% C. This is high enough to give the maximum possible hardness. Recall that the Mf
temperature of steel deceases with increasing %C in austenite. If hyper‐eutectoid steel is
7
austenitized above Acm it would have much higher amount of carbon in solid solution. Its Mf
temperature may even be lower than the room temperature. Therefore even on quenching to
room temperature the martensitic transformation may not be complete. There will be some
amount of retained austenite. As a result the hardness will be lower than the expected value.
The purpose of hardening will be defeated. This is why Acm +30°C is the optimum
austenitization temperature for hardening of hyper‐eutectoid steel.
Effect of heat treatment on the structure and properties of hypo‐eutectoid steel:
Annealing, normalizing and hardening are the 3 most common heat treatments given to hypo‐
eutectoid steel. During each of the 3 processes austenitization is done at a temperature 30°—
40°C higher than the upper critical temperature of steel. Subsequently it is water quenched in
the case of hardening, air cooled in the case of normalizing and furnace cooled in the case of
annealing. The microstructures and properties after these heat treatments are going to be
widely different. Slide 4 explains the origin of the marked difference in their structure and
properties using an appropriate CCT diagram.
Hypo-eutectoid steel
 fs

A3 Pro-eutectoid
ferrite

A1
Pf A Coarse
T pearlite
Ps N
H Slide 4
+M
Ms
Mf Annealing
Log (time)
Martensite Fine pearlite
GB ferrite
Hardening Normalizing
The cooling rate in the case of annealing is extremely slow. The sample after austenitization
remains within the furnace, only the power supply is cut off. The cooling rate corresponds to
equilibrium cooling rate. The cooling curve during the process has been superimposed on the
CCT diagram of hypoeutectoid steel. It is labeled as A. The precipitation of pro‐eutectoid ferrite
begins when the curve ‘A’ intersects the curve labeled fs. It continues until the cooling curve
intersects Ps it denotes the onset of decomposition of austenite into pearlite. The entire
transformation process is complete when the cooling curve intersects the line labeled Pf. The
8 final structure therefore consists of pro‐eutectoid ferrite and coarse pearlite. The amount of
ferrite can be estimated using lever rule if the composition is known. Alternatively if the
amount of pro‐eutectoid ferrite can be determined %C can be calculated using lever rule. This is
possible because the cooling rate is extremely slow.
The cooling rate in the case of normalizing is moderate. The sample after austenitization is
taken out of the furnace and allowed to cool in air. The cooling rate is higher than the
equilibrium cooling rate. This is likely to affect diffusion controlled transformation. The cooling
curve during the process has been superimposed on the CCT diagram of hypoeutectoid steel. It
is labeled as N. The precipitation of pro‐eutectoid ferrite begins when the curve ‘N’ intersects
the curve labeled fs. Note that the transformation begins at a temperature lower than that in
the case of annealing. Precipitation of ferrite continues until the cooling curve intersects Ps it
denotes the onset of decomposition of austenite into pearlite. This occurs at a relatively lower
temperature. The pearlite that forms is likely to be finer. The entire transformation process is
complete when the cooling curve intersects the line labeled Pf. The final structure therefore
consists of pro‐eutectoid ferrite and fine pearlite. The amount of pro‐eutectoid ferrite is less
than that you get during annealing.
The cooling rate in the case of hardening is extremely fast. The sample after austenitization is
directly quenched in water. The temperature of the sample as it cools on quenching has been
superimposed on the CCT diagram in slide 3 in the form of a cooling curve labeled as ‘H’. It
avoids the nose of the C curve. It only intersects the horizontal lines representing Ms and Mf
temperatures. It suggests that austenite should transform completely into martensite. The
process is athermal and there is no diffusion of carbon atoms within the lattice. The %C in
martensite is exactly same as that in austenite before quenching. Recall that martensite can be
considered as a super saturated solid solution of carbon in BCC ferrite. The presence of excess
carbon within the interstitial site results in tetragonal distortion. This is responsible for the
change over from body centered cubic (BCC) in ferrite to body centered tetragonal structure
(BCT) in martensite in the presence of excess carbon. The c/a ratio of BCT martensite is a
function of %C. It is around 1.05 in martensite having 0.8%C. Note that its crystal structure is
marginally different from that of BCC. The morphology of martensite depends on its carbon
content. If %C is less than 0.6 the austenite grains get subdivided into a large number of laths of
martensite crystal. It %C is greater than 0.6 the austenite transforms into a large number of
plates of martensite. The microstructure shown in slide 4 is that of plate or acicular martensite.
The size of lath or plate is extremely small. Therefore the 3 main factors responsible for the
unusually high hardness of martensite are (i) solid solution strengthening due the presence of
excess carbon in solid solution (ii) strengthening due to extremely fine laths / plates (grain size
effect) (iii) asymmetric lattice distortion due to the presence of carbon atoms in octahedral
interstices. Martensitic transformation is accompanied by volume expansion. The regions
surrounding the laths or plates are highly stressed. This too may add to strengthening.
9 Excessive stress may also suppress the transformation of austenite to martensite. Often after
hardening steel may have some amount of untransformed austenite at room temperature even
if it is lower than Mf. In other words apart from being hard and brittle steel after hardening has
very high residual stress and unstable retained austenite. Therefore it is given an additional
heat treatment called tempering.
Effect of heat treatment on the structure and properties of hyper‐eutectoid steel:
Annealing, normalizing and hardening are also the 3 most common heat treatments given to
hyper‐eutectoid steel. The main difference lies in the selection of appropriate austenitization
temperature. Hyper‐eutectoid steel becomes 100% austenite on heating to a temperature a
little beyond Acm, representing the temperature at which cementite dissolves in the matrix.
During normalizing hyper‐eutectoid steel is soaked at Acm + 30°C so that it converts entirely into
homogeneous austenite. Subsequently it is allowed to cool in air. As against this the soaking
temperatures of hyper‐eutectoid steel for annealing and hardening are A1 + 30°C (look at slide
3). During this stage the room temperature structure gets converted into one consisting of
globules of cementite dispersed within homogeneous austenite. Subsequently it is water
quenched in the case of hardening, and furnace cooled in the case of annealing. The
microstructures and properties after these heat treatments are going to be widely different.
Slide 5 explains the origin of the marked difference in their structure and properties using an
appropriate CCT diagram.
Hyper-eutectoid steel: annealing &

hardening cm

(a)
+cm
cms
Acm
 + cm
A1 A1
 Ps Pf  + cm P
P + cm
FC s
P+ cm
Pf
Annealing
FC Slide 5
Normalizing AC Hardening
MS
+M
MS
+M
Mf Mf
Log(t) WQ Log(t) P
M
Why austenitization above
ACm not recommended? (b) (c)
10 Slide 5 gives two CCT diagrams. One on the left is used to predict or describe the evolution of
structural changes when hyper‐eutectoid steel is cooled after homogenization at Acm +30°C. It
has two cooling curves superimposed on the CCT diagram. One represents furnace cooling (FC:
extremely slow cooling) and other air cooling (AC: moderate cooling). Annealing means furnace
cooling. If homogeneous austenite is allowed to cool in furnace the pro‐eutectoid cementite
would precipitate along the austenite grain boundary forming a continuous network. When the
temperature drops below A1 the remaining austenite transforms into coarse pearlite. Such a
structure is brittle. This is why hyper‐eutectoid steel is not heated beyond Acm if it is to be
annealed. However in the case of normalizing it does not pose a problem because the cooling
rate adopted is relatively fast to suppress complete precipitation of cementite. Look at the
cooling curve labeled as AC. The time spent within the range of temperature where cm
precipitates is very short. The amount of cm is not large enough to form a continuous network
of brittle cm around the grains of austenite. One of the objectives of normalizing heat
treatment is to break the continuous carbide network in cast hyper‐eutectoid steel. The
transformation gets over by the time the cooling curve intersects the line denoted as Pf. It falls
within the fine pearlitic region of the CCT diagram. The final structure of normalized hyper‐
eutectoid steel consists of discontinuous carbide network along prior austenite grain
boundaries in a matrix of fine nodules of pearlite. It is expected to be moderately hard and
ductile.
Austenitization temperature for annealing of hyper‐eutectoid steel is A1 + 30°C. It is

independent of %C. On completion of austenitization the microstructure consists of globules of
cm in a matrix of austenite (see the sketch (a) in slide 5). The initial structure before the onset
of cooling is different from that in the case of normalizing (here it is 100% austenite). This is
why a different CCT diagram is needed to interpret its microstructure. Slide 5 shows such a
diagram. A cooling curve labeled as FC (furnace cooling) has been superimposed on this
diagram. This corresponds to the one adopted during annealing. Note that the transformation
of austenite to pearlite begins when the cooling curve intersects the line Ps and it is completed
at a temperature where the plot intersects the line Pf. The transformation takes place in the
temperature range where you expect coarse pearlite to form. The final structure of this steel
after annealing consists of globules of cm in a matrix of coarse pearlite (see the sketch (c) in
slide 5). It is expected to be soft and ductile.
Austenitization temperature for hardening of hyper‐eutectoid steel is A1 + 30°C. It is

independent of %C. On completion of austenitization the microstructure consists of globules of
cm in a matrix of austenite (see the sketch (a) in slide 5). The initial structure before the onset
of cooling is similar to that in the case of annealing. This is why the CCT diagram used to
interpret its microstructure is same as that used in the case of annealing (see slide 5). A cooling
curve labeled as WQ (water quenched) has been superimposed on this diagram. This
11
corresponds to the one used during hardening. Note that the transformation of austenite to
pearlite is totally suppressed. The curve does not intersect the Ps of the CCT diagram. However
diffusion‐less martensitic transformation takes place in this steel in the temperature range Ms
to Mf. The final structure of this steel after hardening consists of globules of cm in a matrix of
martensite (see the sketch (b) in slide 5). %C in martensite is a little higher than that in
eutectoid steel (0.8%C). The morphology of martensite depends on %C. If it is greater than 0.6
it is likely to have plate morphology. The speed at which the plates grow is extremely fast. It is
accompanied by significant expansion in volume. The austenitic regions surrounding the plates
get highly compressed. This may inhibit further transformation. This is why some amount of
austenite may still exist in the tiny regions between the plates even if the room temperature is
lower than Mf. Nevertheless the bulk of the microstructure would consist of plate martensite. It
is very hard and brittle. It would also have high amount of residual stress. It may lead to
cracking. Therefore it is necessary to give an additional heat treatment. It is known as
tempering. It improves the toughness (or the resistance to crack growth) of steel.
Tempering:
Steel must be cooled rapidly if it is to be hardened. The most common practice is to quench it in
water after it has been austenitized at an appropriate temperature. When you quench a piece
of steel of finite size its surface no doubt cools very fast but its core would cool slowly. At any
instant the temperature (T) at the core would be higher than that at its surface. The difference
between the two (T) is a function of the size of the specimen (or the job / component). It
increases with the increase in the size of the specimen. The thermal stress that develops is
proportional to T. Therefore it is high in a thick component. Apart from this there would be
additional stresses due to the change in volume associated with the transformation of austenite
to martensite. The net stress is the sum of the two. Its magnitude might be high enough to
cause distortion or cracking. This must be avoided. One obvious way is to adopt slow cooling.
But it may not favor formation of martensitic structure. The other option is to heat the sample
once again after quenching. The temperature should be high enough to relieve the stresses.
The process is known as tempering. Apart from stress relief there are two more reasons that
are worth noting. (i) High carbon marteniste is extremely brittle. Tempering would make it little
more ductile and tough (higher impact / crack resistance). (ii) The presence of retained
austenite poses an additional problem. It is unstable at room temperature. It may decompose
into a ferrite ‐ carbide structure with time. Such a transformation is accompanied by an
expansion in volume. This may lead to cracking or a change in the dimension of the component.
12
Tempering
Hardening
RC T1
T Tempering T2
Slide 6
T3
time time
Objective: (i) Improve toughness & ductility (ii) Remove

retained austenite to give structural / dimensional stability
(iii) Remove residual stresses
Slide 6 shows the heating and cooling cycle for tempering of steel. It always follows hardening
heat treatment. It is an isothermal heat treatment process. During tempering local plastic
deformation due to the presence of residual stresses and diffusion controlled phase
transformation take place. The kinetics of transformation depends on both time and
temperature. After a specific thermal exposure the sample is either oil quenched or air cooled.
Slide 6 gives hardness (Rc) versus time plots at three different temperatures. The change in
hardness is a good indicator of the kinetics of transformation that takes place during tempering.
It drops with increasing time at a constant temperature. It is more prominent at higher
temperatures. If the hardness is plotted against a combined time temperature parameter the
hardness data fall on common master plot as shown in slide 7. One of these is called Holloman
– Jaffe tempering parameter. It is given by T(C + log t) where T is the temperature in °K and t is
time in hour and the constant C = 14.3.
13
Tempering parameter
T1 t11 t12 t13

RC T2 t21 t22 t23
T3 t31 t32 t33 Slide 7
T(C+log t)
Holloman & Jaffe: C=14.3
Structural changes during tempering
Stage I: HCM=LCM+ 
carbide
RC I II: RA =  + carbide
III:  carbide dissolves &
II
Slide 8
III M=+carbide
F(T,t)
Experimental techniques
1.05
M=+cm • Microstructure
c/a
• X Ray diffraction
1.0
time • Dilatometer
Slide 8 gives the structural changes that occur during tempering. Note that the hardness versus
time – temperature parameter plot can be divided into three stages. During stage I high carbon
martensite transforms into a mixture of low carbon martensite and epsilon carbide (Fe2.4C).
During stage II the retained austenite (RA) transforms into a mixture of ferrite and carbide. Its
structure is similar to that of bainite. During stage III epsilon carbide is replaced by cm globules
14 and low carbon martensite transforms into ferrite. When the globules of cementite coarsen
there is a significant drop in the hardness of steel. The exact nature of the plot depends on the
initial carbon content of martensite and the amount of retained austenite. Low carbon
martensite has lower hardness. In such a case precipitation of very fine epsilon carbides may be
accompanied by a little increase in hardness. If %C is higher than 0.6 the hardness of martensite
should be around Rc64. When it transforms into low carbon martensite it should be
accompanied by a drop in hardness. However in the presence of very small precipitates the
drop in hardness may not be significant. If hardened steel has a significant amount of retained
austenite there may be an increase in hardness when it transforms into ferrite carbide
aggregate. In short the trend shown by hardness plot may vary widely depending of the
composition and microstructure of steel after hardening. Slide 9 gives a summary of the
structural change expected in hardened steel as a function of tempering temperature. Apart
from hardness there are several other ways of monitoring the transformations that occur
during tempering. Slide 8 includes 3 such techniques. These are examination of microstructure,
X‐ray diffraction and dilatometer. The crystal structure of martensite is BCT. X ray diffraction
technique can be used to find its c/a ratio. There is a plot in slide 8 that shows how c/a ratio is
expected to change as a function of time at a given tempering temperature.
Structural changes during tempering

Temp range Microstructure Properties
100 – 200 C LCM +  carbide Slight increase

in hardness
200 – 260 C RA: decomposition Hardness starts
decreasing
260 – 360 C  carbides pick up Marked
Slide 9
C to form Cm: not decrease in

resolved in OM hardness
360 - 723 C Coarsening of Cm Fully softened
Tempered martensite having Rc 25-45 has excellent
combination of strength & toughness. Problem?
The drop in hardness during tempering is accompanied by an increase in its ductility and
toughness. Tempered martensitic structure is known to have the best combination of strength
and toughness. It is possible to get same hardness in steel by giving different heat treatments.
15 For example you can get a hardness of Rc35 in a given piece of steel either by normalizing or by
hardening and tempering but hardened and tempered steel has much higher impact toughness
than the one which is normalized. Sometimes tempering can make steel brittle. One of these is
associated with the precipitation of  carbide. It occurs at low temperature. The other takes
place on slow cooling through a temperature range of 550° ‐ 450°C after tempering. It is due to
presence of a few unwanted alloy elements in steel. It can be avoided by fast cooling. Charpy V
Notch (CVN) test is the best possible way to determine the susceptibility of a specific grade of
steel to such embrittlement. It will be taken up later after we talk about the effect of alloy
addition on structure and properties of steel.
Recalescence:
It is associated with reheating during cooling as a result of eutectoid transformation. It is

important in steel having higher percentage of pearlite. The cooling curves used to describe the
effect of cooling rate on the evolution of structures in steel were assumed to be smooth.
However because of reheating effect that occurs due to phase transformation it is often
difficult to maintain a constant cooling rate. It can easily be demonstrated in the laboratory by
heating a piano wire made of high carbon steel, held straight between a pair of grips, by passing
electrical current from a power source until it becomes red hot and then let it cool in air. During
heating wire expands but when it converts to austenite it contracts. The two balance each
other. Therefore the wire remains straight. During cooling it becomes dull initially but again it
gets heated when austenite begins to transform. This is because it is exothermic. The wire again
becomes red & sags because of expansion due to both temperature increase & phase change.
Recall that the transformation of austenite to pearlite or martensite is accompanied by an
expansion in volume. This is illustrated with the help of sketches in fig 5. The effect is more
prominent in high carbon steel.
Piano wire becomes red when heated T & t at which eutectoid

but remains straight. On cooling initially transformation begins
A1
becomes dull grey but remains straight
T
Fig 5
Log t
Becomes red hot again when
it begins to transform & sags Actual cooling curve
An idea about recalesence (the extent of reheating due to phase transformation) while steel is
16 being cooled is of considerable importance in the design and selection of cooling scheme for
continuous thermo‐mechanical treatments (TMT). For example during the production of high
strength bars / rods after TMT have to be cooled rapidly. During this stage it is necessary to
take away the heat contained within the product as well as that being generated due to phase
transformation.
Dual phase steel:
Ever since the oil crisis of 1970s there have considerable efforts world over for the
development of high strength steel so that more fuel efficient automobiles could be produced
by reducing their weight. Ever since, several new grades of high strength low alloy steel has
been introduced. Although some of these will be covered in subsequent modules it may be
worthwhile to mention about dual phase steel in this module because high strength in this
grade was achieved by adopting a simple but novel heat treatment scheme. Bulk of the steel
used in load bearing members of automobiles or critical structures are made of low carbon
steel. Strength of such steel can be substantially increased by quenching it from a temperature
a little above A1. This would have a microstructure consisting of soft ferrite and hard
martensite. The amount of ferrite in this steel is around 70‐80% and the balance being
martensite. The ratio of the two can be controlled by proper selection of the temperature
within the ferrite austenite field of the phase diagram. The presence of hard martensite in a
soft matrix made of ferrite gives it an optimum combination of strength and ductility. Besides
these it has a smooth stress strain curve. Unlike most low carbon steel it does not exhibit yield
point phenomenon. Therefore it has excellent cold formability as well. The development took
place almost concurrently during 1975‐78 at Nippon steel, General Motors and Ford. It is
commonly known as dual phase steel.
Summary:
In this lecture we looked at annealing, normalizing and hardening; the three common methods
of heat treatment of steel. The principles behind the selection of austenitization temperature
have been explained. The process of austenization is a diffusion controlled phenomenon. Its
kinetics depends on both temperature and time. Therefore it can be represented by time –
temperature transformation diagram. It depends on the composition of steel. The importance
of CCT diagram in describing the evolution of microstructure during heat treatment has been
emphasized. In order to harden steel it must be cooled rapidly. The final structure is unstable. It
has retained austenite and high residual stresses. Therefore it must be tempered as early as
possible. The structural changes that take place during tempering have been explained. The
problem of reheating during air cooling of high carbon steel has been discussed. Its occurrence
is due to exothermic eutectoid transformation. A simple experimental technique to
17 demonstrate this has been described. The phenomenon is known as recalesence.
Exercise:
1. Suggest a simple experimental method for determination of Ms temperature of steel if

you have only facility for heat treatment and metallographic examination.
2. Which of the two would require more severe cooling rate to get a fully hardened
structure? (a) 0.8 % carbon steel (b) 1.0 % C steel.
3. A piece of steel which was quenched after prolonged holding at 700⁰C was found to
have ferrite martensite structure. Explain when would you expect this to happen?
4. List the factors that determine the strength of properly hardened steel.
5. 0.2 % plain carbon steel in annealed condition has 25% coarse pearlite. If it is normalized
(heat treatment) what changes would you expect in its microstructure?
6. A thin strip of 1.2% carbon steel is quenched in water from its fully austenitic state.
What structure would you expect in this steel?
Answer:
1. Austenitize a steel specimen, quench in baths maintained at a temperature close to its

expected Ms, heat it again by placing it in another bath maintained at a little higher
temperature, and then quench in water after holding it for some time. Repeat the same
steps with different combination of the intermediate quenching temperatures. Polish
etch and examine the microstructures under microscope. If martensite forms at the first
step cooling it will get tempered when it is put in a higher temperature bath. Tempered
martensite etches easily and it appears dark under microscope. Amount of tempered
martensite can be estimated. Plot % tempered martensite against intermediate
quenching temperature. Extrapolate it to 0% tempered martensite. This gives an
estimate of Ms. The experimental scheme is shown in the following figure for eutectoid
steel
T T3
%TM
Ms T2
T1 T1
T2
T3
Log t Ms Temperature
18 2. Austenitization temperatures for both are same for hardening heat treatment. (a) being
an eutectoid steel will have homogeneous austenite before quenching. Where as in (b)
there will be cementite globules present which would provide sites for nucleation of
pearlite. Therefore the latter would need more severe quenching to get fully hardened
structure.
3. Eutectoid temperature of steel is a function of its composition. For plain carbon steel it
is around 720⁰C. To get martensite the steel should be heated beyond this temperature.
However the presence of alloying elements which stabilize austenite (such as Mn, Ni)
can bring down eutectoid temperature. In this case steel must be an alloy steel whose
eutectoid temperature is less than 700⁰C. Therefore it must have been quenched from
ferrite – austenite region and the austenite on quenching got transformed into
martensite resulting in a ferrite – martensite structure.
4. A steel has maximum strength if has 100% martensite. This is obtained by quenching
steel from austenitic state. Strength of martensite depends primarily on its carbon
content. However the cooling rate needed to get 100% martensite in plain carbon steel
is often difficult to achieve. Presence of additional alloy elements decreases critical
cooling rate. Alloy steels are easy to harden. Therefore strength of hardened steel would
depend on its carbon content, section size (thickness) and other alloy elements present
& their amounts in the steel.
5. As against furnace cooling in the case of annealing the job is allowed to cool in air while
normalizing. This being significantly faster normalized structure would have finer
pearlite and a little less amount of ferrite. However the total amount of cementite
would still be the same. Only the carbon content and therefore the amount of
cementite in pearlite would decrease.
6. On quenching the microstructure of steel will consist of martensite and some retained
austenite. Both Ms & Mf temperature of steel decreases with % carbon. Steels having
beyond 0.7%C has subzero Mf temperature.
19

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Module 34

Heat Treatment of steel IV

Heat Treatment of steel IV

Characteristics Annealing Normalizing Hardening

Annealing, normalizing & hardening:

(RC)H > (RC)N > (RC)A

Austenitization of hypo & hyper eutectoid steel:

Austenitization: aim to get fine homogeneous 

Slide 2 shows the process of austenitization of hypo‐eutectoid steel of a particular composition.

Normalizing: Air cooled from ACm+30 C. Air cooling

Pearlite Fig 4: Shows the main features of the microstructure of

Effect of heat treatment on the structure and properties of hypo‐eutectoid steel:

Effect of heat treatment on the structure and properties of hyper‐eutectoid steel:

Hyper-eutectoid steel: annealing &

Austenitization temperature for annealing of hyper‐eutectoid steel is A1 + 30°C. It is

Austenitization temperature for hardening of hyper‐eutectoid steel is A1 + 30°C. It is

Objective: (i) Improve toughness & ductility (ii) Remove

T1 t11 t12 t13

Holloman & Jaffe: C=14.3

Structural changes during tempering

Structural changes during tempering

100 – 200 C LCM +  carbide Slight increase

C to form Cm: not decrease in

It is associated with reheating during cooling as a result of eutectoid transformation. It is

Piano wire becomes red when heated T & t at which eutectoid

Dual phase steel:

1. Suggest a simple experimental method for determination of Ms temperature of steel if

1. Austenitize a steel specimen, quench in baths maintained at a temperature close to its

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