General Psychology Chapter 5
General Psychology Chapter 5
General Psychology Chapter 5
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Q2. Can you mention some sources for different types of your behavior?
The sources of motivation are different according to the different theories of
motivation.
Some of the theories of motivation instinct, drive-reduction, arousal,
incentive, cognitive, and humanistic.
a) Instinct approaches to motivation
One of the earliest theory of motivation that is focused on the biologically
determined and innate patterns of both humans and animals’ behavior is called
instincts.
Just as animals are governed by their instincts to do things such as migrating, nest
building, mating and protecting their territory, early researchers proposed that
human beings may also be governed by similar instincts. According to this instinct
theory, in humans, the instinct to reproduce is responsible for sexual behavior, and
the instinct for territorial protection may be related to aggressive behavior.
The early theorists and psychologists listed thousands of instincts in humans
including curiosity, flight (running away), pugnacity (aggressiveness), and
acquisition (gathering possessions). However, none of these theorists did more
than give names to these instincts. Although there are plenty of descriptions, such
as ―submissive people possess the instinct of submission, there was no attempt to
explain why these instincts exist in humans. But these approaches accomplished
one important thing by forcing psychologists to realize that some human behavior
is controlled by hereditary factors.
b/ Drive-reduction approaches to motivation
This approach involved the concepts of needs and drives.
Q. what do you think is the relationship between need and drive?
A need is a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential
for the survival of the organism. When an organism has a need, it leads to a
psychological tension as well as physical arousal to fulfill the need and reduce the
tension. This tension is called drive.
Drive-reduction theory proposes just this connection between internal
psychological states and outward behavior.
In this theory, there are two kinds of drives; primary and secondary.
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Primary drives- are those that involve survival needs of the body such as hunger
and thirst
Acquired (secondary) drives- are those that are learned through experience or
conditioning, such as the need for money, social approval.
This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis, or the tendency of the body
to maintain a steady-state.
When there is a primary drive need, the body is in a state of imbalance. This
stimulates behavior that brings the body back into balance or homeostasis.
For example, if mister X ‘s body needs food, he feels hunger and the state of
tension (arousal associated with that need). He will seek to restore his homeostasis
by eating something which is the behavior stimulated to reduce the hunger drive.
Although the drive-reduction theory works well to explain the actions people take
to reduce tension created by needs, it does not explain all human motivation.
Q. Why do people eat when they are not hungry?
People do not always seek to reduce their inner arousal, either sometimes they seek
to increase.
a) Arousal approaches
b) . Incentive approaches
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incentives. In this view, the desirable properties of external stimuli: whether
grades, money, affection, food, or sex—account for a person’s motivation.
Many psychologists believe that the internal drives proposed by drive-
reduction theory work in a cycle with the external incentives of incentive
theory to ―push and ―pull behavior, respectively. Hence, at the same time
that we seek to satisfy our underlying hunger needs (the push of drive-
reduction theory), we are drawn to food that appears very appetizing (the
pull of incentive theory). Rather than contradicting each other, then, drives
and incentives may work together in motivating behavior.
c) Cognitive Approaches
The thoughts behind motivation
Cognitive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation is a result of
people ‘s thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals. For instance, the
degree to which people are motivated to study for a test is based on their
expectation of how well studying will pay off in terms of a good grade.
Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key difference between intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an
activity for our enjoyment rather than for any actual or concrete reward
that it will bring us. In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to do
something for money, a grade, or some other actual, concrete reward. For
example, when a teacher provides tutorial support for students in her extra
time because she loves teaching, intrinsic motivation is prompting her; if
she provides tutorial support to make a lot of money, extrinsic motivation
underlies her efforts. Similarly, if you study a lot because you love the
subject matter, you are being guided by intrinsic motivation. On the other
hand, if all you care about is the grade to get in the course, it is extrinsic
motivation.
d) Humanistic approaches to motivation
The other approach to the study of motivation is the humanistic approach
which is based on the work of Abraham Maslow.
Maslow was one of the early humanistic psychologists who rejected the
dominant theories of psychoanalysis and behaviorism in favor of a more
positive view of human behavior.
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Maslow suggested that human behavior is influenced by a hierarchy, or ranking,
of five classes of needs, or motives.
He said that needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy must be at least partially
satisfied before people can be motivated by the ones at higher levels.
Maslow’s five Hierarchies of needs for motives from the bottom to the top are as
follows:
Physiological needs- these are biological requirements for human survival,
e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
Safety needs- protection from elements, security, order, law, stability,
freedom from fear.
Love and belongingness needs- after physiological and safety needs have
been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings
of belongingness. Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and
acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part
of a group (family, friends, work).
Esteem needs- the need to be respected as a useful, honorable individual.
Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories:
1.Esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, and independence)
2.the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).
Self-actualization needs- realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment,
seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire to become
everything one is capable of becoming.
Q. Among the theories discussed above, which one more explains your
behavior as a student?
5.1.3. Conflict of motives and frustration
Based on the sources of motivation and the importance of the decision, people
usually face difficulty choosing among the motives. These are just a few of the
motives that may shape a trivial decision. When the decision is more important, the
number and strength of motivational pushes and pulls are often greater, creating far
more internal conflict and indecision.
There are four basic types of motivational conflicts.
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Approach-approach conflicts - exist when we must choose only one
of the two desirable activities. Example, going to a movie or a
concert.
Avoidance-avoidance conflicts - arise when we must select one of
two undesirable alternatives. Someone forced either to sell the family
home or to declare bankruptcy.
Approach-avoidance conflicts - happen when a particular event or
activity has both attractive and unattractive features, for example, a
freshman student wants to start dating but she, at the same time, is
worried that this may unduly consume her study time.
Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts - exist when two or more
alternatives each have both positive and negative features. Suppose
you must choose between two jobs. One offers a high salary with a
well-known company but requires long working hours and relocation
to a miserable climate. The other boasts advancement opportunities,
fringe benefits, and a better climate, but it doesn’t pay as much and
involves an unpredictable work schedule.
5.2. Emotions
5.2.1. Definition of emotion
Emotion can be defined as the feeling aspect of consciousness, characterized by
certain physical arousal, certain behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside
world, and an inner awareness of feelings.
Three elements of emotion
These are- the physiology, behavior and subjective experience.
The physiology of emotion - when a person experiences an emotion, there
is physical arousal created by the sympathetic nervous system. The heart rate
increases, breathing becomes more rapid, the pupils of the eye dilate, and the
moth may become dry.
Although facial expressions do differ between various emotional responses,
emotions are difficult to distinguish from one another based on outward bodily
reactions alone. It is quite easy to mistake a person who is afraid or angry as being
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aroused if the person’s face is not visible, which can lead to much
miscommunication and misunderstanding.
The behavior of emotion- tells us how people behave in the grip of an
emotion. There are facial expressions, body movements, and actions that
indicate to others how a person feels. Frowns, smiles, and sad expressions
combine with hand gestures, the turning of one’s body, and spoken words to
produce an understanding of emotion. People fight, run, kiss, and yell, along
with countless other actions stemming from the emotions they feel. Facial
expressions can vary across different cultures, although some aspects of
facial expression seem to be universal.
Subjective experience or labeling emotion- is the third component of
emotion and it involves interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a
label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, shame, interest, surprise and
so on. Another way of labeling this component is to call it the cognitive
component, because the labeling process is a matter of retrieving memories
of previous similar experiences, perceiving the context of the emotion, and
coming up with a solution- a label. The label a person applies to a subjective
feeling is at least in part a learned response influenced by that person’s
language and culture. Such labels may differ in people of different cultural
backgrounds.
5.2.2. Theories of emotion
5.2.2.1. James- Lang Theory of Emotion
This theory of emotion is based on the work of William James (1884, 1890, 1894),
who was also the founder of the functionalist perspective in the early history of
psychology and a physiologist and psychologist in Denmark, Carl Lang (1885),
came up with an explanation of emotion so similar to that of James that the two
names are used together to refer to the theory –the James- Lang theory of emotion.
In this theory, a stimulus of some sort (for example, the large snarling dog)
produces a physiological reaction. This reaction, which is the arousal of the fight-
or-flight‖ sympathetic nervous system (wanting to run), produces bodily sensations
such as increased heart rate, dry mouth, and rapid breathing. This theory believed
that physical arousal led to the labeling of the emotion (fear).
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Simply put, I am afraid because I am aroused, I am embarrassed because my face
is red, I am nervous because my stomach is fluttering, and I am in love because of
my heart rate increases when I look at her or him.
2. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
This theory states that the emotion and the physiological arousal occur more or less
at the same time. Cannon, an expert in sympathetic arousal mechanisms, did not
feel that the physical changes aroused by different emotions were distinct enough
to allow them to be perceived as different emotions. Bard expanded on this idea by
stating that the sensory information that comes into the brain is sent simultaneously
(by the thalamus) to both the cortex and the organs of the sympathetic nervous
system. The fear and the bodily reactions are, therefore, experienced at the same
time-not one after the other.
I am afraid and running and aroused
3. Schechter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal Theory
The early theories talked about the emotion and the physical reaction, but what
about the mental interpretation of those components?
In their cognitive arousal theory, Schachter-Singer (1962) proposed that two
things have to happen before emotion occurs: the physical arousal and
labeling of the arousal base on cues from the surrounding environment.
These two things happen at the same time, resulting in the labeling of the
emotion. For example, if a person comes across a snarling dog while taking
a walk, the physical arousal (heart racing, eyes opening wide) is
accompanied by the thought (cognition) that this must be fear. Then and
only then will the person experience the fear of emotion.
In other words, I am aroused in the presence of a scary dog; therefore, I must be
afraid.
Stimulus (e.g. snarling dog) ---Physiological arousal (High blood pressure, high
heart rate, sweating)
Emotion (fear)
Stimulus (e.g. snarling dog) - Physiological arousal (High blood pressure, high
heart rate, sweating) --Emotion (fear)
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