4.

DEVELOPING A ROOFTOP GARDEN

CONSIDERATIONS

Good rooftop garden design makes effective use of plants on site to bring
about benefits to people using the rooftop gardens, while contributing to the
improvement of the urban environment. This section outlines general considerations
for developing good rooftop garden design in Singapore.

The design process outlined is cyclical. There may be a need to re-visit each process
until a state of balance is achieved between site, function and aesthetics.

Much of the design deals with implementing changes to conditions, accommodating

requirements, refining them until an aesthetically pleasing and functionally satisfying
site is achieved. The following are issues for consideration when developing a
rooftop garden.

* Site Analysis
* Functional Considerations
* Spatial Considerations
* Design Considerations
* Structural Considerations
* Other Technical Considerations
* Planting Considerations

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 SITE ANALYSIS

Climate and microclimate

The overall climatic conditions in Singapore dictate the planting requirements

and choice of plants, and influence the design considerations for a successful
rooftop garden. Each rooftop garden site has its own microclimate - conditions
that are specific to the site as influenced by the orientation of the building,
surrounding buildings, wind flow patterns and other surrounding physical
infrastructure, which need to be assessed during the design phase. The microclimate
changes as one moves away from the ground level. Temperature extremes may
be significant, and the wind stronger. The surrounding buildings may cause
a wind tunnel condition that affects the site, or they may cast shade, or reflect
light. Hence, studying the rooftop garden site in relation to its surroundings
is important. To a certain extent, factors such as wind exposure and excessive
sun can be mitigated by careful design. The orientation of the garden space
may affect the amount of wind and sunlight it gets as well as the type of wind
and light it gets. Shade cast by surrounding buildings can limit the choice of
plants. Excessive wind speed can cause discomfort to users, damage plants
or topple trees, in which case the installation of windscreens and anchorage
of trees may have to be considered.

4.2 FUNCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

A survey on users of rooftop gardens (CASE STUDY 5) has highlighted the need to
enhance the functional aspect of rooftop gardens to attract users. The
recommendations, based on the study, are as follows:

- Rooftop gardens should be designed to accommodate a spectrum of recreational

opportunities, such as relaxation and social interaction, which are important
motivation for visitors.
- To increase the usage of rooftop gardens, the accessibility and visibility of
rooftop gardens should be improved.
- The ownership of rooftop gardens should be encouraged among people who
live or work around the rooftop gardens.
- The facilities and space of rooftop gardens are important. The most desirable
features include sitting areas and landscaping.
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- From the end-users’ point of view, the functions of rooftop gardens may vary
depending on their locations. For rooftop gardens around office buildings,
they should be places where people can find peace and quietness. On the
other hand, rooftop gardens in residential areas can be used as places for
exercise, and by children as playgrounds and near-home spaces to observe
and grow with nature.

SPATIAL CONSIDERATIONS

Functional and spatial requirements are often studied in conjunction with each
other. Knowing what is to be achieved through the rooftop garden is critical to its
design and affects the layout, choice of plants and materials.

Consultation

Construction of the roof garden requires skilled workers and professionals

who understand the technical aspects of roof garden development and are
familiar with the best way to integrate them with the building. This requires
the collaboration of architects, landscape architects and engineers to plan for
the roof garden at the early stage of any building project to provide for all
structural issues / requirements of a roof garden. The design and construction
of the green roofs need to be sustainable to limit future problems. This may
entail coordination between the developer and the management of the roof
garden to ensure that the latter acquire the full technical knowledge
for the maintenance of the roof garden.

Access

To increase the usage of intensive rooftop gardens, access to the roofs is crucial.
Rooftop gardens should be designed in such a way that users are aware of their
existence and can access them easily and conveniently.
Connectivity in between roofs will allow for more opportunities and functions on
the roof gardens.

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THERMAL COMFORT

The position of the rooftop greenery should be related to the functional usage
of spaces below. To obtain better thermal protection, vegetation should be
planted as much as possible above the space where the cooling energy requirements
are likely to be high, to minimize the heat gain.
The presence of plants could also cause a significant build-up of the
air moisture, resulting in high relative humidity (CASE STUDY 1). This may offset
the better thermal comfort brought about by the lower ambient air temperature
and affect the building fabrics and materials. Therefore, it is essential that the
rooftop gardens should be properly ventilated.

DESIGN AESTHETICS

Whether it’s a formal geometrical garden or an irregularly configured

natural-looking garden, the aesthetics of a rooftop garden will ultimately be
a personal and subjective decision. Many garden styles that draw inspiration
from historical examples are possible. Some would make a personal statement,
or see the garden as a philosophical expression. Others may choose some
form of abstract artistic expression, pattern or avant garde approach. Whatever
the aesthetics, the building and plant materials are essential elements to
achieving the effect.

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STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
A rooftop garden has to be designed and constructed so that the combined dead
load, imposed load, wind load and other intended loads are sustained and
transmitted to the ground safely, without causing deflection/deformation and
impairing the stability of any part of the building.

Structural Loading

Rooftop garden imposes additional load on roof structures. The additional loads
are generated by vegetation, growing media, people using the roof garden
(intensive roofs), water, planter boxes, pergolas, lattice and other peripheral
structures completed with finishes, fixtures and partitions, the anchorage force
onto the slab for stabilizing trees, as well as pressures exerted by the trees during
strong wind. The roof deck of roof garden has to be designed to
cater to the additional loads imposed by the garden.

Additional loading to be considered during design stages includes:

- Dead load which includes the weight of the planter boxes and peripheral structures.
For most reinforced concrete, a typical value for the self weight is 24 kN per cubic
meter. This varies considerably depending on whether the structures are wet or dry.
- Live load which includes the dry and wet weight of growing medium, vegetation,
water and people using the roof garden.
- The occupant live load imposed (for flat roof accessibility to cater to more than
maintenance purpose) shall be 1.5 kN per meter square measured on plan,
(with reference to Building Control Regulations, Cap. 29, Rg 5).
- Typical wet soil weighs approximately 22kN per cubic meter. The soil imposed
load varies, dependent on the depth of soil. As a general guide, the depth of
the soil ranges from 0.3 m to 0.5m depth for ground cover and shrubs and
1.0m to 1.5 m depth for small to medium size trees.
- Wind load should be taken into consideration for the design of rooftop gardens
by adoption of suitable wind pressures for factors such as varying heights,
shape of trees and structures.
- The positions of point loads imposed by trees/additional structures are
particularly important to ensure that the waterproofing lining on the roof
and roof deck structure have adequate compressive strength for the
additional pressure exerted.
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- It is important that owners, tenants and building management areaware
of the roof loading restrictions, to avoid future improper relocation or
additional plantings in areas not design to accommodate the additional weight.
- Trees grow and increase in weight as they mature. This must be taken into
account when planning the future load bearing capacity of the roof.

OTHER TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The rooftop garden consists of the following basic working courses / structures.
(Figure 10).

* RC flat roof
* Cement and sand screed to fall
* Waterproofing membrane with root resistance ability
* Protection layer
* Drainage layer
* Filter layer
* Vegetation support layer
* Vegetation/ peripheral structures

The thickness of each course varies according to type of plants to be planted

and the design/system to be used.

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 Figure 10: Structural Layout of Rooftop Garden

WATERPROOFING
As concrete is not totally impermeable to water, it is necessar y to
cover the concrete surface with a waterproofing material to prevent cracks and
leakage from developing after placement. Particularly under the local climatic
conditions where there is high relative humidity and heavy rainfall, building
components that are prone to water seepage need to be adequately protected
against rainwater penetration and ingress of water.

Factors affecting the performance of the waterproofing system include:

- Method of placement
- Consolidation
- Curing of concrete
- Surface cleanliness
- Weather condition during application

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For roof gardens, the waterproofing membrane needs to have high resistance
against root penetration. As with any other waterproofing works, the works
should be executed by a specialist contractor, strictly in accordance with the
manufacturer’s specification.

DRAINAGE

Drainage facilities comprises:

- Roof outlet
- Interior guttering
- Guttering
- Water down pipe

As a basic principle, the drainage system should be capable of collecting both

the overflow from the drainage course and the surface water and discharge
them effectively.

The roof slab should be sloped towards the drainage outlet with silt control system.
Waterproofing membrane should be properly installed around the drain opening
so that water drains off from the waterproofing membrane to the roof outlet. Plants
should not be allowed to grow into guttering.

ANCHORAGE

Trees may require anchorage to the roof structure to ensure their stability,
especially during strong winds and storms. The force of each anchorage and
the required number depend on the size of the trees. Anchorage can be left
in during casting or drilled in after roof slab has set.

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ROOFING

The maximum permissible Roof Thermal Transfer Value (RTTV) is set at 35 W/m2
by BCA’s RTTV guideline (Goh, 2002). Both the plants and substrates increase
the R-value of the roof of the building resulting in energy cost savings
(CASE STUDY 3). Rooftop gardens can even potentially replace the
traditional roof insulation.

THE REGULATORY APPROVAL PROCESS

Although there is no special mention in local building codes of practice, roof

garden is considered an extension of the roof system, and must therefore comply
with roof design requirements such as structural loading, moisture protection,
thermal insulation and lightning protection.
If the rooftop garden is accessible for use, the design must also comply with various
requirements of local authorities such as occupancy, exiting, lighting, guardrails,
barrier free access and fire fighting codes. For a list of the statutory codes and
circulars relating to skyrise greenery, please refer to Appendix II.

COST

Consideration for additional initial costs has to be given for protection layer,
drainage layer, irrigation systems, plants, and the subsequent maintenance and
replacement cost.
The Life Cycle Cost Analysis (CASE STUDY 3) shows that extensive roof, when
compared with exposed roof, results in 8.5% Life Cycle Cost savings, with a
payback period of 10 years, that is, true savings is enough to cover the initial
development cost over 10 years. For intensive roof garden, the amount of energy
cost savings is not sufficient to offset the operating and maintenance cost.
However, the cost-benefit analysis of the intensive roof has to take into
consideration the other benefits, such as economic and aesthetics benefits, for a
balanced view of the actual cost-benefit of roof gardens.

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PLANTING CONSIDERATIONS

Growing Media

The growing media is very important as it is the basis for healthy plants. A suitable
growing medium for plants provides adequate water retention, drainage and
aeration, nutrients, and anchorage. For rooftop gardens, lightweight, stability and
absence of fine particles are additional requirements for the growing medium.
As there is no topsoil, the growing medium needs to provide everything
for healthy plant growth.
The composition of the growing medium is an important factor that determines
the desirable characteristics. For instance, a growing medium that has a high
percentage of fine particles, such as silt and clay retains a large proportion
of water, but does not provide sufficient aeration needed for root growth. Conversely,
a porous medium provides adequate aeration, but does not retain sufficient
water for plant growth. As a general rule, the growing medium should contain
at field capacity, at least 35 - 50% water and 15 - 20% air by volume for
adequate water retention and aeration.
The weight of the growing medium can also be manipulated by its composition.
As rooftop gardens impose additional structural load requirements on roofs,
lightweight growing media have the advantage of reducing loading on roofs.
A suitable lightweight growing medium may consist of a 60 - 70% inorganic
fraction of sand, expanded clay (commonly known under the brand name Leca),
volcanic cinder, perlite, or vermiculite, and a 30 - 40% organic fraction of topsoil,
humus or compost. When wet, a mix of 30% sand, 40% expanded clay and 30%
topsoil weighs around 1600 kg/m3, whereas topsoil weighs up to 2200 kg/m3.
In addition to the disadvantage of being heavy, the experience of other
countries has also indicated that a growing medium of purely topsoil is not
suitable. This arises from inconsistencies in the components of the soil
from batch to batch, presence of pests, diseases, and weed seeds, easy
compaction if high in clay content, and inability to retain water and nutrients
if high in sand content. On the other hand, an excessively lightweight medium
is susceptible to erosion and does not provide sufficient ballast to anchor plants.

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A growing medium very high in organic matter content such as peatmoss and
bark chips is also not advisable as the organic matter will decompose and leads
to excessive shrinkage of the growing medium.
Another factor to note is the proportion of silt and clay in the growing medium.
Fine particles of silt and clay (less than 0.06 mm in diameter) can clog the filter
layer typically placed above the drainage course. The filter layer is needed
to prevent small soil particles from being washed away, and drains from
being clogged. However, if the filter layer becomes clogged by fine particles,
drainage can be impeded. German Forschungsgesell-schaft Land
schaftsentwicklung Lanfschaftsbau (FLL) guidelines recommend that the growing
media should contain less than 15 - 20% of clay and silt by weight.

DEPTH OF GROWING MEDIA

The depth of the growing media is primarily determined by the selection of plants
in the rooftop garden. As a general rule, groundcovers and shrubs require a
depth of 0.3 - 0.5m depth, while small and medium sized trees with mature heights
of 8 - 10m require a depth of 1 - 1.5m.

MULCHING

Exposed growing areas not occupied by plants should be mulched. Mulching

reduces excess heating, evaporation of water from the growing media, erosion
of planting media, and growth of weeds. In addition, a gradual decay of the
mulching material replenishes loss of organic matter from the growing media.
A commonly used mulch in Singapore is partly decomposed wood chips and
bark, although coco shells, volcanic rocks and Leca have also been used.

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IRRIGATION

As the depth of growing media is shallower than in conventional ground-level

plantings and there is no subsoil, a limited amount of water can be stored for
plant use. Irrigation of rooftop gardens will be necessary. If sprinkler or drip
irrigation systems are installed, the locations of tanks, pipes and emitters will
have to be planned during the design phase. Manual hand watering is an
alternative, but while it cuts down the initial capital cost of construction, a
recurring maintenance cost is incurred.

CHOICE OF PLANTS

Although the choice of plants is largely dependent on the microclimate of the

rooftop garden, the types of plants that can be grown increase with the amount of
maintenance funds available. For highly intensive gardens, the choice of plants is
unlimited. Landscaping design considerations also influence the selection of
plants. For example, if shade is highly desired in the rooftop garden landscape,
trees rather than palms become the plant of choice, but this would imply a higher
tree maintenance cost.

The following criteria for plant selection may be considered in the selection
of plants:
- Drought tolerance. Under local climatic conditions, rooftop gardens
are generally exposed to constant high light and temperature, which
lead to high evapotranspiration rates and the demand for water by
plants. In elevated rooftop gardens, high evapotranspiration rates can be
exacerbated by strong winds or proximity to hot and dry air from air
conditioning or ventilation vents. The selection of drought resistant plants, woody
shrubs and succulents rather than herbaceous plants cuts down on irrigation
requirement.
- Compact growth form. Shrubs that assume a compact form naturally can
minimize the pruning required to keep them aesthetically pleasing.
- Small to medium size (8 - 10m at mature height) for trees. Large trees cannot
be practically grown in rooftop gardens because of limited root space. Although
in theory, a limited root space can limit large trees from attaining their full
size, regular attention will be required to keep them safe and healthy.
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- Appealing features such as free flowering habit and fragrance.
- Pest and disease resistance.

Based on these considerations, plants suggested for intensive rooftop

gardens are listed in APPENDIX 1.

PEST AND DISEASE CONSIDERATIONS

“PREVENTION” is the key guideline for pest and disease control.

Prevention methods include:

- Grow healthy plants

Healthy plants are less susceptible to diseases and some pests like scales and
mealy bugs. Growing healthy plants requires providing optimum growing
conditions, which can be achieved by:
- Fertilizing plants regularly with a complete fertilizer (NPK + trace
elements). The golden rule for fertilizing plants is “LITTLE AND OFTEN”.
Choose the right fertilizers for the right plants.
- Watering plants as often as needed. Always keep soil moist at all times.
This will enable maximum nutrient absorption by the plants.
- Providing sufficient sunlight for healthy plant growth. Sun loving plants
should be grown under full sun and shade loving plants under diffuse light.
- Using the right type of soil mixes for different plants. Plants that are acid
loving like Gloxinia and orchids should be planted in soil mixes that have
soil pH below 7 and vice versa.

- Plant only pest and disease free plants

Plants suspected of harboring pests and disease pathogens should not be
introduced into any new or existing planting areas, as eradication of pests and
pathogens once established is difficult.

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- Remove plants or plant parts infested by pests and diseases immediately
All plantings should be inspected regularly. Once the plants or plant parts are
infested by pests or infected by diseases, they should be cut and removed from
sites immediately to prevent the spread of pests and diseases.

- Avoid injuring plants unnecessarily

Avoid unnecessary wounding on plants when carrying out maintenance
operations. Wounds are entry points for microorganisms and some pests. Less
injury on plants will result in less disease infection and pest infestation.

- Do not replace with the same plant species after root or wilt infections
Some root or wilt disease pathogens are host-specific. Therefore, replanting
the same species in contaminated soil is not recommended, as the replacement
is likely to be killed by the pathogens in the soil. If the same plant species is
desired, all the contaminated soil should be discarded and replaced with
clean soil before planting, or resistant varieties of the same species should
be considered.

- Curative spraying with pesticides

Protective spraying of plants with pesticides should be minimized as pesticides
can pollute the environment. Therefore, only curative chemical control using
organic pesticides or pesticides with low human toxicities should be selected.
Special care needs to be given to choice of pesticides and the methods of
application. Chemical control should only be used as the last resort to pest and
disease control, if all the above preventive methods failed to control the pests
and diseases.

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ABIOTIC STRESSES

Plants are also subjected to abiotic stresses, i.e. stresses that are not associated
with pests and diseases, when grown in rooftop gardens. Examples of abiotic
stresses include water stress, leaf scorching due to overexposure to sunlight,
wind damage, over fertilizing, excessively thick mulching, improper usage of
pesticides, pollution, human traffic, etc. Many of these problems can be
avoided by providing a suitable growing medium, selecting appropriate
plants, and carrying out regular maintenance.

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