• The word Philosophy comes from the two means nature.

o it is branch of philosophy which is

Greek words philos (love) and Sophia concerned with the nature of ultimate reality.
(Wisdom), (Abella 2016). Thus, Philosophy is
Aesthetics - it is derived from the Greek word
the love of wisdom. This is the most common
“aesthetikos” which means one who is
and simplest definition of Philosophy.
perceptive of things through his sensations,
Philosophy may also be defined as a science of
feelings and intuitions. o it is concerned with the
thinking that deals with the study of processes
essence of perception of beauty and ugliness.
governing thoughts and conduct, (Garcia
2016) Political Philosophy- it refers to a body of
• Philosophy is the study that uses the human knowledge that looks up on the society, politics
reason to investigate the ultimate causes, and the people that makes it whole. o it is
reasons, and principles which governs all believed that society is inseparable to politics.
things. (Abella 2016)
Axiology – the science that deals with human
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY values.

Logic- a branch of philosophy that deals with

the nature of thinking and reasoning using
General Questions in Philosophy
empirical support and information which
are reliable, valid and objective. It is the - Philosophy is concerned with the deepest
science of correct thinking. and widest questions in life.

➢ Two Types of Logic A. Epistemology –Theory of Knowledge

➢ a. Deductive Reasoning – from a general • What is knowledge?
truth to specific truth, from universal truth • Can we know?
to particular. • What is to know?
➢ b. Inductive Reasoning – from a specific • How can we know?
truth to general truth, particular to B. Ethics – Moral Philosophy
universal. • What is freedom?
• Do we have free will?
Two Contending Schools of Thought • What is human act?
• Are our actions already determined?
a. Rational school – the main source of
C. Philosophy of Art – Aesthetics
knowledge is deductive reasoning based on self-
• What is beauty?
evident principles or actions.
• What does it mean to be beautiful?
b. Empirical school – the source of knowledge is D. Philosophy of Religion
sense-perception. • Does God exist?
• Can we prove the existence of God?
Ethics- it comes from the Greek word “ethos”
• What reasons are there to believe in God?
which means character. o it is the science of correct
E. Rational Psychology/Philosophy of Man/
doing. It is the study of what is right and what is
Philosophical Anthropology
wrong in human behavior in the pursuit of beauty
• What is the essence and meaning of life?
and goodness of life.
• Does life make sense?
Metaphysics- it comes from the Greek words • What is good life?
“meta” which means beyond and “physikon” which • What is happiness?
• What is man? Who is man?
• Is man only his body, or man is his soul tell us what happiness is and how it is to be
attained and what must we do in order to
Holistic thinking- refers to a perspective that achieve it (Mortimer Adler, Great Ideas). Science
considers a large-scale pattern in a system. This cannot tell us what is moral and what is not,
is often described as looking at the “big picture” what is right what is wrong specially in the rules
when describing and analyzing a situation or a of behavior. The truth is, science cannot solve
problem. everything particularly on ethical issues and
• A holistic perspective requires an individual problems. Science is definitely limited and so
to have an open mindset and an ability to get therefore looks at reality partially. (Garcia,
the general sense or impression regarding a et.al. 2016). Primary reflection examines its
situation. object by abstraction, by analytically breaking it
Partial thinking- on the other hand, focuses on down into its constituent parts. It is concerned
the specific aspects of a situation. with definitions, essences and technical
• The partial view is an important component solutions to problems. In contrast, secondary
in analytical thinking, as an individual focus reflection is synthetic; it unifies rather than
on certain areas or aspects of a problem in divides. “Roughly, we can say that where
order to understand it. Though partial primary reflection tends to dissolve the unity of
thinking is useful, Philosophy utilizes holistic experience which is first put before it, the
thinking in making sense of problems and function of secondary reflection is essentially
issues related to the human experience. recuperative; it reconquers that unity” (Marcel,
• There are different and possible ways that https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marcel/
may help us understand the dynamics of 2016.
holistic and partial of view.
A. Science- It is widely accepted that science is a
good and reliable source of knowledge,
information and data. It uses a standard in
identifying whether a certain discovery is
scientific or not through experimentation and
observation. Through science we can explain
and understand the natural world. Science is
empirical. It uses the senses in arriving into a
truth or reality called sense knowledge. Science
is investigative. This means, it must investigate
to describe facts and events. Specifically, it gives
us knowledge of particular facts. The method of
science in providing a data is basically
observation coupled with experimentation.
The product of science is scientific truth. Thus,
science is very important and significant in man’s B. ‘The Allegory of the Cave’ by Plato: Summary
search of the meaning of life. However, science and Meaning September 21, 2012 by Amy
is limited, it cannot answer everything in this Trumpeter The ‘Allegory of The Cave’ is a theory
world. Like for example, we cannot prove the put forward by Plato, concerning human
existence of God scientifically or through the use perception. Plato claimed that knowledge
of scientific method of experimentation. God gained through the senses is no more than
can never be a specimen. The scientist cannot opinion and that, in order to have real
knowledge, we must gain it through • He is shocked at the world he discovers
philosophical reasoning. outside the cave and does not believe it
‘The Allegory of the Cave’ by Plato -in the
can be real.
Allegory of the Cave, Plato distinguishes
between people who mistake sensory • As he becomes used to his new
knowledge for the truth and people who really surroundings, h realizes that his former
do see the truth. It goes like this: view of reality was wrong.
• He begins to understand his new world,
The Cave and sees that the Sun is the source of life
• Imagine a cave, in which there are three
and goes on an intellectual journey where
prisoners. The prisoners are tied to some rocks,
their arms and legs are bound and their head is he discovers beauty and meaning.
tied so that they cannot look at anything but the • He sees that his former life, and the
stonewall in front of them. guessing game they played is useless.
• These prisoners have been here since birth
and have never seen outside of the cave. The Return
• Behind the prisoners is a fire, and between
• The prisoner returns to the cave, to
them is a raised walkway.
• People outside the cave walk along this inform the other prisoners of his findings.
walkway carrying things on their head including; • They do not believe him and threaten to
animals, plants, wood and stone. kill him if he tries to set them free.

The Shadows ‘The Allegory of the Cave’ by Plato – The

• So, imagine that you are one of the prisoners.
Meaning the Allegory of the cave by Plato
You cannot look at anything behind or to the
side of you – you must look at the wall in front should not be taken at face value. In
of you. essays and exams, whoever is marking it
• When people walk along the walkway, you can expects you to have a deeper
see shadows of the objects they are carrying understanding of the meaning of the
cast on to the wall. theory. You can then use these to think
• If you had never seen the real objects ever
about criticisms and then to form your
before, you would believe that the shadows of
objects were ‘real. own opinion.

The Game The Cave

• Plato suggests that the prisoners would begin In Plato’s theory, the cave represents
a ‘game’ of guessing which shadow would people who believe that knowledge
appear next.
comes from what we see and hear in the
• If one of the prisoners was to correctly guess,
the others would praise him as clever and say world – empirical evidence. The cave
that he was a master of nature. shows that believers of empirical
knowledge are trapped in a ‘cave’ of
The Escape misunderstanding.
• One of the prisoners then escapes from their
binding and leaves the cave.
 Using the Methodic Doubt, propositions from each
class are scrutinized, that if a way can be thought to
doubt the truth of any statement, then all other
statements of that class are also dismissed as dubitable,
though not necessarily false. Rene Descartes answer’ to
the epistemological question “How can I know?” is to
doubt everything. He believed that only after doubting
that a person can uncover certainty. Utilizing this
methodic doubt, Rene Descartes attempted to
demonstrate philosophical truths, which he believed
could defeat the most radical doubt or skepticism.
The Shadows Indeed, this method intends to lead us to truth and
• The Shadows represent the perceptions of wisdom. What Descartes did was categorize all
those who believe empirical evidence ensures statements according to type and source of knowledge
are knowledge from experience or empirical
knowledge. If you believe that what you see
knowledge, knowledge from tradition or authority, and
should be taken as truth, then you are merely mathematical knowledge.
seeing a shadow of the truth. In Plato’s
opinion you are a ‘pleb’ if you believe this PHENOMONOLOGY: Phenomenological inquiry studies
(their insult for those who are not phenomena, that is, objects and events as perceived
Philosophers)! and understood in the human consciousness, and not
of anything independent of consciousness.
Phenomenology is a method of philosophy that focuses
The Game on the essence of lived experience. So, what are some
• The Game represents how people believe examples and applications of this phenomenological
that one person can be a ‘master’ when they inquiry? For example, in treating a sick person,
have knowledge of the empirical world. Plato phenomenology zooms in the veiled aspects of one’s
is demonstrating that this master does not existence such as components of his awareness like
intuition and feeling. These are normally often
actually know any truth, and suggesting that it
overlooked when doctors are absorbed in the
is ridiculous to admire someone like this. anatomical and biochemical aspects of the patient.
Phenomenology intends to expose original experience
• The Socratic method- Socrates engaged in a and its meaning
“didactic dialogue” of questioning, that is expressed
in the critical examination and cross-examination of Dialectic as leading to truth: In this interpretive method
the positions of every participant to the in philosophy, the contradiction between a proposition
conversation. (thesis) and its antithesis is resolved at a higher level of
• The didactic dialogue intends not to convey truth (synthesis). This can be clearly understood in the
new truth but only as guide to arriving at the three stages of development or “the triad” comprising
truth. (Nelson, 1965, pp. 269-316). the Hegelian dialectic: First stage: a thesis. This refers
• The method is later known as “the Socratic to a beginning proposition or statement of an idea.
method of question.” Second stage: the antithesis. This is a reaction that
• Methodic Doubt: Doubting everything leads to contradicts or negates the thesis. Third stage: the
truth and wisdom. synthesis. It is a proposition through which the
differences between the two points are resolved. Here,
the thesis and antithesis are reconciled to form a new
statement.

> Fallacies are arguments based on

faulty reasoning.
> Bias is disproportionate weight in
favor of or against an idea or thing,
usually in
a way that is closed-minded,
prejudicial, or unfair.
• noesis (immediate intuition, apprehension, or mental 'seeing' of principles)
• dianoia (discursive thought)
• pistis (belief or confidence)
• eikasia (delusion or sheer conjecture)
• As Being is to becoming, so Knowledge is to Opinion.
• As Knowledge is to Opinion, so noesis is to pistis,
• And dianoia is to eikasia,
• And (though Plato does not say this explicitly, but rather lets us see it ourselves) noesis is
to dianoia.
 Truth in metaphysics and the philosophy of Philosophers consider truth as a kind of
language is the property of sentences, quality or value. Knowledge is the clear
assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions awareness and understanding of
that are said, in ordinary discourse, to agree something, since it is true knowing that we
with the facts or to state what the case is. It are able to determine what is true. Doubt
is most often used to mean being in accord has a very important purpose in philosophy
with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or as it drives our desire to discover the truth.
standard. Truth is also sometimes defined in • In philosophy, systematic doubt is employed
modern contexts as an idea of "truth to self", to help determine the truth. A belief is true if
or authenticity. it can be justified or proven through the use
of one’s senses. Another basis for
• Propositions is a statement about the world determining truth is a belief or statement is
or reality. Propositions may or may not carry true if it is based on facts. Getting consensus
truth. or having people agree on a common belief
• Knowledge is the clear awareness and is another way of determining what is true.
understanding of something. It is the product Although this approach has certain
of questions that allow for clear answers limitations. Getting everyone to agree on
provided by facts. something may not take that belief true.
• Facts are propositions or statement which are Philosophers also believe that claims and
observe to be real or truthful belief should also be subjected to test to
• Claim is a statement that is not evidently or determine truth. In determining truth
immediately known to be true. This means requires also that a person can prove a
that any claim can be proven by verification statement through an action.
and experimentation. Therefore, truthful
statements can be considered as based on > Opinions are statement that go beyond
facts. There are several views regarding providing facts.
truth. Philosophers emphasize the > A conclusion is a judgment based on
importance of belief as a basis for certain facts.
determining truth. But as a philosopher, we > Beliefs are statements that expresses
do not assume that every statement is true. convictions that are not easily and clearly
Remember the famous French philosopher, explained by facts.
Rene Descartes traced the need to > Explanations are statements that assume
philosophize to doubt. In philosophy, the claim to be true and provide
systematic doubt is employed to help reasons why the statement is true.
determine the truth. This means that every > Arguments are series of statements that
statement, claim, evidence, and experience is provide reasons to convince the
scrutinized and analyzed. Philosophers reader or listener that a claim or opinion is
always engaged with the concept of truth. truthful.
• Deductive Reasoning
In this type of reasoning, conclusion 1. Anthropocentric Model. Based on the
comes first, followed by main points, anthropocentric model, humans are
and the last will be the supporting superior and central to the universe, thus,
data, facts, examples, and evidences. it is human centered.
General idea comes first before the
specific or particular idea.
• Inductive Reasoning
In this type of reasoning, supporting
data, facts, examples, and evidences
come first followed by the main points
and conclusion will be the last part. 2. Ecocentric Model. It is the ecological or
relational integrity of the humans that
This is the vice versa of the deductive
provides meaning of our morals and values
reasoning because particular idea and it is nature centered. Devoted to
comes first before the general idea. preserving the totality of Earth’s
biodiversity and the functioning of its life –
supporting system.

• Environmental philosophy is the

discipline that studies the moral ➢ Ecocentric Model is the ecological or
relationships of human beings with the relational integrity of the humans provides
environment and its non-human meaning of our morals and values and it is
contents. Philosophers believe that the nature centered.
human person has the ability to change Devoted to preserving the totality of Earth’s
the environment to suit his purposes. It biodiversity and the functioning of its life
will enable them to become aware of supporting system.
their relationship and its related issues in
our society and their impact on the lives
of human persons.
Why did Athens condemn Socrates to
death?
Socrates was widely hated in Athens, mainly
because he regularly embarrassed people by
making them appear ignorant and foolish.
He was also an outspoken critic
of democracy, which Athenians cherished,
and he was associated with some members
of the Thirty Tyrants, who briefly overthrew
Athens’s democratic government in 404–403
BCE. He was arguably guilty of the crimes
with which he was charged, impiety and
corrupting the youth, because he did reject
the city’s gods and he did inspire disrespect
for authority among his youthful followers
(though that was not his intention). He was
accordingly convicted and sentenced to
death by poison.

Why didn’t Socrates try to escape his death

sentence?
Socrates could have saved himself. He chose
to go to trial rather than enter voluntary
exile. In his defense speech, he rebutted some
but not all elements of the charges and
famously declared that "the unexamined life
is not worth living." After being convicted, he
could have proposed a reasonable penalty
short of death but initially refused. He finally
rejected an offer of escape as inconsistent
with his commitment never to do wrong
(escaping would show disrespect for the laws
and harm the reputations of his family and
friends).