PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1

LESSON 1: RESEARCH AND ITS DEFINITION

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
- It is not a single activity; it is multiple and adaptable
- it is an organzied investigation and study of materials and sources to create
facts and reach new inferences and has come up with developing appropriate
solutions to improve the individual’s quality of life (Walker, 2010)
- it is a verified approach of thinking and employing legalized instruments and
steps to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem that is otherwise
impossible to adress under ordinary means (Crawford, cited by Alcantara &
Espina, 1995)
- it is a systematic investigation for information
- it is a process of inquiring [answers questions “what” and “how”]
- it serves as solutions to problems and it must be based on knowledge not on
mere beliefs, guesses, or theories
- knowledge requires a well-planned and systematic procedure on which
research has been devised to meet this need
- when doing a research, one must analyze how much it would affect the
society and what is its impact to it
TWO CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH:
1. Basic Research
- a type of research that is purely direct application but increasing the nature of
understanding about the problem
- it is the scientific theories to be more understandable to the readers
2. Applied Research
- a type of research that needs an answer to a specific question
- provides solutions and validation in order to apply to the real setting

RESEARCH VS INQUIRY
RESEARCH INQUIRY
- a systematic investigation for - gathering information and data
information through applying the various
human senses
- encourages adherence to a - the focus in education must
formal process change from a focus on “what
we know” to “how we come to
know”
- emphasizes efficiency and - exploratory nature of inquiry
focus allows individuals particularly
 students to grapple with
different ways of looking at ideas
and issues
- tends to remain focused and - encourages the exploration of
precise questions
- organization, communication, - emphasizes the process of
attention to detail allows discovery
students to gain soft skills
- can become broad and
expensive quickly
FACTORS IN DIFFERENT KINDS OF
INQUIRIES:

1. selection of appropriate questions

2. formulation of appropriate
questions
3. identification of key issues
4. search for valid and relevant
evidence
5. interpretation and assessment of
evidence
6. application of evidence to identified
issues
7. presentation of coherent,
conclusion, final or tentaive
8. reflection on, and assessment of
the learning process

TERMS DEFINITION
Dependability - refers to researchers attempts
to account for changing
conditions in the phenomenon
chosen for study, as well as
change in the design created
by omcreasing refined
understadning of the setting
Transferability - the applicability of one set of
findings to another context
- under this factor is
triangulation which is the act
of bringing more than one
source of data to bear on a
single point
Validity - refers to an in-depth description
thats shows the complexeties
 of variables and the embedding
of interactions in data derived
from the setting
Credibility - refers to the ‘truth value’ of the
qualitative study, its
applicability and consistency

LESSON 2: A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

WHAT IS A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
- commonly called “interpretative research”
- its methods rely heavily on thick verbal descriptions of a particular social
context being studied
- an umbrella term covering an array of interpretative techniques which seeks
to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with meaning,
not the frequency, of certain naturally occuring phenomena in the social world
(p. 520)
APPROPRIATENESS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 when variables cannot be quantified
 when variable are best understood in their natural setting
 when variables are studied over time
 when studying roles, processes, and groups
 when the paramount objective is “understanding”

QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- defined as ”naturalistic” method - a positivist scientific method
of research which deals with which refers to a general
the concern of human difficulty procedure of orderly discipline
by discovering it straightly procedures to acquire
(Beck, 2004) information (Beck, 2004)
- it is concerned with the - it is mostly concerned with
experiences, understanding numbers and measurement
and words of the individual
- subjective; sometimes - objective: least involvement by
personally engaged the research
- use of verbal languages - requires huge amount of
(words, visuals, objects) correspondents
- desires to preserve the natural - control or manipulation of
setting of research feature research conditions by the
researcher
 - makes social intentions - evaluates objectives and
understandable examines cause-effect
relationships
- thematic codal ways, - mathematically based methods
competence-based
- more inclined to purposive - impersonal, scientific, or
sampling or use of chosen systematic
samples based on some
criteria
- used when you want to - random sampling is the most
understand something preferred
(concepts, thoughts, - used when you want to confirm
experiences0 ot test something

COMMON QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES

 Phenomenology
- a type of research that seeks to explain the nature of things through the way
people experience them
- it involves the ‘study of phenomena’
- it is a qualitative research approach that builds an assumption that the
universal essence of anything ultimately depends on how its audience
experience it
- researchers record and analyze the beliefs, feelings, and perception of the
audience
3 TYPES OF PHENOMENOLOGIAL RESEARCH
- Existential phenomenology
- Hermeutic phenomenology
- Trancendental phenomenology
4 CHARACTERISTICS
- a focus on the audience’s interpretation or something
- a lack of researcher bias or prior influence
- a descriptive emphasis on research insights
- connecting objectively with lived experiences
 Case Study
- A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event
6 TYPES OF CASE STUDIES
- Descriptive case studies - this type of report starts with a description, the
aim is to find connections between the subject being studied and a theory
 - Explanatory case studies - when an incident occurs in a field, an
explanation is required. An explanatory report investigates the cause of the
event
- Exploratory case studies - this type of case study allows the researcher to:
o Help define questions or hypotheses.
o Identify the boundaries for subsequent research studies
- Intrinsic case studies - are more common in the field of psychology. These
reports can also be conducted in healthcare or social work
- Instrumental case studies - this is another type of study seen in medical
and psychology fields. Instrumental reports are created to examine more than
just the primary subject
- Collective case studies - collective studies are based on instrumental case
reports. These types of studies examine multiple reports

WHAT IS A RESEARCH TITLE?

- The title is a brief descriptive label which summarizes the main idea or ideas
of your study
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO HAVE A GOOD RESEARCH TITLE?
- If you have a good, clear, and catchy title, more readers will be interested to
read your work and the more your work will be read, the possibility of having
this paper to be cited is high
WAYS TO COME UP WITH A GOOD RESEARCH
1. Choose a research topic
- A research topic is a subject or issue that a researcher is interested in when
conducting a research
- A well-defined research topic is the starting point of a succesful research
project
 A research may encounter two problems:
- Too many ideas or no idea at all
 Researchers may be interested in:
- Students’ attitudes
- Study habits
- Academic Performance
- Teaching strategies
- COVID effects
- Health issues and more

THE FIVE FUNDAMENTAL PARTS OF A RESEARCH TITLE:

 1. Independent variable or topic
2. Dependent variable or samples
3. Locale or setting
4. Research goal or result
5. Methodology (optional)

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS:

 Triangulation
- method to enhance the validity and reliability of qualitative research
- enhances accuracy of interpretation
- confirms that the data collected is not due to chance or circumstances
TYPES OF ANALYSIS:
 Content Analysis
- determines a variance of certain words of concepts within the text
- it emerges categories or themes on the basis of selection of words, or
concept inductively
- texts can be books, interviews, websites, newspapers, speeches, etc
- study purpose is to look for frequency of words, patterns, and sometimes
sequence of occurence
 Thematic Analysis
- Commonly used and foundational method in qualitative analysis
- individual participation
- codes include being active, willing, accountable, responsible, and motivated
- themes: defining and naming themes, reviewing themes, searching for
themes, organization of codes (combine similar), generating initial codes,
familiarizing with data
 Grounded Analysis
- also called as “Constant Comparison Analysis”
- very deep and detailed
- allows data to speak
- initial coding
 Discourse Analysis
- linguistic analysis
- grammar, sounds, parts of words, and meanings
 Narrative Analysis
- examines how participants construct their story based on personal
experiences
- involves personal stories, life story, significant events and situations
- mainly identifies non-verbal expressions, pauses, filler words
- would include:
  abstract of story
 orientation time, place characters
 sequence of events
 storyteller’s refelction
 outcome of story
 story ending
 Phenomenology/Heuristic Analysis
- focuses on how human view or experience the world

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

 Curious and open-minded
 Aware of wider business context
 Empathetic and patient
 Use multiple research methods
 Collaborative
 Ethical

STATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 When doing a research, the main goal of a researcher is to help people, groups
or organizations understand better phenomena, human behaviour, human
interactions, and other complex events.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS IN CONDUCTING A RESEARCH
 The research questions express clearly the specific direction or focus of the
research problem or inquiry.
 If the research questions are not clearly formulated, or have no direction, so to
speak, the researcher will find himself/herself with too much data, and yet, not
knowing what to do with them
 Research questions will serve as the resesrcher’s guide as they go along the om
depth study of their chosen topic.
TECHNIQUES IN NARROWING DOWN A TOPIC INTO RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Examine the literature
2. Talk over ideas with others
3. Relate the topic to a specific context
4. Define the aim or desired outcome of the study
LESSON 3: CHARACTERISTICS, PROCESSES, AND ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Prieto, et.al. (2017) stated that the following are the major characteristics of research:
1. EMPIRICAL – is based on observations and experiments of theories
2. SYSTEMATIC – follows orderly and sequential procedures, based on valid
principles
3. CONTROLLED – in research, all variables, except those that are tested/
experimented on, are kept constant.
4. EMPLOYS HYPOTHESIS - refers to a search for facts, answers to questions
and solutions to problems.
5. ANALYTICAL - shows analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether
historical, descriptive, and or case study.
6. OBJECTIVE - it is unbiased and logical. All findings are logically based on
real-life situations.
7. ORIGINAL WORK - it requires its own examination and produces the data
needed to complete the study.

It is said that research can be done in different ways. It can be either a well-planned and
methodical process that is based on keen observation and concrete and valid
evaluation. Integration is the best way to evaluate the validity of a certain study.
Prieto, et.al. (2017) also added that the following are involved in the Research
Processes:
1. DEFINE RESEARCH PROBLEM: What is the problem?
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE: What evidence is already presented?
3. FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS: How are we going to find/look for the answer
to questions being studied?
4. RESEARCH DESIGN: Where will the study be shown and with what
population? 5. COLLECTING DATA: Are we ready to gather the data? Where do
we find the data?
6. ANALYZING DATA: How do the data answer the research queries?
7. INTERPRET AND REPORT: What are the implications of the results?
According to Resnik, 2007, ethical norms are significant in conducting research studies
as explained in the following:
First, ethics promotes the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and credibility. It also fosters
values that are essential to collaborative work:
Second, ethical norms help individuals to be accountable in every act that the
researcher/s undertake.
Third, ensure that researchers are held accountable to the public.
Lastly, an ethical norm in research also needs public awareness. This can be evaluated
by the researcher before conducting the study because this may help a certain
population in an area once the study is completed.

ETHICAL CODES AND POLICIES FOR RESEARCH, RESNIK, 2007

Given the importance of ethics in the conduct of a research, you will follow codes and
policies for research:
• Honesty - Maintain all communication. Data should not be faked.
• Objectivity - Avoid biases in experimental designs, data analysis, interpretation,
expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
• Integrity - Keep your promises and agreements.
• Carefulness - Avoid careless errors and negligence.
• Openness - Share data, results, ideas and tools. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
• Confidentiality - Protect confidential communication.
• Responsible Publication - Avoid duplicating publications.
• Responsible Mentoring - Help to educate, mentor, and advise others.
• Respect Colleagues - Treat all peers fairly.
• Social Responsibility - Strive to promote social good. Avoid social harm.
• Non-Discrimination - avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis
of sex, races, ethnicity, and or others.
• Legality - Be informed and obey relevant laws and institutional governmental policies.
• Respect of Intellectual Property - Give proper acknowledgment or credits to all
researchers.
• Human Subject - Minimize risks that involve human lives, dignity, and privacy.
LESSON 4: CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH
1. Empirical. The researcher acquires empirical evidences (e.g. facts, data and
information) generated through observation and experimentation. Research is
based on firsthand experience or observation by the researcher.
2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles. It is guided by
the rules on logical reasoning.
3. Cyclical. Research is cyclical because it originates with a question or a problem
and ends with another problem.
4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data,
whether historical, descriptive, and experimental and case study. Careful
analysis and interpretation of data is necessary in order to establish why
something behaves in such a manner or how it came to be.
5. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Methodical or Systematic. Research is conducted in a methodical manner
without bias using systematic method and procedures. It follows a certain method
or procedure in order to obtain objective results.
7. Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to
enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.
8. Accuracy. The research must give correct or accurate data, which the footnotes,
notes, and bibliographical entries should honestly and appropriately documented
or acknowledged.
9. Objectiveness. The research must deal with facts, not with mere opinions
arising from assumptions, generalizations, predictions, or conclusions.
10. Timeliness. The research must work on a topic that is fresh, new, and
interesting to the present society.
11. Relevance. Its topic must be instrumental in improving society or in solving
problems affecting the lives of people in a community.
12. Clarity. Research must succeed in expressing its central point or discoveries by
using simple, direct, concise, and correct language.
13. Original. The research output must be original and a product of novel ideas.
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
CHAPTER 1: RANDOM VARIABLES AND PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
TERMS TO PONDER:
TERM DEFINITION
Random Variable  a function that associates a real
number to each element in the
sample space
 it is a variable whose values are
determined by chance
Experiment  any process or procedure that can
be infinitely repeated and has a set
of well-defined possible results
or outcomes
Sample Space  set of all possible outcomes of an
experiment
Mean  mathematical average of two or
more numbers
Discrete Random Variables  one which may take on only a
countable number
Continuous Random Variables  variable whose value is obtained
by measuring
Discrete Probability  consists of the vakues a random
Distribution/Probability Mass Distribution variable can assume and the
corresponding probabilities of the
values
Variance  a statistical measurement of the
spread between numbers in a data
set
Standard Deviation  average distance of a random
variable from the mean value
 it represents how the random
variable is distributed near the
mean value
Probability Distribution  a statistical funtion that describes
all the possible values and
probabilities for a random variable
within a given range
Histogram  a bar-graph like representation of
data that buckets a range of
classes into columns along the
horizontal x-axis
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
LESSON 1: CHEMICAL BONDING, COVALENT BONDING, AND IONIC BONDING
 Chemical bonds – the structure forces that hold atoms together in compounds
2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF CHEMICAL BONDS
1. Ionic – formed electrostatic attractions among ions, which are formed by the
ransfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another
2. Covalent – results from having one or more electron pairs between two atoms;
non-metals only
 Lewis Dot Formular/Lewis Dot Representations/Lewis Electron Dot Symbol
- Method for tracking valence electrons, octet rule, electron dot structure,
electronegativity
- Dipole moment occure when there is a separation of charge

DETERMINING THE POLARITY OF CHEMICAL BONDING

Polar Non-Polar
- no equal distribution of - equal distribution of
electrons electrons
- asymmetrical - symmetrical
- lone pair at the central atom - same elements present

COVALENT BONDING
IONIC BONDING
 Ionic bonding – attraction of positively and negatively charged ions in large
number to form a solid compound called “ionic solid”

LESSON 2: POLAR COVALENT BONDS

- when two atoms share electrons unequally, a bond dipole results
- the dipole moment is produced by two equal but opposite charges separated
by a distance, r, is calculated:

LESSON 3: MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

 Based on Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
 Compound take a three-dimentional shape based on number of atoms attached,
number of unbonded electrons present
5 MOLECULAR SHAPES
 Linear
- Carbon is central atom surrounded by two oxygen atoms
- No unbonded electrons on carbon
- Lock for Ax2 geometry
- Central atom group is 14
 Bent
- Oxygen is central atom [typically group 16] surrounded by two atoms [H or
halogen]
- two unbonded electron pairs on oxygen, push hydrogens out of the place
 Trigonal Pyramidal
- Nitrogen surrounded by the three hydrogen atoms [or halogens]
- One pair of unbonded electrons, push hydrogen out of place
 Trigonal Planar
- Boron is central atom surrounded by three fluorine atoms [or H or other
halogen]
- Boron can defy octet rule, happy with six electrons
- No unbonded electrons on boron, fluorine atom stay within a single plane
 Tetrahedral
- Ax4 formula
- Carbon [or silicon] surrounded by four hydrogen
- Only shape were concerned with four surrounding atoms

LESSON 4: WHAT HOLDS MOLECULES TOGETHER?

 Intramolecular forces – forces that holds atoms together in a molecule
 Intermolecular forces – attraction forces between molecules
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION
 Strength of the IMFA is dependent on the following:
- Arrangment of the particles
- The proximity of particles relative to one another
- The nature of the interacting particles
 The stronger the IMFA, the greater is the required amount of energy to overome
these forces

4 OF THE SEVERAL TYPES OF IMFA or VANDER WAALS FORCES

1. Dispersion Forces (London dispersion forces)
- Forces of attraction result from temporary dipole moments induced in
ordinarily nonpolar molecules, present between all types of molecules due to
the movement of electrons
2. Dipole-Dipole
- Are attractive forces between polar molecules (molecules that posses dipole
moment)
3. Hydrogen bond
- Is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in a
polar bond, such as N, O, F

LESSON 5: PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

1. Boiling Point
- The measurement of temperature when a liquid is heated
- The temperature at which a liquid boils and turns into vapor
- Pressure dependent
- Directly proportional
- It is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is just equal to
the external pressure
- Bubbles of vapor form throughout the liquid, rise to the surface, and escape
into the air as the liquid boils
- Breaking of the water bonds to turn into gas
- Normal boiling point: 101.3kPa
RELATING PROPERTIES TO IMFA
- The strength of intermolecular forces directly impacts properties like boiling
point
- Strong imfas = higher boiling point [vice versa]
FORCES BETWEEN THESE PROPERTIES OF LIQUID
- Van der Waals forces
- Hydrogen bonding

2. Surface Tension
- A property of the surface of liquid that allows it to resist an external force
 - The floating of some object on the surface of water, even though they are
denser than water and the ability of some insects to run on the water surface
FORCES INVOLVED
- Cohesive Forces – attractive forces between molecules of the same
substance
- Adhesive Forces – attractive forces between molecules of different
substances

3. Viscosity
- Refers to the resistance of a liquid to flow
RELATING PROPERTIES TO IMFA
- Stronger intermolecular forces = more viscous
- Highes temperature = less viscous
- Long and flexible molecules have higher viscosity than shorter-chain or
spherical molecules

4. Capillary Action
- The ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces or against gravity wihtout the
assistance of external like pumps or gravity
- It occurs due to the combination of adhesive forces between the liquid
molecules and the surface of the material through which it is flowing
(capillary) and cohesive forces between the liquid molecules themselves
FORCES BETWEEN THESE PROPERTIES OF LIQUID
- Cohesive Forces – attractive forces between molecules of the same
substance
- Adhesive Forces – attractive forces between molecules of different
substances
IMFA FORCES
- Adhesion
- dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding
- enables the liquid molecules to form bonds with the surface molecules of
the capillary tube or porous material
- Cohesion
- van der waals and hydrogen bonding
- allows the liquid molecules to interact and form a continuous column or
meniscus within the capillary tube or porous material
ADHESION VS COHESION IN CAPILLARY ACTION
Dominance of Adhesive Forces Dominance of Cohesive Forces
- when adhesive is stronger than - the liquid molecules are more
cohesive, the liquid will be strongly attracted to each other
more strongly attracted to the to the surface of the capillary
surface of the capillary tube or tube or porous material
porous material - the liquid will have a stronger
 - the liquid climbs to a greater tendency to remain together as
height within the capillary tube a cohesive unit rather than
or porous material which spread out and climb up
happens due to the attractive surfaces which results to
forces between the liquid and reduction of capillary rise within
the container or material a narrow tube or porous
surface pull the liquid upward material compared to situations
mmore effectively where adhesive are stronger
- liquid tends to spread out and
wet the surface of the container
or material more effectively

5. Vapor Pressure
- Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in
thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a
given temperature in a closed system
- With the increase in the temperature, the vapour pressure becomes sufficient
to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapour bubbles
- Vapor pressure is a property of a liquid based on the strength
of its intermolecular forces
- Liquid with weak intermolecular forces = evaporate easily = high vapor
pressure
- Liquid with stronger intermolecular force = do not evaporate easily = low
vapor pressure

VAPOR PRESSURE VS BOILING POINT

- Vapor pressure can be increased by heating a liquid and causing more
molecules to enter the atmosphere.
- Boiling will occur when the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.

6. Molar Heat of Vaporization

- The amount of heat energy required to convert one mole of a substance from
liquid to gas at constant temperature and pressure
PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
- Liquids exhibit cohesive forces due to intermolecular forcs of attraction
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION
• Hydrogen Bonding: Found in water molecules, creating strong attractions.
• Van der Waals Forces: Present in non-polar substances, like in noble
gases.
• Dipole-Dipole Interactions: Occur in polar molecules, such as HCl
RELATION BETWEEN IMFA AND MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
- Strong IMFA = higher molar heat of vaporization
 - Weak IMFA = lower molar heat of vaporization

LESSON 6: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION

 A solution is a homogeneous mixture which may be liquid, gas, or solid, formed
by dissolving one or more substances
 It is made by combining two components:
a. Solute – substance that is dissolved in a solution
b. Solvent – substance that dissolves solute, resulting in a solution
 3 TYPES OF SOLUTION
a. Saturated solution – contains the maximum amount of solute in a given
solvent
b. Unsaturated solution – contains less solute than it has the capacity to
dissolve
c. Supersaturated – contains more solute that is present in a saturated solution
 Concetration – measure of the amount of solute that has been dissolved in a
given amount of solvent or solution
TYPES OF CONCENTRATION UNITS
LESSON 7: TYPES OF SOLIDS, PHASE CHANGES, AND PHASE DIAGRAMS
Crystallization Solids Amorphous Solids
- also known as crystals, have - Any non-crystalline solid in
distinctive internal structures which the atoms and molecules
that lead to distinctive flat are not organized in a definite
surfaces or faces pattern
INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

EXEMPTED
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PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH
READIND AND WRITING
LESSON 1: TECHNIQUES IN SELECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION
1. Brainstorming
- one way of generating ideas by listing of ideas spontaneously contributed by
its members
- helps you develop new ideas and solve problems; think of it as a free
association
- listing is a brainstorming technique which means writing down anything that
comes to your mind about the topic.
2. Graphic Organizers
- a visual display which demonstrates relationships between facts, concepts, or
ideas
- guides your thinking as you fill in a visual map or diagram.
- important and effective ways for organizing content and ideas

Types of Graphic Organizers:

a. Outline
- Also referred to as “hierarchical outline” organizes materials hierarchically
and sequentially by classifying the main topics, subtopics, and supporting
details
- roman numerals (top-level), capital letters (next level), arabic numerals
(next level), lowercase letters (next level)
- each numeral or letter is followed by a period, and each item is capitalized
TWO TYPES OF OUTLINE
• Sentence outline is done by using sentences
• Topic outline uses words and phrases
b. Venn diagram
- used when you compare and contrast things; it helps to visualize similarities
and differences
c. Concept map
- another way of organizing ideas by write your topic in the middle of the page
then jot down different ideas, points, or facts related to or support your topic
d. Connected organizational charts and bubble graphs
- particularly helpful for visual learners as they allow writers to map out ideas
spatially

LESSON 2: PATTERNS OF WRITTEN TEXT

 Genre – refers to any category of written text that has a particular set of rules or
convention
THREE GENERAL DISCIPLINES:
1. Sciences – requires precision in the use of terminology
2. Humanities – requires you to analyze works or texts and draw conclusions or own
interpretations about them
3. Business - requires you to have a specific purpose and target audience in mind

TYPES OF PATTERNS USED IN WRITTEN TEXT

1. Narration
- a chronological order of writing
- uses transition words such as first, then, soon, after, suddenly, etc., to
maintain
coherence and show movement
- it employs action words like verbs and adverbs, and phrase
- it contains a story component: characters, setting, conflict, climax, and
resolution
- points to remember:
 use action verbs and transitional expressions
 paragraphs/words are characterized by words that show sequence
 use descriptive details
 right words for their meaning and specific expression
2. Description
- transitional words are used to indicate location
- details referring to physical aspects like how the subject looks, sounds, feels,
smells, or even tastes
- observations need to be specific to encourage imaginative thinking
TWO TYPES OF DESCRIPTION:
a. subjective – describing an impression of what is observed
b. objective – present an impartial and actual picture of an object or scene
3. Definition
- identifies a term and sets apart from other terms that may be related to
- a term is defined, its class, and its specific details
COMMON METHODS OF DEFINITION
a. characteristics/features – the physical features and behaviors
b. function – how something works
c. what is not – what is lacking
d. what is similar to – comparison and analogy
 e. by examples – giving examples illustrating the term
f. by its origins – providing history
g. by its effect – the effects that the subjects produces

4. Exemplification
- to show or explain an idea or point
- utilizes detailed illustrations for clarification
- the main idea is explained by giving an extended example or series of detailed
examples
5. Comparison and Contrast
- a paragraph that shows comparison and contrast answers how the subjects are
the same or not
- comparison examines how subjects are similar; contrast emphasizes how
subjects are different
6. Cause and Effect
 Cause to Effect – states the cause before the effect
 Effect to cause – states the effect before the cause
- this technique explores why things happen (cause) and what happens as a
result
(effect)
7. Process Analysis
- it describes how things work, involving a series of steps in chronological
ordering
8. Division and Classification
- A single subject is targeted and broken down into components.
- Items are being grouped into categories based on the features they share.
- In division, a category is divided into subcategories, while in classification, the
writer develops criteria in the subcategories based on their relationship.
- The writer who uses this pattern must have a strong sense of purpose.

9. Problem-Solution
- a problem is being presented and a solution
3 TYPES OF PATTERN
 Problem-solution pattern – the problem is expressed in a simple statement,
and a possible solution is given
 Problem-cause-solution pattern – the cause of the problem is identified and
analyzed before a possible solution is presented
  Problem-process-solution – the process or procedure is discussed extensively;
in the discussion, the problem is addressed and the readers are led to the
solution

10. Persuasion
- this method involves facts that make the paragraph more convincing
THINGS TO BE USED WHEN CONVINCING
 Using evidence
 Giving examples
 Attacking an Opposing View

LESSON 3: PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT

 Properly composing a text is a process that entails a certain amount of
complexity, demanding a great deal of precision and proper training to carry out.
 A Paragraph is composed of sentences that are organized, coherent, and are all
associated with one topic.

PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT

I. ORGANIZATION
- also known as the arrangement of ideas, incidents, evidence, or details in a
definite order in a paragraph, essay, or speech.
- It is achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged.

II. COHERENCE AND COHESION

 - Coherence refers to the logical arrangement of sentences to be easily
understood by the reader
- Cohesion refers to how to word units, sentences, and ideas were connected
through the arrangement of details according to orders and the use of signal
devices.
a. According to orders
• Chronological order – arranged in the order in which they happened
• Spatial order – arranged through a geographical location
• Emphatic Order – arranged depending on the writer’s purpose to
emphasize certain points

b. Signal devices
• Repetitions – keep continuity and highlight important ideas
• Transitions – words that connect smoothly one idea from other
• Synonyms – words similar in meaning used to prevent tedious
repetitions
• Pronouns – words that help readers connect the original word that the
pronouns replace

III. LANGUAGE USE

- enables writers to communicate without confusing their readers effectively
- refers to appropriateness of word usage and is known to be one of the
clearest indicators of a well-written text
LEVELS OF LANGUAGE USE
• Informal/Personal – refers to slang, local expressions, text messaging (hey,
bes, yow)
• Standard/Academic/Formal – widely accepted words and phrases found in
dictionaries, books, and etc.
• Business/Technical – refers to jargons of specific disciplines like scientific
terms and special expressions.

IV. MECHANICS
- focuses on the technical structure of the text. It determines errors in grammar,
abbreviations,spelling, acronyms, capitalization, the use of numbers as part of
the statement, and correct punctuation marks.

LESSON 4: EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT CLAIMS IN TEXT

 Critical reading is necesary for judging the text’s reliability through the study of
implicit and explicit information
 EXPLICIT INFORMATION IMPLICIT INFORMATION
- refers to information found or - refers to information not directly
read in the text stated in the text
- meaning is not vague; no - readers need to read between
further explanation is needed the lines to understand the
- allows readers to see the piece details that the writer is
of information stated in the trying to tell
given passage - implicit is implied or understood
- any idea that is clearly stated in though not plainly or directly
detail, with no possibility of expressed
confusion - implicit text gives a clue
- it does not need clues - the implicit idea is the primary
anymore. You just have to read point of a sentence or passage
the written information. that is not clearly stated but
hinted at by the text's details
- to figure out an implicit idea,
one must look at the supporting
details in the text
- figuring out what people are
talking about through their
actions refer to implied ideas
EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES:
1. "Bambie did not like cats and had 1. 1: "Bambie moved away from the
never owned one." cat; she'd never owned one."
Explanation: The reader could Explanation: This doesn't say the
obviously tell about Bambie's position words that Bambie didn't like cats, but
on cats. It is directly presented in the it is the feeling that you get when you
text that Bambie did not like cats. read it. It is stated in the text that
Bambie moved away from the cat.
2. “I am in a hurry. We'll talk about it This gives the readers a clue that
later.” Bambie did not like cats.
Explanation: The speaker had
obviously mentioned that he is in a 2. Seated on a couch, Gang Tae
hurry and he has no time to chat with looks at his watch and yawns
someone at the moment. Hence, there several
is no room for doubt because times.
everything is clearly and directly Explanation: Gang Tae's looking at
communicated. his watch and yawning several
times implies that he is bored.

LESSON 5: TYPES OF CLAIMS IN A WRITTEN TEXT

 Claim
- an opinion, idea, or assertion
 - an arguable statement
- came from the Latin word “clamare” which means “to cry out or shout”

TYPES OF CLAIMS IN A WRITTEN TEXT

1. Claim of Fact
- asserts some empirical truth
- an assertion of a condition that has existed, exists, or will exist
- an argument with strong evidence presented as a reason for the arguer’s belief
in the claim
TYPES OF FACTUAL CLAIMS (generally “objective”)
• Factual/Historical
• Relational – cause connections
• Predictive
PROOF REQUIRES:
• sufficient and appropriate grounds
a. reliable authority
b. recent data
c. accurate, typical data
d. clearly defined terms -no loaded language
• a clear distinction between fact and inference
QUESTIONS:
• Did it happen?
• Does it exist?
• Is it true?
• Is it a fact?
2. Claim of Value
- asserts judgment
- keywords such as: good, well, kind, useful, desirable, and etc.
- authors offer reasons for their judgment
- the ultimate goal is getting the reader’s agreement with the reasons rather than
comparing to the fact that establishes assent to the claim
- assertion based on the things we like or dislike
- it deals with the goal of what value us most
PROOF REQUIRES:
• establishing standards of evaluation (i.e. a warrant that
defines what constitutes instances of the relevant value)
• note the priority of the value in this instance.
• establish the advantage (practical or moral) of your
standards.
• use examples to clarify abstract values
• use credible authorities for support.
 QUESTIONS:
• Is it good or bad?
• How bad?
• Hod good?
• Of what worth is it?
• Is it moral or immoral?
• Who thinks so?
• What do these people value?
• What values or criteria should I use to determine its
goodness or badness?
3. Claim of Policy
- asserts that an action should be taken
- keywords used: should, ought, or must
PROOF REQUIRES:
• making proposed action clear
• need (justification)
• plan, (must be workable)
• benefit (advantages)
• consider opposition / counter arguments
QUESTIONS:
• What should we do about it?
• How should we act?
• What should our future policy be?
• How can we solve this problem?
• What concrete course of action should we pursue to solve
the problem?

LESSON 6: USING CONTEXT IN TEXT DEVELOPMENT

 Context in Text Development serves as a connection of written or spoken text
that instantly links with a word or passage that clarifies its meaning
 Context is defined as the social, cultural, political, historical, and other related
circumstances that surround the text and form the terms from which it can be
understood and evaluated

INTERTEXT HYPERTEXT
- putting a text in relation to - purely a computer construct
another text, usually through - a way of providing clickable
direct quotes or references. links to other sections of a
- a book that quotes another document, or other documents
book to compare, contrast, or on the internet
expand on a point is using - the basis of what we know of
intertext. as the world wide web, but it
 started it’s life as more basic
links within a document
- a non-linear way of presenting
information, rather than the
traditional linear process of
reading from beginning to end
- information appears as links
and is usually accessed by
clicking and shifting to different
web pages in a matter of
seconds and minutes
EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES:
• Taylor’ Swift’s song “Love Story” • Wikipedia Article
makes intertextuality references to • Online News Articles
Romeo and Juliet and the “Scarlet • Interactive Tutorials
Letter” • Online Shopping Websites
• Social Media Posts
/Cause you were Romeo, I was a
scarlet letter and my daddy said
stay awat\y from Juliet/

LESSON 7: CRITICAL READING AS REASONING

 Critical reading
- involves scrutinizing any information that you read or hear
- means not easily believing information offered to you by a text
- an active process of discovery because when you read critically, you are not
just receiving information but also making an interaction with the writer (which
happens when you question the writer’s claims and assertions and/or when
you comment on the writer’s ideas)
- engaging yourself in a text or any material that you are reading
- critical reading does not necessarily mean that you have to be “critical” of
something that you read; it is about engaging yourself about what the author
or writer is trying to tell you in his of her writing, or being focused on the
intention or the argument being presented in the material
- it is exercising your judgement about the material being read, and not just
accepting or being satisfied with everything that is presented by the author
without analyzing the points, especially the author’s opinions whether true,
valid or acceptable
- “Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor
to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider” as Francis Bacon stated
in The Essays
 Critical Thinking
 - the ability to think clearly and rationally, and the ability to understand the
relation of ideas presented
- you as a critical thinker should be able to question ideas and assumptions
and should not just accept them without analyzing if there is truth to them or
not

 Logical Fallacies
- errors in reasoning that invalidate an argument
FALLACY DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
False Dilemma/ Despite the presence of Either I continue always
False Dichotomy multiple possibilities an buying in online shopping
arguer presents his/her or I’ll stop working.
argument as one of only
two options
Appeal to Ignorance Just because it is not Since you do not have a
proven to be false, and tattoo, you must not be a
vice versa, something is criminal.
instantly concluded to be
true
Slippery Slope When a series of If I did not teach you the
increasingly superficial and logical fallacies then you
unacceptable will never know that these
consequence is drawn fallacies exist.
Complex Question The reader is expected to Have you stopped begging
either accept or reject both for money?
two or more points that are
rolled into one at the same
time
Appeal to Force Instead of reasoning, a Lend me P5000 or else I’ll
threat is used to argue tell all your secrets to your
mother.
Appeal to Pity Pity is used instead of Please don’t arrest me. I
logical reasoning have 10 children to feed
and my parents are old
and very sick.
Appeal to Consequences To show that the belief is I don’t believe that my
false, there is an boyfriend is seeing other
unpleasant consequence girl because if he did we
of believing something are would break up and I am
pointed out not ready for it.
Bandwagon Just because it is what the In a survey conducted, 9
majority thinks, an out of 10 say that upon
argument is considered to using this Korean glass
be valid skin set their face become
radiant.
Attacking the Person Instead of attacking the I cannot accept your idea
ideas of the argument, you because, unlike me, you
attack the character of the did not have your
person doctorate
degree in Oxford
University.
Appeal to Authority Occurs when a person is The facts in my article are
not actually a legitimate correct because I have
expert on the subject been a journalist for three
matter; occurs also when decades already.
you assert your own
expertise
Anonymous Authority The authority in the Athletes say that
statement is not mentioned exercising
or named can make you live longer.
Hasty Generalization The sample is not Lee Da Hee, the foreigner
significant or enough to from South Korea, is very
support a generalization impolite. Koreans are
about a population mean
and rude.
False Analogy When a writer assumes Love is like coffee. Bitter
that two concepts that are yet sweet.
similar in some ways are
also similar in other ways
Accident Even if a general rule You should not talk back to
should be an exception, it your kuya no matter what;
is still applied to a situation he is always right because
he is older than you.
Post Hoc A is the cause of B since Shine said that whenever I
event A happened before sing it rains. Since I’m
event B singing now then it will rain
after a while.
Wrong Direction There is reverse in Lung cancer leads to
direction between cause cigarette smoking.
and effect
Complex Cause Even when there are other We were not able to create
factors which also an advertisement for our
contributed to the event, class because we were
the explanation is reduced only given three days to do
to one thing it. The time was too short
for us.
Irrelevant Conclusion The argument which is The number of positive
supposed to prove cases in our city is rising
something concludes even if we are in ECQ.
something else instead Therefore, we must lift
ECQ.
 Straw Man The position of the You said that horoscope is
opposition is twisted so not scientific, so why
that it is easier to refute should we believe in it?
Affirming the Consequent If argument A is true then If you are in a dating app
argument B is true; or If that means you are looking
argument B is true, for a partner who is a
therefore argument A is foreigner. Therefore, if you
true marry a foreigner that
means you met him/her on
a dating app.
Denying the Antecedent If argument A is true then If you did not finish college
argument B is true; or if then you will not have a
argument A is not true then successful future. If your
argument B is not true future is not successful
therefore you did not finish
college.
Inconsistency The arguments contradict Anna is taller than Ely. Ely
one another is taller than Elsa. Elsa is
taller than Anna.

CRITICAL READING STRATEGIES DESCRIPTION

Annotating It is the first strategy that you can use as
a critical reader. It is underlining or
highlighting the important ideas or points
in a text like thesis statement, topic
sentence, supporting details, body of the
material and the conclusion.
Contextual Reading In contextual reading, a reader studies
the author of the text, the time or period
when the author wrote it and the
important events that occurred during the
time the text was written.
Outlining It’s an overview of a document in which
information and ideas are arranged
according to hierarchy-the main idea
being at the top followed by the rest of the
supporting ideas or subtopics.
Summarizing It’s the condensing or writing of a material
in the reader’s own words.
Paraphrasing One way of understanding a text better is
to paraphrase it. Paraphrasing is putting
or writing a text in your own words but
maintaining the original information as
given by the author.
Comparing and Contrasting It’s naming the similarities of two or more
 ideas or information.
Evaluating an Argument A critical reader must not accept anything
on face value; instead, he or she must
evaluate whether the claim or the
argument that the author is presenting is
true and can be supported by evidence.
Reflecting on Challenges to your Beliefs There are reading materials that will
and Values affect your emotions.
Looking Patterns of Opposition This strategy should not be confused with
number 8 strategy.
Judging the Writer’s Credibility You ask questions to check if the writer of
the text is credible enough to get your
approval of what s/he has written.
Exploring the Figurative Langauge This refers to the language that uses
words or expressions with a meaning
different from the literal interpretation.
Recognizing Emotional Manipulation Some writers become emotionally
manipulative if they want their readers to
agree with themor to believe what they
are
saying and resort to false and
exaggerated statements or appeals.

A critical reader and a critical thinker therefore, must not depend on the use of their
instinct or intuition when reading. Both must know how to observe, identify, analyze,
interpret, infer, evaluate, explain, solve problems and make decisions. These are the
necessary skills a “thinking” reader should possess. Critical thinking and critical reading
therefore, go hand in hand in helping you develop into a more active learner rather than
being passive to the information.

LESSON 8: FORMULATING EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS

 Evaluative Statements is a statement that you can make to reflect your
judgment and generalization about a text you have read.

METHODS IN FORMULATING EVALUATIVE STATEMENT

1. Assertions
- a statement used to make a declaration or to express strong belief on a
particular topic
THREE TYPES OF ASSERTIONS
• Basic Assertion is a statement used to express the writer's feelings
directly, beliefs, and opinions. This is generally used in writing formal
papers like thesis and dissertation.
 EXAMPLE:
“I wish I could’ve expressed this idea earlier because now someone else has
taken the credit.”
• Emphatic Assertion is a statement used to express empathy or understand the
literary author's feelings and emotions. This generally consists of two parts; the
first part recognizes the situation or even the character's feelings on the text, and;
the second part is where the writer states his stand about the situation.
EXAMPLE:
"I understand you are busy, and me too, but it is difficult for me to finish this
project on my own. So, I want you to help me complete this project."

• I-language Assertion is a statement used to express feelings and preference of

the writer. It focuses on using the pronoun "I" if the author wants to express
negative feelings and opinions, which can be best used in writing a reflection
paper
EXAMPLE:
"When you speak harshly to me, I cannot talk and move as usual because I feel
embarrassed. Therefore, I want you to speak in low tone and then give me a
task."
2. Counterclaims
- are made as a contrast to the perspective of the argument stated.
BASIC CALCULUS

HAHAHAHA
AMBOT SA
IMO BACAL
OY
PAGBASA
ARALIN 1: TEKSTO AT MGA URI NITO
Ano ang teksto?
- Ito ay ang pangunahing salita sa anumang babasahin na nagtataglay ng iba’t
ibang impormasyon.

MGA URI NG TEKSTO:

Tekstong
Impormatibo
- Isang uri ng babasahing di-piksyon
- Ito ay naglalayong magbigay ng impormasyon o magpaliwanag nang
malinaw at walang pagkiling tungkol sa iba’t ibang paksa.
- Sinasagot ang mga tanong na ano, saan, kailan, sino, at paano
- Ang mga impormasyong inilalahad ay hindi nakabatay sa opinyon
- Naglalahad ng mga bagong impormasyon, bagong pangyayari, bagong
paniniwala, at mga bagong impormasyon
- Layunin nito’y magbigay ng mahahalagang kaalaman, mga datos, at
konteksto tungkol sa mga paksa na ito upang mapabuti ang pang-unawa ng
mga mambabasa sa teknolohiya, serbisyo, o impormasyon na tinalakay

MGA KATANGIAN:
 Impormasyong natuklasan buhat sa tekstong binabasa
 Impormasyong nauugnay sa reyalidad na nagging impormatibo
[impormasyong hango sa isang teksto at nauugnay sa kasalukuyang estado
ng buhay]
 Impormasyong bago, buhat sa mas malalim pang pananaliksik na sumulat

MGA ELEMENTO:
 Layunin ng may-akda [nakalagay ang pangunahing ideya sa paraan ng
paglalagay ng pamagat]
 Pangunahing ideya [inilalahad kung tungkol saan at ano ang tekstong
impormatibo; organizational markers para sa maayos na paglalarawan]
 Pantulong na kaisipan [supporting details]
 - Mga estilo sa pagsusulat, kagamitan, at sangguniang magtatampok sa mga
bagay na binibigyan-diin:
• Paggamit ng mga nakalarawang representasyon
• Pagbibigay diin sa mga mahahalagang salita
• Pagsusulat ng mga talasanggunian

MGA URI/ANYO
• Paghahambing at Pagkokontrast
- sa paghahambing nakikita ang pagkakatulad; sa pagkokontrast
nakikita ang pagkakaiba
• Pagsusuri ng Sanhi at Bunga
- sanhi ay ang dahilan o pinagmulan ng isang pangyayari; bunga ay
ang resulta o epekto ng isang sanhi
• Pagbibigay ng Depinisyong Teknikal
- pagbibigay ng malinaw at tiyak na kahulugan sa isang salita,
konsepto, o bagay
• Pagsusuri ng Problema at Solusyon
- problema ay ang suliranin na nangangailangan ng solusyon
• Pagiisa-isa o enumerasyon
- pagpapakita ng mga bagay, pangyayari, o ideya sa isang sunod-sunod
na paraan [pag-iisa-iisa ng mga bagay, pangyayari, o ideya na maaaring
magsunod-sunod o sa kahit anong order]
• Pagsunod-sunod o Order
- pag-ayos o pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga bagay, pangyayari, o hakbang
• Klasipikasyon
- pag-uuri o paghahati ng mga bagay, pangyayari, o konsepto sa mga
kategorya o grupo batay sa kanilang mga katangian
MGA HALIMBAWA:
• Agham
- naglalaman ng sistemikong pagsusuri ng natural na mundo sa
pamamagitan ng obserbasyon, eksperimento, at analisis
 - nagbibigay ng kaalaman tungkol sa iba’t ibang disiplina ng agham, ,ga
natuklasan, at mga pag-unlad
- nakatutulong upang maunawaan ang mga prinsipyo na nagpapalaganap
sa pisikal at natural na mga pangyayari
• Kasaysayan
- nagbibigay ng kronolohikal na kwento ng mga nakaraang pangyayari,
sibilisasyon, at lipunan
- nakatutulong upang magkaroon ng ugnayan sa ebolusyon ng mga
lipunan, kultura, at mahahalagang pangyayari sa kasaysayan
• Encyclopedia
- isang komprehensibong sanggunian na sumasaklaw sa iba’t ibang paksa
- naglalayong magbigay ng detalyadong impormasyon ukol sa iba’t ibang
mga paksa, mula sa agham at kasaysayan hanggang sa sining at
panitikan
• ChatGPT
- nagbibigay impormasyon at kaalaman tungkol sa kakayahan at
aplikasyon ng mga modelo ng makikipag-usap na AI
• Google Chrome
- maaaring sumaklaw sa iba’t ibang mga paksa, kabilang ang mga
katangian nito, mga kakayahan, at kahalagahan nito sa mundong
pagsusuri ng web
• News Channel
- maaaring magtuon sa papel nito sa pamamahagi ng impormasyon,
pagbibigay ng balita, at pagbuo ng opinyon ng publiko
- maaaring talakayin ang mga pamantayan ng pagsusulat ng balita ng
channel, ang kanilang patakaran sa editoryal, at ang uri ng bslits na
kanilang itinatampok

Tekstong
Persuweysib
- Ito ay isang uri ng teksto na umaapela o pumupukaw sa damdamin ng
mambabasa o tagapakinig upang makuha ang simpatiya nito at mahikayat
na umayon sa ideyang inilahad.
Layunin:
1. Manghikayat o mangumbinsi sa babasa ng teksto.
2. Umapela o makapukaw ng damdamin sa mambabasa
3. Manghimok o mangumbinsi sa pamamagitan ng pagkuha ng damdamin o
simpatiya ng mambabasa.

3 ELEMENTO NG PANGHIHIKAYAT
1. Ethos
- mula sa salitang Griyego na nauugnay sa salitang etika ngunit higit na
naaangkop sa salitang “imahe”.
- ito ang elemento na nagpapasiya kung dapat bang pagkatiwalaan ng
tagapakinig ang tagapagsalita.
2. Pathos
- ang elemento na paghihikayat na tumatalakay sa emosyon o damdamin ng
mambabasa o tagapakinig.

3. Logos
- salitang Griyego na tumutukoy sa pangangatuwiran
- tumutukoy ito sa pagiging lohikal na nilalaman o kung may katuturan ba ang
sinasabi upang mahikayat o mapaniwala ang mga tagapakinig na ito ay totoo.

7 INSTRUMENTO NG TEKSTONG PERSUWEYSIB

1. Name Calling
- panlalait o pagbibigay ng negatibong komento tungkol sa isang bagay, tao,
produkto, o ideya upang itaas ang sariling paniniwala at pababain ang
pagtangkilik ng iba sa kabilang panig.
2. Glittering Generalities
- pagkukumbinsi sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng magarang, nakakasilaw, at
kasiya-siyang mga salita o pahayag.
3. Transfer
- paglilipat ng kasikatan ng isang personalidad sa isang hindi kilalang
produkto.
4. Testimonial
- naglalaman ng pahayag o rekomendasyon ng isang tao tungkol sa isang
produkto, serbisyo, o karanasan.
5. Plain Folks
- nagpapakita ng mga simpleng tao upang hikayatin ang iba na sumang-ayon
sa kanilang pananaw o paksa.
6. Bandwagon
- Hinihikayat ang mga tao sa pamamagitan ng pagpapaniwala sa mga ito na ang
masa ay tumatang-kilik at gumagamit na ng kanilang produkto o serbisyo.
7. Card Stalking [Stacking]
- Pagsasabi ng maganda puna sa isang produkto ngunit hindi sinasabi ang
masamang epekto nito.

3 KATANGIAN NG TEKSTONG PERSUWEYSIB

1) Malalim na Pananaliksik
- kailangang alam ng isang manunulat ang pasikot- sikot ng isyung tatalakayin sa
pamamagitan ng pananaliksik tungkol dito.
2) Kaalaman sa mga posibleng paniniwala ng mga mambabasa
- kailangang mulat at maalam ang manunulat ng tekstong persuweysib.
3.) Malalim na pagkaunawa sa dalawang panig ng isyu
- ito ay upang epektibong masagot ang laganap na paniniwala ng mga mambabasa.

Tekstong
- naglalahad ng serye o Prosidyural
mga hakbang sa pagbuo ng isang gawain upang
matamo ang mga inaasahan.
- nagsasaad ng impormasyon o mga direksyon upang ligtas, mabilis,
matagumpay, at maayos na maisakatuparan ang mga gawain
- layunin nitong makapagbigay ng sunod-sunod na direksyon at impormasyon
sa mga tao upang tagumpay na maisagawa ang gagawin sa ligtas at angkop
na paraan
- Mga halimbawa:
• Manwal sa paggamit ng kasangkapan o mekansimo
• Resipi
 • Gabay sa paggawa ng mga proyekto
• Mga eksperimentong siyentipiko
• Mekaniks sa laro
• Mga alituntunin sa kalsada

MGA NILALAMAN NG TEKSTONG PROSIDYURAL

1. Layunin o Target na awtput
- Nilalaman ng bahaging ito kung ano ang kalalabasan ng proyekto ng
prosidyur. - Maaring ilarawan ang mga tiyak na katangian ng isang bagay kung
susundin ang gabay
2. Kagamitan
- Nakapaloob dito ang mga kasangkapan upang makompleto ang isasagawang
proyekto.
3. Metodo
- Serye ng mga hakbang na isasagawa,upang mabuo ang proyekto.
4. Ebalwasyon
- Naglalaman ng mga pamamaraan kung paano masusukat ang tagumpay ng
prosidyur.

MGA GAMIT NG TEKSTONG PROSIDYURAL

1. Pagpapaliwanag kung paano gumagana o pagaganahin ang isang kasangkapan
batay sa manwal na ipinakita.
2.Pagsasabi ng hakbang kung paano gagawin ang isang bagay o gawain.
3. Paglalarawan kung paano makakamit ang ninanais na kalagayan sa buhay

KAHALAGAHAN NG TEKSTONG PROSIDYURAL

1. Dahil sa pagsunod ng mga hakbang, mayroon kang magagawang produkto o awtput.
2. Nagkakaroon ng kaalaman kung paano gumawa ng isang produkto.

MGA TIYAK NA KATANGIAN NG WIKA NG ISANG TEKSTONG PROSIDYURAL

1. Nakasulat sa kasalukuyang panahunan.
2. Nakapokus sa pangkalahatang mambabasa at hindi sa iisang tao lamang.
3. Tinutukoy ang mambabasa sa pangkahalatang pamamaraan sa pamamagitan ng
paggamit ng mga panghalip.
4. Gumagamit ng mga tiyak na pandiwa para sa introksiyon.
5. Gumagamit ng malinaw na pag-ugnay at cohesive devices upang ipakita ang
pagkakasunod sunod at ugnayan ng mga bahagi ng teksto.

MGA URI NG TEKSTONG PROSIDYURAL

1. Paraan ng pagluluto (recipes)
- Nagbibigay ng panuto sa mga mambabasa kung paano magluto. Sa paraan
ng pagluluto, kailangan ay malinaw ang pagkakagawa ng mga pangungusap
at maaring ito ay magpakita rin ng mga larawan
2. Panuto
- Nagsisilbing gabay sa mga mambabasa kung paano isagawa o likhain ang
isang bagay.
3. Panuntunan
- Ngabibigay sa mga manlalaro ng gabay na dapat nilang sundin
4. Mga Eksperimento
- Sa mga eksperimento, tumutuklas tayo ng mga bagay na hindi pa natin alam.
Karaniwang nagsasagawa ng eksperimento sa siyensya kaya naman
kailangang maisulat ito sa madaling naiintindihang lenguwahe para matiyak
ang kaligtasan ng magsasagawa ng gawain.
5. Pagbibigay ng Deskripsiyon
- Mahalagang magbigay tayo ng malinaw na direksyon para makarating sa
nais na destinasyong tatahakin.

Tekstong
- Isang anyo ng pagsulatDeskriptibo
na naghahatid ng detalyadong paglalarawan ng
isang bagay, lugar, tao, o karanasan
- Ibig nitong lumikha ang isang malinaw at kapani-paniwala na imahe sa
isipan ng mga mambabasa at magbigay ng konseptong biswal sa
pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga salita at pahayag na naglalarawan sa
mga sensasyon, emosyon, at obserbasyon ng manunulat.

LAYUNIN AT KAHALAGAHAN
 Naglalayong magdulot ng karansan sa tao at makapagpamalas sa isip
ng tagapakinig o mambabasa ng isang malinaw at buong larawan.
  Nakatutulong upang malawak na maintindihan ng mambabasa ang mga
imahe na nais isalarawan o iparating ng manunulat.
 Nakatutulong upang mas mapagaling ang imahenasyon ng
mambabasa.

MGA GINAGAMIT SA PAGBUO NG TEKSTONG DESKRIPTIBO

 Pang-uri at Pang-abay (tauhan, tagpuan, kilos, atbp)
 Tayutay (pagtutulad, pagwawangis, pagsasatao)
KATANGIAN NG TEKSTONG DESKRIPTIBO
 Subhetibong Paglalarawan
- ang paglalarawan ay napakalinaw ngunit hindi naka batay sa
katotohanan
 Obhetibong Paglalarawan
- Ito ay may pinagbabatayang katotohanan.
KAHALAGAHAN NG KOHESYONG GRAMATIKAL SA PAGSULAT NG TEKSTONG
DESKRIPTIBO
1. Substitusyon
- Paggamit ng isang bagay, salita, o ideya bilang kapalit ng isa pang
bagay, salita, o ideya.
2. Elipsis
- Pagtanggal ng mga salita o bahagi ng pangungusap na maaaring hulaan
ng mambabasa
3. Pang-ugnay
- Nag-uugnay ng magkakaugnay na ideya o pangungusap gamit ang mga
salitang “at”, “o”, at “ngunit”
4. Reperensiya
- Nagbibigay ng pagsasaayos sa pangungusap at nagpapadali sa pag-
unawa ng mambabasa sa kung ano ang tinutukoy ng manunulat
5. Kohesyong Leksikal
- Nagpapalakas ito sa kabuuang tema o tono ng teksto at nagpapadali sa
pag-unawa ng mensahe
a. Reiterasyon
• kung ano ang ginagawa o sinasabi ay nauulit nang ilang beses
 Pag-uulit o repetasyon
 Pag-iisa-isa
 Pagbibigay Kahulugan
 Kolokasyon
 - Mga salitang may kaugnayan sa isa’t isa kaya kapag nabanggit ang isa ay
naibibigay na rin ang kapareha o kasalungat nito.

Tekstong
- Ang tekstong Argumentatib argumentatibo ay isang
mahalagang uri ng teksto na karaniwang ginagamit upang ipahayag ang
isang opinyon o pananaw sa isang partikular na paksa.
- Ito ay isang anyo ng komunikasyon na naglalayong manghikayat,
magbigay-katwiran, o kumbinsihin ang mga mambabasa na sumang-
ayon o maniwala sa isinusulong na pahayag o argumento ng
manunulat.

KALIKASAN
Ang tekstong argumentatibo ay isang uri ng teksto na layuning magbigay ng mga
argumento o pahayag upang suportahan ang isang pananaw, opinyon, o posisyon sa
isang partikular na isyu. Ito ay karaniwang may layuning maka-impluwensya sa
paniniwala o pagkilos ng mga mambabasa sa pamamagitan ng lohikal na pagsusuri
at pagbibigay ng ebidensya.

ANYO
Ang tekstong argumentatibo ay karaniwang nagtataglay ng mga elemento tulad ng
pahayag ng isyu o thesis statement, mga argumento o supporting points na
susuporta sa thesis, mga ebidensya o katibayan upang patunayan ang bawat
argumento, at konklusyon na nag-uudyok sa mambabasa na tanggapin ang posisyon
ng may-akda.

Mga Halimbawa:
1. Sanaysay- Ito ay isang popular na anyo ng tekstong argumentatibo na karaniwang
naglalaman ng mga opinyon, pananaw, at argumento ng may-akda hinggil sa isang
partikular na isyu. Ang sanaysay ay binubuo ng introduksyon, katawan, at konklusyon.
2. Artikulo- Ang mga artikulo sa mga pahayagan, magasin, o online publication ay
maaari ring maging isang anyo ng tekstong argumentatibo. Ito ay naglalaman ng
pagsusuri, opinyon, at argumento hinggil sa isang partikular na paksa.
3. Editoryal- Ang editoryal ay isang anyo ng tekstong argumentatibo na karaniwang
matatagpuan sa mga pahayagan at magasin. Ito ay naglalaman ng opinyon at pananaw
ng editor o ng editorial board ng publikasyon hinggil sa isang isyu o pangyayari.
4. Debate Script- Sa mga debate, ang mga kalahok ay sumusulat ng mga argumento
at pananalita na gagamitin nila upang suportahan ang kanilang panig. Ang mga debate
script ay naglalaman ng mga posibleng argumento, rebuttals, at mga sagot sa mga
tanong ng mga kalaban.

ESTRUKTURA
Introduksyon - ito ang bahagi kung saan ipinapakilala ang pangunahing isyu o
paksa na tatalakayin sa teksto. Karaniwang kasama sa introduksyon ang thesis
statement na naglalaman ng pangunahing pahayag o pananaw ng may-akda sa isyu.

Balangkas ng Argumento - sumusunod sa introduksyon ang mga bahaging

naglalaman ng mga argumento o suporting points na susuporta sa thesis statement.

Paglalapat ng Ebidensya - sa bahaging ito, ipinapakita ng may-akda ang mga

konkretong ebidensya o katibayan upang suportahan ang bawat argumento. Maaaring
ito ay datos, istatistika, pag-aaral, mga halimbawa, o mga personal na karanasan na
nagpapatunay sa katwiran ng bawat punto
Rebyu ng Katwiran - pagkatapos ipakita ang mga argumento at ebidensya, muling
nilalahad ng may-akda ang kabuuang pananaw at nilalayon na makumbinsi ang
mambabasa na tanggapin ang posisyon ng may-akda.

Mga ebidensyang pwedeng gamitin ng manunulat sa pakikipag argumento

 sariling karanasan [not credible enough]
 kasaysayan
 kaugnay na mga literatura
 resulta ng empirikal na Pananaliksik

Sa tekstong Argumentatibo kinakailangan na ang pangangatwiran ay maging malinaw

at lohikal
2 Elemento ng Pangangatwiran
 Proposisyon
 Argumento
Proposisyon - Ayon kay Melania L Abad (2004), ang proposisyon ay ang pahayag na
inilalapag upang pag talunan o pag usapan. Ito ay dapat mapagkasunduan bago
magsimula ang pagbibigay ng argumento ng dalawang panig
Mga halimbawa ng Proposisyon:
 Dapat ipasa ang Divorce bill upang mabawasan ang karahasan laban sa
kababaihan.
 Nakakasama sa isang pamilya ang pag alis ng isang miyembro upang mag
trabaho sa ibang bansa.
 Mas epektibo sa pagkatutu ng mga mag-aaral ang multilingual education kaysa
sa bilingual education.
Argumento - Ang argumento ay ang pangalwang elemento ng pangangatwiran. Ito ay
ang pagpahahayag ng mga dahilan at ebidensya upang maipag tangol ang katuwiran
ng isang panig. Ang nangangatwiran ay kailangan may sapat na kaalaman sa
proposisyon upang makapaglahad ng mahusay na argumento.
Katangian ng tekstong Argumentatibo:
 Mahalaga at napapanahon ang paksa.
 Maikli ngunit malaman at malinaw na pagtukoy sa tesis sa unang talata ng
teksto
 Malinaw at lohikal na transisyon sa pagitan ng mga bahagi ng teksto.
 Maayos na pagkakasunodsunod ng mga talatang naglalaman ng mga
ebidensya ng argumento.
 Matibay na ebidensya para sa argumento

MGA PARAAN NG PANGANGATWIRAN TUNGO SA MAAYOS NA PAGSULAT O

PAGBUO NG TEKSTONG ARGUMENTATIBO

1. Pabuod - Paglalahad muna ng mga halimbawa o maliliit na ideyang tumatayong

pangsuportang kaisipan at nagtatapos sa isang pangunahing kaisipan.
Halimbawa:
 Tumulong kami sa paglilinis sa kapaligiran at pagsasabit sa mga palamuti sa
entablado bilang paghahanda sa kapistahan ng aming barangay.
2. Pasaklaw - Kabaliktaran ng pabuod. Nagsisimula sa paglalahad ng pangunahing
kaisipan na sinusundan ng mga pantulong na kaisipang sumusuporta sa
naunang kaisipan.
Halimbawa:
  Ang Train Law o Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion ay isang batas na
nagbabago sa sistema ng ating buwis. Napapaloob dito ay ang dagdag sahod,
pagtaas ng presyo ng langis at asukal kasunod sa iba pang bilihin.
3. Lohikal - Naayon sa mga risonableng inaasahan kaugnay sa mga espisipikong
sitwasyon o kaganapan at ang lohikal na pag-lisip ay isang tao na may maayos na
pag-iisip at consistent.
Halimbawa:
 Sa kalikasan natugunan ang pangangailangan ng tao na nagbibigay sa kanyang
kasiyahan sa buhay.
4. Silohismo
Binubuo ng tatlong bahagi:
A. Pangunahing Premis - isang pahayag na may katotohanang tanggap ng
karamihan o ng mga institusyun.
B. Pangalawang Premis - isang paglalahad ng sitwasyon na mag-uugnay sa
pangunahing premis at konklusyon.
C. Konklusyon - ang lohikal na kasagutan sa pagtatagni ng pangunahin at
pangalawang premis.
Halimbawa:
 Pangunahing Premis - lahat ng katoliko ay kristiyano.
 Pangalawang Premis - Si Juan ay Katoliko.
 Konklusyon - Si Juan ay Kristiyano
5. Sanhi at bunga - Pagtalakay sa mga kadahilanan ng isang bagay o pangyayari at
mga epekto nito
Halimbawa:
Sanhi: Nag-aral nang mabuti si Pedro. Bunga: Nakapasa siya sa pagsusulit.

MGA KARANIWANG URI NG LIHIS NA PANGANGATUWIRAN O FALLACY

1. Argumentum ad Hominem (Argumento laban sa Karakter)
- Lihis ang pangangatuwiran sapagkat nawawalan ng katotohanan ang
argumento dahil ang pinagtutuunan ay hindi ang isyu kundi ang kredibilidad
ng taong kausap
2. Argumentum ad Baculum (Paggamit ng pwersa o pananakot)
- Ginagamitan ng dahas o pwersa upang makumbinse ang taong kausap
3. Argumentum ad Misericordiam (Paghingi ng awa o simpatiya)
- Ang pangangatuwiran ay hindi nakasalig sa katatagan ng argumento kundi sa
awa at simpatiya ng kausap
4. Argumentum ad Numeram (Batay sa dami ng naniniwala sa argumento)
 - Ang paninidigan sa katotohanan ng isang argumento ay batay sa dami ng
nanniniwala nito
5. Argumentum ad Igonarantiam (natay sa kwalan ng sapat na ebidensiya)
- Ang proposisiyon o pahayag ay pinananinindigan dahil hindi napatunayan
ang kamalian nito at walang sapat na patunay kung mali o tama ang pahayag
6. Cum Hoc ergo Propter Hoc (batay sa pagkakaugnay-ugnay ng dalawang
pangyayari)
- Ang pangangatwiran ay batay sa sabay na pangyayari; ang isa ay dapat
dahilan ng isa o may ugnayang sanhi at bunga ang dalawang pangyayari
7. Post Hoc ergo Propter Hoc (batay sa pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga
pangyayari)
- Ang pagpapahayag ay batay sa magkakasunod-sunod na pattern ng mga
pangyayari; ang nauna ay pinaniniwalaang dahilan ng kasunod na pangyayari
8. Non Sequitor (walang kaugnayan)
- Aang konklyusyon ay walang lohikal na kaugnayan sa naunang pahayag
9. Circular Reasoning (paikot-ikot na pangngatuwiran)
- Paulit-ulit ang pahayag at walang malinaw na punto
10. Hasty Generalization (Padalos-dalos na Paglalahat)
- Paggawa ng panlahatang pahayag o konklusyon batay lamang sa iilang
patunay o katibayang may kinikilingan; bumubuo ng argumento na walang
gaanong batayan

Tekstong
- pagsasalaysay o Naratibo
pagkukuwento ng mga pangyayari sa isang tao o mga
tauhan, nangyari sa isang lugar at panahon o sa isang tagpuan, nang may
maayos na pagkakasunod-sunod mula simula hanggang katapusan
- iba’t ibang uri (mga halimbawa):
• Maikling Kuwento - Dula
• Nobela - Mga kuwento ng kababalaghan
• Kuwentong Bayan - Anekdota
• Mitolohiya - Parabula
• Alamat - Science Fiction
• Tulang Pasalaysay (Epiko)
MGA KATANGIAN NG TEKSTONG NARATIBO
(1) Iba't Ibang Pananaw O Punto De Vista (Point Of View) Sa Tekstong Naratibo
1. Unang Panauhan—Sa pananaw na ito, ang isang tauhan ang nagsasalaysay ng
mga bagay na kanyang nararanasan. Kaya’t ginagamit niya ang panghalip na “ako.”
2. Ikalawang Panauhan—Sa pananaw na ito, para bang kausap ng manunulat ang
tauhan na ginagalaw niya sa kuwento, kaya gumagamit siya ng mga panghalip na
“ka” o “ikaw.” Ito ay hindi gaanong ginagamit ng mga manunulat sa kanilang
pagsasalaysay.
3. Ikatlong Panauhan—Ang mga pangyayari sa pananaw na ito ay isinasalaysay ng
isang tao na walang relasyon sa tauhan kaya ang panghalip na ginagamit niya sa
pagsasalaysay ay “siya.” Ang tagapagsalaysay ay tagapag-obserba lamang at nasa
labas siya ng mga pangyayari.
(3) Tatlong Uri ng Ganitong Pananaw:
a. Maladiyos na panauhan—Napapasok niya ang isipan ng bawat tauhan at
naihahayag niya ang iniisip, damdamin, at paniniwala ng mga ito sa mga
mambabasa.
b. Limitadong panauhan—Nababatid niya ang iniisip at kilos ng isa sa mga
tauhan subalit hindi ng iba pang tauhan.
c. Tagapag-obserbang panauhan—Hindi niya napapasok o nababatid ang
nilalaman ng isip at damdamin ng mga tauhan. Ipinapakita niya lamang ang mga
nakikita, naririnig, o sinasabi ng mga tauhan.
4. Kombinasyong Pananaw o Paningin—Dito, hindi lamang iisa ang tagapagsalaysay
kaya iba’t ibang pananaw o paningin ang ginagamit sa pagsasalaysay. Karaniwan ito sa
isang nobela kung saan ang mga pangyayari ay sumasakop sa mas mahabang
panahon at maraming tauhan ang naipakikilala sa bawat kabanata.
(2) PARAAN NG PAGPAPAHAYAG NG DIYALOGO, SALOOBIN, O DAMDAMIN SA
TEKSTONG NARATIBO
1. Direkta o Tuwirang Pagpapahayag
Sa ganitong uri ng pagpapahayag, ang tauhan ay direkta o tuwirang nagsasaad o
nagsasabi ng kanyang diyalogo, saloobin, o damdamin. Ito ay ginagamitan ng panipi.
Ang paraan ng pagkakasabi ay nagpapahiwatig din sa uri ng damdamin na taglay nito,
kaysa kung lalagumin o hindi direktang sasabihin ng tagapagsalaysay.
Halimbawa:
“Donato, kakain na, anak,” tawag ni Aling Guada sa anak na noo’y abalang-abala sa
ginagawa at hindi halos napansing nakalapit na pala ang ina sa kanyang kinalalagyan.
“Aba’y kayganda naman nireng ginagawa mo, anak! Ay ano ba talaga ang balak mo,
ha?” Natatawang inakbayan ni Donato ang ina at inakay papasok sa munti nilang
kusina…
—Mula sa “Ang Kariton ni Donato”
2. Di direkta o Di tuwirang Pagpapahayag
Ang tagapagsalaysay ang naglalahad sa sinasabi, iniisip, o nararamdaman ng tauhan
sa ganitong uri ng pagpapahayag. Hindi na ito ginagamitan ng panipi.
Halimbawa:
Tinawag ni Aling Guada ang anak dahil kakain na habang ito’y abalang-abala sa
ginagawa at hindi halos napansing nakalapit na pala ang ina sa kanyang kinalalagyan.
Sinabi niyang kayganda ng ginagawa ng anak at tinanong din niya kung ano ba talaga
ang balak niya.
Natatawang inakbayan ni Donato ang ina at inakay papasok sa munti nilang kusina.

MGA ELEMENTO NG TEKSTONG NARATIBO

1. Tauhan—Ito ang nagbibigay buhay sa kuwento.
(4) Karaniwang Tauhan Sa Mga Akdang Naratibo
a. Pangunahing Tauhan
- dito umiikot ang mga pangyayari sa kuwento mula simula hanggang sa
katapusan. Karaniwang iisa lamang ang pangunahing tauhan. Ang kanyang mga
katangian ay ibinabatay sa tungkulin o papel na kanyang gagampanan sa
kabuoan ng akda.
b. Katunggaling Tauhan
- ito ang siyang sumasalungat o kalaban ng pangunahing tauhan. Mahalaga ang
papel ng tauhang ito sapagkat sa mga tunggaliang nangyayari sa pagitan nila,
nabubuhay ang mga pangyayari sa kuwento.
c. Kasamang Tauhan
- ang pangunahing papel o tungkulin niya ay sumuporta, magsilbing hingahan, o
kapalagayang-loob ng pangunahing tauhan.
d. Ang May-Akda
- ang siyang nakasubaybay sa kuwento at ang maylikha nito.

● Ayon kay E.M. Forster, isang Ingles na manunulat, may dalawang uri ng tauhan
ang maaaring makita sa isang tekstong naratibo tulad ng:

Tauhang Bilog (Round Character) — Isang tauhang may multidimensiyonal o

maraming saklaw ang personalidad. Tulad ng isang tunay na katauhan, nagbabago ang
kanyang pananaw, katangian, at damdamin ayon sa pangangailangan.
Halimbawa: Ang isang tahimik at mapagtimping tauhan, ay maaaring magalit at
sumambulat kapag hinihingi ng sitwasyon o pangyayari sa kuwento at lumutang ang
nararapat na emosyon o damdamin.
Tauhang Lapad (Flat Character)—Ito ang tauhang nagtataglay ng iisa o dadalawang
katangiang madaling matukoy o predictable. Madaling mahulaan at maiugnay sa
kanyang katauhan ang kanyang mga ikinikilos at maituturing na stereotype.
Halimbawa: Tulad ng mapang-aping madrasta, mapagmahal na ina, tin-edyer na hindi
sumusunod sa magulang, at iba pa.

2. Tagpuan at Panahon
- tumutukoy sa lugar kung saan naganap ang mga pangyayari sa akda, panahon (oras,
petsa, taon) at maging sa damdaming umiiral sa kapaligiran nang maganap ang mga
pangyayari tulad ng kasayahang dama ng pagdiriwang sa isang kaarawan, takot na
umiiral dahil sa malakas na hampas ng hangin at ulang dala ng bagyo, at iba pa.

3. Banghay
Ito ang maayos na daloy o pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga pangyayari sa mga tekstong
naratibo upang mabigyang-linaw ang temang taglay ng akda.
Karaniwang Banghay O Balangkas Ng Isang Naratibo:
● Simula (orientation or introduction)
● Saglit na kasiglahan (rising action)
● Kasukdulan (climax)
● Resolusyon o Kakalasan (falling action)
● Wakas (ending)

(3) Uri Ng Pangyayaring Hindi Sumusunod Sa Ganitong Kalakaran (Anachmny)

Analepsis (Flashback)—Dito ipinapasok ang mga pangyayaring naganap sa nakalipas.
Prolepsis (Flashforward)—Dito nama’y ipinapasok ang mga pangyayaring magaganap
pa lang sa hinaharap.
Ellipsis—May mga puwang o patlang sa pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga pangyayari na
nagpapakitang may bahagi sa pagsasalaysay na tinanggal o hindi isinama.

4. Paksa o Tema
Ito ang sentral na ideya kung saan umiikot ang mga pangyayari sa tekstong naratibo.
Mahalagang malinang ito nang husto sa kabuoan ng akda upang maipahayag ng may-
akda ang pinakamahalagang mensaheng nais niyang maiparating sa kanyang
mambabasa.
Halimbawa Ng Isang Tekstong Naratibo na Mabangis na Lungsod (Buod) ni Efren R.
Abueg

5. Suliranin at Tunggalian – pinakamadramang tagpo ng kwento at nakasasalalay rito

ang pagbabago ng daloy ng isang naratibo

Mga Pagbabagong
Morpononemiko
1. ASIMILASYON- pagbabagong naganap sa /n/ sa posisyong pinal dahil sa
impluwensiya ng ponemang kasunod nito.
d.l.r,s,t b, o p k,g,h, m, n, ng,w, y
PAN PAM PANG
MAN MAM MANG
SIN SIM SING
SAN SAM SANG
Hal.

Pan+ dikdik pam + bayan pang + gabi

=Pandikdik =pambayan =panggabi

2. METATESIS – kapag ang salitang ugat ay nagsisilula sa /l/ o / y/ ay ginitlapian ng

(-in) ang /l/ o /y/ ng salitang ugat at ang /n/ ng gitlapi aynagkakapalit ng posisyon.
Hal.
-In + lipad = linipad = nilipad
– in + yaya = yinaya = niyaya

3. PAGKAKALTAS NG PONEMA –. Nagaganap ang pagbabagong ito kung ang huling

ponemang patinig ng salitang ugat ay nawawala sa paghuhulapi nito.
Hal.
Takip + -an = takipan = takpan
Sara + -han= sarahan = sarhan

4. PAGLILIPAT- DIIN- may mga salitang nababago ng diin kapag nilapian.

Hal.
Basa + -hin = basahin
-ka + sama+ han = kasamahan

5. MAY ANGKOP – kung sa dalawang salitang magkasunod ang una’y nababawasan

ng papungo o pakutad at kung minsa pay napapalitan ng isa o ilang titik sa loob bago
napipisan sa dalawang salita sa isa na lamang.
Hal.
Wikain mo kamo
Hayaan mo hamo
Winika ko ikako

6. PAGPAPALIT NG PONEMA- kung ang isa o dalawang titik ng salita ay napapalitan

ng iba bukod sa kung nagkakaltas o nagsusudlong.Ang ponemang /d/ sa posisyong
inisyal ng salitang nilalapian ay karaniwang napapalitan ng ponemang /r/ kapag patinig
ang huling ponema ng unlapi.
Hal.
D R
Ma + dapat = madapat marapat
Ma + dunong = madunong marunong

7. MAYSUDLONG o PAGDARAGDAG NG PONEMA – kung bukod sa may hulapi na

ang salitang pinapandiwa, ito ay sinusudlunagn o dinaragdagan pa ng isa pang hulapi.
/-an/, -/han/,/ -in/, /-hin/,/-an/, o /–anan/
Hal.
Antabayanan, antayan
Muntik- muntikanan, pagmuntikan, pagmuntikan
DRRM