Table of Contents

I. Introduction
Overview
How Antennas Work
Properties of Antenna
A. Size
B. Shape
C. Directivity
Current and Voltage Distribution
Antenna Parameters
A. Resonant Frequency
B. Gain
C. Bandwidth
D. Impedance
E. Polarization
F. Efficiency
II. Types of Antenna
III. Sample Problems
IV. Design Proper
Theory of Operation
Design Computation
Construction Procedure

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 Applications
Cost Analysis
V. Conclusion / Recommendation

Introducti
on

2
Antenna Basics and
Principles
An antenna or aerial is an electronic component designed
to transmit or receive radio waves. The words "antenna" (plural:
antennas) and "aerial" are used interchangeably throughout this
article.

Physically, an antenna is an arrangement of conductors

designed to radiate (transmit) an electromagnetic field in
response to an applied alternating voltage and the associated
alternating electric current, or to be placed into an
electromagnetic field so that the field will induce an alternating
current in the antenna and a voltage between its terminals.

Antenna radiates and receives radio waves through the air or

through space. Antennas are used to send radio waves to distant
sites and to receive radio waves from distant sources. Many
wireless communications devices, such as radios, broadcast
television sets, radar, and cellular radio telephones, use
antennas.

OVERVIEW

There are two fundamental types of antennas, which, with

reference to a specific three dimensional (usually horizontal or

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vertical) plane, are either omni-directional (radiate equally in the
plane) or directional (radiates more in one direction than in the
other). All antennas radiate some energy in all directions but
careful construction results in large directivity in certain directions
and negligible power radiated in other directions.

By adding additional conducting rods or coils (called

elements) and varying their length, spacing, and orientation, an
antenna with specific desired properties can be created, such as a
Yagi-Uda Antenna (often abbreviated to "Yagi"). Typically,
antennas are designed to operate in a relatively narrow frequency
range. The design criteria for receiving and transmitting antennas
differ slightly, but generally an antenna can receive and transmit
equally well. This property is called reciprocity.

The vast majority of antennas are simple vertical rods a

quarter of a wavelength long. Such antennas are simple in
construction, usually inexpensive, and both radiate in and receive
from all horizontal directions (omnidirectional). One limitation of
this antenna is that it does not radiate or receive in the direction
in which the rod points. This region is called the antenna blind
cone or null.

Antennas have practical use for the transmission and

reception of radio frequency signals (radio, TV, etc.), which can
travel over great distances at the speed of light, and pass through
nonconducting walls (although often there is a variable signal
reduction depending on the type of wall, and natural rock can be
very reflective to radio signals).

HOW ANTENNAS WORK

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 A transmitting antenna takes waves that are generated by
electrical signals inside a device such as a radio and converts
them to waves that travel in an open space. The waves that are
generated by the electrical signals inside radios and other devices
are known as guided waves, since they travel through
transmission lines such as wires or cables. The waves that travel
in an open space are usually referred to as free-space waves,
since they travel through the air or outer space without the need
for a transmission line. A receiving antenna takes free-space
waves and converts them to guided waves.

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation, a form

of rapidly changing, or oscillating, energy. Radio waves have two
related properties known as frequency and wavelength.
Frequency refers to the number of times per second that a wave
oscillates, or varies in strength. The wavelength is equal to the
speed of a wave (the speed of light, or 300 million m/sec) divided
by the frequency. Low-frequency radio waves have long
wavelengths (measured in hundreds of meters), whereas high-

5
frequency radio waves have short wavelengths (measured in
centimeters).

An antenna can radiate radio waves into free space from a

transmitter, or it can receive radio waves and guide them to a
receiver, where they are reconstructed into the original message.
For example, in sending an AM radio transmission, the radio first
generates a carrier wave of energy at a particular frequency. The
carrier wave is modified to carry a message, such as music or a
person’s voice. The modified radio waves then travel along a
transmission line within the radio, such as a wire or cable, to the
antenna. The transmission line is often known as a feed element.
When the waves reach the antenna, they oscillate along the
length of the antenna and back. Each oscillation pushes
electromagnetic energy from the antenna, emitting the energy
through free space as radio waves.

The antenna on a radio receiver behaves in much the same

way. As radio waves traveling through free space reach the
receiver’s antenna, they set up, or induce, a weak electric current
within the antenna. The current pushes the oscillating energy of
the radio waves along the antenna, which is connected to the
radio receiver by a transmission line. The radio receiver amplifies
the radio waves and sends them to a loudspeaker, reproducing
the original message.

PROPERTIES OF ANTENNA

An antenna’s size and shape depend on the intended

frequency or wavelength of the radio waves being sent or
received. The design of a transmitting antenna is usually not
different from that of a receiving antenna. Some devices use the
same antenna for both purposes.

A. Size

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 An antenna works best when its physical size corresponds to
a quantity known as the antenna’s electrical size. The electrical
size of an antenna depends on the wavelength of the radio waves
being sent or received. An antenna radiates energy most
efficiently when its length is a particular fraction of the intended
wavelength. When the length of an antenna is a major fraction of
the corresponding wavelength (a quarter-wavelength or half-
wavelength is often used), the radio waves oscillating back and
forth along the antenna will encounter each other in such a way
that the wave crests do not interfere with one another. The waves
will resonate, or be in harmony, and will then radiate from the
antenna with the greatest efficiency.

If an antenna is not long enough or is too long for the

intended radio frequency, the wave crests will encounter and
interfere with one another as they travel back and forth along the
antenna, thus reducing the efficiency. The antenna then acts like
a capacitor or an inductor (depending on the shape of the
antenna) and stores, rather than radiates, energy. The electrical
length of an antenna can be altered by adding a metal loop of
wire known as a loading coil to one end of the antenna, thus
increasing the amount of wire in the antenna. Loading coils are
used when the practical length of an antenna would be too long.
Adding a coil to a short antenna increases the antenna’s electrical
length, improves its resonance at the desired frequency, and
increases the antenna’s efficiency.

The radio waves used by AM radio have wavelengths of

about 300 m (about 1,000 ft). Most AM transmitter antennas are
built to a height of about 75 m (about 250 ft), which, in this case,
is the length of a quarter-wavelength. With a tower of this height,
an AM radio antenna will radiate radio waves most efficiently.
Since an antenna that is 75 meters tall would be impractical for a
portable AM radio receiver, AM radios use a special coil of wire
inside the radio for an antenna. The coil of wire is wrapped around
an iron-like magnetic material called a ferrite. When radio waves
come into contact with the coil of wire, they induce an electric
charge within the coil. The magnetic ferrite helps confine and
concentrate the electrical energy in the coil and aids in reception.

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 Television and FM radio use tall broadcast towers as well but
use much shorter wavelengths, corresponding to much higher
frequencies, than AM radio. Therefore, television and FM radio
waves have wavelengths of only about 3 m (about 10 ft). As a
result, the corresponding antennas are much shorter. Buildings
and other obstructions close to the ground can block these high-
frequency radio waves. Thus the towers are used to raise the
antennas above these obstructions in order to provide a greater
broadcasting range. Receiving antennas for television sets and FM
radios are small enough to be installed on these devices
themselves, but the antennas are often mounted high on rooftops
for better reception.

B. Shape
Antennas come in a wide variety of shapes. One of the
simplest types of antennas is called a dipole. A dipole is made of
two lengths of metal, each of which is attached to one of two
wires leading to a radio or other communications device. The two
lengths of metal are usually arranged end to end, with the cable
from the transmitter or receiver feeding each length of the dipole
in the middle. The dipoles can be adjusted to form a straight line
or a V-shape to enhance reception. Each length of metal in the
dipole is usually a quarter-wavelength long, so that the combined
length of the dipole from end to end is a half-wavelength. The
familiar “rabbit-ear” antenna on top of a television set is a dipole
antenna.

Another common antenna shape is the half-dipole or

monopole antenna, which uses a single quarter-wavelength piece
of metal connected to one of the twin wires from the transmitter
or receiver. The other wire is connected to a ground, or a point
that is not connected to the rest of the circuit. The casing of a
radio or cellular telephone is often used as a ground. The
telescoping antenna in a portable FM radio is a monopole. This
arrangement is not as efficient as using both ends of a dipole, but
a monopole is usually sufficient to pick up nearby FM signals.

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 Satellites and radar telescopes use microwave signals.
Microwaves have extremely high frequencies and, thus, very short
wavelengths (less than 30 cm). Microwaves travel in straight
lines, much like light waves do. Dish antennas are often used to
collect and focus microwave signals. The dish focuses the
microwaves and aims them at a receiver antenna in the middle of
the dish. Horn antennas are also used to focus microwaves for
transmission and reception.

C. Directivity
Directivity is an important quality of an antenna. It describes
how well an antenna concentrates, or bunches, radio waves in a
given direction. A dipole transmits or receives most of its energy
at right angles to the lengths of metal, while little energy is
transferred along them. If the dipole is mounted vertically, as is
common, it will radiate waves away from the center of the
antenna in all directions. However, for a commercial radio or
television station, a transmitting antenna is often designed to
concentrate the radiated energy in certain directions and
suppress it in others. For instance, several dipoles can be used
together if placed close to one another. Such an arrangement is
called a multiple-element antenna, which is also known as an
array. By properly arranging the separate elements and by
properly feeding signals to the elements, the broadcast waves
can be more efficiently concentrated toward an intended
audience, without, for example, wasting broadcast signals over
uninhabited areas.

The elements used in an array are usually all of the same

type. Some arrays have the ability to move, or scan, the main
beam in different directions. Such arrays are usually referred to as
scanning arrays.

Arrays are usually electrically large and have better

directivity than single element antennas. Since their directivity is
large, arrays can capture and deliver to the receiver a larger

9
amount of power. Two common arrays used for rooftop television
reception are the Yagi-Uda array and the log-periodic array.

A Yagi-Uda consists of one or more dipoles mounted on a

crossbar. The dipoles are of different lengths, corresponding to
the different frequencies used in broadcast television
transmission. Additional pieces of metal, which are called
directors and reflectors, are placed on the crossbar in front of and
behind the dipoles. Directors and reflectors are not wired into the
feed element of the antenna at all but merely reflect and
concentrate radio waves toward the directors. Yagi-Uda antennas
are highly directive, and receiving antennas of this type are often
mounted on rotating towers or bases, so that these antennas can
be turned toward the source of the desired transmission. Log-
periodic arrays look similar to Yagi-Uda arrays, but all of the
elements in a log-periodic array are active dipole elements of
different lengths. The dipoles are carefully spaced to provide
signal reception over a wide range of frequencies.

While the dipole, monopole, microwave dish, horn, Yagi-Uda,

and log-periodic are among the most common types of antennas,
many other designs also exist for communicating at different
frequencies. Submarines traveling underwater can receive coded
radio commands from shore by using extremely low frequency
(ELF) radio waves. In order to receive these signals, a submarine
unravels a very long wire antenna behind as it travels underwater.
Television camera crews broadcasting from locations outside the
studio use powerful microwave transmitter antennas, which can
send signals to satellites or directly to the television station.
Amateur, or “ham,” radio enthusiasts, who generally use
frequencies between those of AM and FM radio, often construct
their own antennas, customizing them for sending and receiving
signals at desired frequencies.

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION

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 When an RF signal voltage is
applied at some point on an
antenna, voltage and current
will result at that point.
Travelling waves are then
initiated, and standing waves
may be established, which
means that voltage and current
along the antenna are out of
phase.

The radiation pattern depends

chiefly on the antenna length
measured in wavelengths, its
power losses and the terminations at its end (if any). In addition,
the thickness of the antenna wire is of importance.

The figure below shows the voltage and current distribution

along a halfwave dipole. We can recognize the similarity to the
distribution of voltage and current on a section of quarter
wavelength transmission line open at far end.These voltage and
λ
current characteristics are duplicated every length along the
2
antenna.

ANTENNA PARAMETERS
There are several critical parameters that affect an
antenna's performance and can be adjusted during the design
process. These are resonant frequency, impedance, gain, aperture
or radiation pattern, polarization, efficiency and bandwidth.
Transmit antennas may also have a maximum power rating, and
receive antennas differ in their noise rejection properties.
A. Resonant frequency
The resonant frequency is related to the electrical length
of the antenna. The electrical length is usually the physical length
of the wire multiplied by the ratio of the speed of wave

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propagation in the wire. Typically an antenna is tuned for a
specific frequency, and is effective for a range of frequencies
usually centered on that resonant frequency. However, the other
properties of the antenna (especially radiation pattern and
impedance) change with frequency, so the antenna's resonant
frequency may merely be close to the center frequency of these
other more important properties.

Antennas can be made resonant on harmonic frequencies

with lengths that are fractions of the target wavelength. Some
antenna designs have multiple resonant frequencies, and some
are relatively effective over a very broad range of frequencies.
The most commonly known type of wide band aerial is the
logarithmic or log periodic, but its gain is usually much lower than
that of a specific or narrower band aerial.

B. Gain
In antenna design, gain is the
logarithm of the ratio of the intensity
of an antenna's radiation pattern in
the direction of strongest radiation to
that of a reference antenna. If the
reference antenna is an isotropic
antenna, the gain is often expressed
in units of dBi (decibels over
isotropic). For example, a dipole
antenna has a gain of 2.14 dBi [2].
Often, the dipole antenna is used as
the reference (since a perfect
isotropic reference is impossible to
build), in which case the gain of the antenna in question is
measured in dBd (decibels over dipole).

The gain of an antenna is a passive phenomena - power is

not added by the antenna, but simply redistributed to provide
more radiated power in a certain direction than would be
transmitted by an isotropic antenna. If an antenna has a positive
gain in some directions, it must have a negative gain in other

12
directions as energy is conserved by the antenna. The gain that
can be achieved by an Antenna is therefore trade-off between the
range of directions that must be covered by an Antenna and the
gain of the antenna. For example, a dish antenna on a spacecraft
has a very large gain, but only over a very small range of
directions - it must be accurately pointed at earth - but a radio
transmitter has a very small gain as it is required to radiate in all
directions.

For dish-type antennas, gain is proportional to the Aperture

(reflective area) and surface accuracy of the dish, as well as the
frequency being transmitted/received. In general, a larger
aperture provides a higher gain. Also, the higher the frequency,
the higher the gain, but surface inaccuracies lead to a larger
degradation of gain at higher frequencies.

Aperture, and radiation pattern are closely related to gain.

Aperture is the shape of the "beam" cross section in the

direction of highest gain, and is two-dimensional. (Sometimes
aperture is expressed as the radius of the circle that approximates
this cross section or the angle of the cone.)

Radiation pattern is the three-dimensional plot of the gain,

but usually only the two-dimensional horizontal and vertical cross
sections of the radiation pattern are considered. Antennas with
high gain typically show side lobes in the radiation pattern. Side
lobes are peaks in gain other than the main lobe (the "beam").
Side lobes detract from the antenna quality whenever the system
is being used to determine the direction of a signal, as in radar
systems and reduce gain in the main lobe by distributing the
power.

C. Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies
over which it is effective, usually centered around the resonant
frequency. The bandwidth of an antenna may be increased by

13
several techniques, including using thicker wires, replacing wires
with cages to simulate a thicker wire, tapering antenna
components (like in a feed horn), and combining multiple
antennas into a single assembly and allowing the natural
impedance to select the correct antenna. Small antennas are
usually preferred for convenience, but there is a fundamental limit
relating bandwidth, size and efficiency.

D. Impedance
Impedance is similar to refractive index in optics. As the
electric wave travels through the different parts of the antenna
system (radio, feed line, antenna, free space) it may encounter
differences in impedance. At each interface, some fraction of the
wave's energy will reflect back to the source, forming a standing
wave in the feed line. The ratio of maximum power to minimum
power in the wave can be measured and is called the standing
wave ratio (SWR). A SWR of 1:1 is ideal. A SWR of 1.5:1 is
considered to be marginally acceptable in low power applications
where power loss is more critical, although an SWR as high as 6:1
may still be usable with the right equipment. Minimizing
impedance differences at each interface (impedance matching)
will reduce SWR and maximize power transfer through each part
of the antenna system.

Complex impedance of an antenna is related to the electrical

length of the antenna at the wavelength in use. The impedance of
an antenna can be matched to the feed line and radio by
adjusting the impedance of the feed line, using the feed line as an
impedance transformer. More commonly, the impedance is
adjusted at the load (see below) with an antenna tuner, a balun, a
matching transformer, matching networks composed of inductors
and capacitors, or matching sections such as the gamma match.

E. Polarization
The polarization of an antenna or orientation of the radio
wave is determined by the electric field or E-plane. The

14
ionosphere changes the polarization of signals unpredictably, so
for signals which will be reflected by the ionosphere, polarization
is not crucial. However, for line-of-sight communications, it can
make a tremendous difference in signal quality to have the
transmitter and receiver using the same polarization. Polarizations
commonly considered are linear, such as vertical and horizontal,
and circular, which is divided into right-hand and left-hand
circular.

F.Efficiency
Efficiency is the ratio of power actually radiated to the
power put into the antenna terminals. A dummy load may have a
SWR of 1:1 but an efficiency of 0, as it absorbs all power and
radiates heat but not RF energy, showing that SWR alone is not
an effective measure of an antenna's efficiency. Radiation in an
antenna is caused by radiation resistance which can only be
measured as part of total resistance including loss resistance.
Loss resistance usually results in heat generation rather than
radiation, and therefore, reduces efficency.

15
 Types of
Antenna

Types of Antenna
• Parabolic
The Parabolic antenna is a
high-gain, reflector antenna used

16
for radio, television and data communications, and also for
radiolocation (RADAR), on the UHF and SHF frequencies. The
relatively short wavelength of electromagnetic (radio) energy at
these frequencies allows reasonably sized reflectors to exhibit the
very desirable highly directional response for both receiving and
transmitting.

A typical parabolic antenna consists of a parabolic reflector

illuminated by a small feed antenna.

The reflector is a metallic surface formed into a paraboloid of

revolution and (usually) truncated in a circular rim that forms the
diameter of the antenna. This paraboloid possesses a distinct
focal point by virtue of having the reflective property of parabolas
in that a point light source at this focus produces a parallel light
beam aligned with the axis of revolution.

The feed antenna is placed at the reflector focus. This

antenna is typically a low-gain type such as a half-wave dipole or
a small waveguide horn. In more complex designs, such as the
Cassegrain antenna, a sub-reflector is used to direct the energy
into the parabolic reflector from a feed antenna located away
from the primary focal point. The feed antenna is connected to
the associated radio-frequency (RF) transmitting or receiving
equipment by means of a coaxial cable transmission line or
hollow waveguide.

Considering the parabolic antenna as a circular aperture

gives the following approximation for the maximum gain:

or

where:

is power gain over isotropic

is reflector diameter in wavelengths

17
 Practical considerations of antenna effective area and
sidelobe suppression reduce the actual gain obtained to between
35 and 55 percent of this theoretical value.

Applying the formula to just one of the 25-meter-diameter

VLA antennas shown in the illustration for a wavelength of 21 cm
(1.42 GHz, a common radio astronomy frequency) yields an
approximate maximum gain of 140,000 times or about 50 dBi
(decibels above the isotropic level).

With the advent of TVRO and DBS satellite television, the

parabolic antenna became an ubiquitous feature of urban,
suburban, and even rural, landscapes. Extensive terrestrial
microwave links, such as those between cellphone base stations,
and wireless WAN/LAN applications have also proliferated this
antenna type. Earlier applications included ground-based and
airborne radar and radio astronomy. The largest "dish" antenna in
the world is the radio telescope at Arecibo, PR, but, for beam-
steering reasons, it is actually a spherical, rather than parabolic,
reflector.

• Omnidirectional
An omnidirectional antenna is an antenna system which
radiates power uniformly in all directions.

The only 3 dimensional omnidirectional antenna is the

isotropic antenna, a theoretical construct derived from actual
antenna radiation patterns and used as a reference for specifying
antenna gain and radio system effective radiated power.

Practical antennas approach omnidirectionality by providing

uniform radiation or response only in one reference plane, usually
the horizontal one parallel to the earth's surface.

Common omnidirectional antennas are the whip antenna, a

vertically oriented dipole antenna, the discone antenna, and the
horizontal loop antenna.

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 • Whip
A whip antenna is the most common example of a
monopole antenna, an antenna with a single driven element and
a ground plane.

The whip antenna is a stiff but flexible wire mounted, usually

vertically, with one end adjacent to a ground plane. The whip
antenna can also be called a half-dipole antenna, and as such, has
a toroidal radiation pattern where the axis of the toroid centers
about the whip. The length of the whip determines its wavelength,
although it may be shortened with a loading coil anywhere along
the antenna. Whips are generally a fraction of their actual
operating wavelength, with half-wave and quarter-wave whips
being very common. These antennas are widely used, especially
for mobile applications and hand-held radios. They are usually
attached to a vehicle and designed to be
flexible, so that they don't break when
struck; their name is derived from their
whip-like motion when disturbed.

Being vertically mounted causes the

whip antenna to have vertical polarization.
Whips are thought of as omnidirectional,
because they radiate equally in all
directions in a horizontal plane, although
they have a conical blind zone directly
above them.

• Discone
A discone antenna is a
version of a biconical antenna where
one of the cones is replaced by a
disc. It is usually mounted in vertical
orientation, with the disc at the top

19
and the cone under it. It may be made of solid metal sheets,
which is practical for small indoor high-frequency antennas, such
as for Wi-Fi, or of discrete metal elements assembled to a "star" at
the top and a cone of beams going down from the star's center,
which makes it less vulnerable to wind. The cone and the disc are
separated by an insulator.

A discone antenna is omnidirectional, vertically polarized

and wideband—allowing frequency ranges of up to 10:1, and its
radiation pattern in the horizontal plane is quite narrow, making
its sensitivity highest in the plane parallel to the Earth. It is
suitable for a wide range of applications, from amateur radio to
various commercial and military uses. While it can be used for
transmitting, its wideband characteristics make it more likely to
transmit undesired spurious frequencies, and it is less efficient
than some other designs.

The discone antenna has three components: the disc, the

cone, and the insulator. Each of them determines the antenna's
parameters.

The disc elements should have an overall length of 0.7 times

a quarter wavelength of the antenna's minimum frequency.

The insulator keeps the disk and the cone a fixed distance
apart. This distance determines part of the antenna's properties.
It should he about a quarter of the diameter of the top of the
cone, which is usually about 3 mm.The antenna's feed point is in
the center of the disc.

The number of the elements is usually not critical. Often as

few as six are used, though the simulation of the electrically
complete disk and cone gets more accurate with increasing
number of elements. The result is usually a compromise between
cost, performance, and resistance to wind.

• Dipole

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 A dipole antenna, invented by Heinrich Rudolph Hertz
around 1886, is an antenna with a center-fed driven element for
transmitting or receiving radio frequency energy. These antennas
are the simplest practical antennas from a theoretical point of
view.

DIPOLE CHARACTERISTICS

Frequency versus length

Dipoles that are much smaller than the wavelength of the
signal are called Hertzian dipoles. These have a low radiation
resistance and a high reactance, making them inefficient, but
they are often the only available antennas at very long
wavelengths. Dipoles whose length is half the wavelength of the
signal are called half-wave dipoles, and are more efficient. In
general radio engineering, the term dipole usually means a half-
wave dipole.

A half-wave dipole is cut to length according to the formula l

= 468 / f, where l is the length in feet and f is the center
frequency in MHz [1]. The metric formula is l = 143 / f, where l is
the length in meters. The length of the dipole antenna is about
80% of half a wavelength at the speed of light in free space. This
is because the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves
in wire is slower than that in free space.

21
 Radiation pattern and gain
A dipole's radiation pattern
Dipoles have a toroidal (doughnut-shaped) reception and
radiation pattern where the axis of the toroid centers about the
dipole. The theoretical maximum gain of a Hertzian dipole is 10
log 1.5 or 1.76 dBi. The maximum theoretical gain of a λ/2-dipole
is 10 log 1.64 or 2.15 dBi.

Feeder line

Ideally, a dipole should be fed with a balanced line matching

the theoretical 73 ohm impedance of the antenna. A folded dipole
uses a 300 ohm balanced feeder line.

Many people have had success in feeding a dipole directly

with a coaxial cable feed rather than a ladder-line. However, coax
is not symmetrical and thus not a balanced feeder. It is
unbalanced, because the outer shield is connected to earth
potential at the other end. When a balanced antenna such as a

22
dipole is fed with an unbalanced feeder, common mode currents
can cause the coax line to radiate in addition to the antenna
itself, and the radiation pattern may be asymmetrically distorted.
This can be remedied with the use of a balun.

APPLICATIONS
Common applications of dipole antennas

Set-top TV antenna
The most common dipole antenna is the "rabbit ears" type used
with televisions. While theoretically the dipole elements should be
along the same line, "rabbit ears" are adjustable in length and
angle. Larger dipoles are sometimes hung in a V shape with the
center near the radio equipment on the ground or the ends on the
ground with the center supported. Shorter dipoles can be hung
vertically.

Folded dipole

Another common place one can see dipoles is as antennas for the
FM band - these are folded dipoles. The tips of the antenna are
folded back until they almost meet at the feedpoint, such that the
antenna comprises one entire wavelength. The main advantage of
this arrangement is an improved bandwidth over a standard half-
wave dipole.

Shortwave antenna
Dipoles for longer wavelengths are made from solid or stranded
wire. Portable dipole antennas are made from wire that can be
rolled up when not in use. Ropes with weights on the ends can be
thrown over supports such as tree branches and then used to
hoist up the antenna. The center and the connecting cable can be
hoisted up with the ends on the ground or the ends hoisted up
between two supports in a V shape. While permanent antennas

23
can be trimmed to the proper length, it is helpful if portable
antennas are adjustable to allow for local conditions when moved.

It is important to fit a good insulator at the ends of the

dipole, as failure to do so can lead to a flashover if the dipole is
used with a transmitter. One cheap insulator is the plastic carrier
that holds a pack of beer cans together. This beer can insulator is
an example of how a household object can be used in place of an
expensive object sold for use as an item of radio equipment.
Other objects that can be used as insulators include buttons from
old clothing.

DIPOLE TYPES
Ideal half-wavelength dipole

This type of antenna is a special case where each wire is

exactly one-quarter of the wavelength, for a total of a half
wavelength. The terminal impedance is about 73 ohms if wire
diameter is ignored.

If the dipole is not driven at the centre then the feed point
resistance will be higher. If the feed point is distance x from one
end of a half wave (λ/2) dipole, the resistance will be described by
the following equation.

Rx = 75 / sin2(2πx / λ)

If taken to the extreme then the feed point resistance of a

λ/2 long rod is infinite, but it is possible to use a λ/2 pole as an
aerial; the right way to drive it is to connect it to one terminal of a
parallel LC resonant circuit. The other side of the circuit must be
connected to the braid of a coaxial cable lead and the core of the
coaxial cable can be connected part way up the coil from the RF
ground side. An alternative means of feeding this system is to use
a second coil which is magnetically coupled to the coil attached to
the aerial.

Folded dipole

24
 A folded dipole is a dipole where an additional wire (λ/2) links
the two ends of the (λ/2) half wave dipole. The folded dipole works
in the same way as a normal dipole, but the radiation resistance
is about 300 ohms rather than the 75 ohms which is expected for
a normal dipole. The increase in radiation resistance allows the
antenna to be driven from a 300 ohm balanced line.

Infinitesimal dipole

The length of this antenna is significantly smaller than the

wavelength:

The radiation resistance is given by:

The radiation resistance is typically a fraction of an ohm,

making the infinitesimal dipole an inefficient radiator. In the far
field, the maximum directive gain is 1.5. The maximum effective
aperture is:

A surprising result is that even though the infinitesimal

dipole is minute, its effective aperture is comparable to antennas
many times its size.

Dipole as a reference standard

Antenna gain is sometimes measured as "x dB above a
dipole", which means that the antenna in question is being
compared to a dipole, and has x dB more gain (has more
directivity) than the dipole tuned to the same operating

25
frequency. More often, gains are expressed relative to an isotropic
radiator, which is an imaginary aerial that radiates equally in all
directions. As it is impossible to build an isotropic radiator, gain
measurements expressed relative to a dipole are more practical
when a reference dipole aerial is used for experimental
measurements.

A dipole antenna cut from an infinitely large sheet of metal,

with sufficient thickness, is complementary to the slot antenna,
both giving the same radiation pattern.

Dipole with baluns

Coax acting as a radiator instead of the antenna.

When a dipole is used both to transmit and to receive, the

characteristics of the feedline become much more important.
Specifically, the antenna must be balanced with the feedline.
Failure to do this causes the feedline, in addition to the antenna
itself, to radiate. RF can be induced into other electronic
equipment near the radiating feedline, causing RF interference.
Furthermore, the antenna is not as efficient as it could be because
it is radiating closer to the ground and its radiation (and
reception) pattern may be distorted asymmetrically. At higher
frequencies, where the length of the dipole becomes significantly
shorter than the diameter of the feeder coax, this becomes a

26
more significant problem. One solution to this problem is to use a
balun.

Several type of baluns are commonly used to transmit on a

dipole: current baluns and coax baluns.

Current balun

Dipole with a current balun.

A current balun is a bit more expensive but has the characteristic

of being more broadband.

Coax balun Sleeve

balun

• Magnetic Loop

27
 Magnetic loop antennas (also known as Small
Transmitting/Receiving Loops) have a small antenna size
compared to other antennas for the same wavelength. The
antenna is typically smaller than 1/4 wavelength of the intended
frequency of operation. Antennas for shortwave communication
are normally very large sometimes covering hundreds of feet or
meters in length. The advantage of the magnetic loop is that with
its small size it maintains very high efficiency levels.

The technical mechanism is

to use a capacitor to "enlarge"
the antenna and bring it to
resonance. The disadvantage of
this method is the low bandwidth
of the antenna, also known as
"high Q". However, a "high Q"
antenna also has advantages as
well. In reception: Since
Magnetic Loop antennas only function within a narrow range of
frequency when tuned, they reject harmonic noise from other
radio sources. This rejection of interfering noise from other
harmonically related frequencies keeps the noise level down
compared to other antennas like the common 1/4 wave vertical
antenna.

As a result of the narrow operating bandwidth of the

antenna, if the frequency of operation is changed, the antenna
needs to be retuned by changing the capacitive value of the
antenna. Bandwidth is the usable frequency range of an antenna
in relation to the area of desired operation. When the antenna is
operated outside of its bandwidth, the energy from the
transmitter is reflected back from the antenna, down through the
feedline back to the transmitter. The term bandwidth relates to
the concept of Standing Wave Ratio or SWR. When the reflected
power exceeds a 2.5:1 power reflection ratio (too much energy
being reflected from the antenna back into the feedline) the
antenna will not maintain its performance characteristics. This
type of condition relates specifically to the antenna's ability to
transmit radio energy from the transmitter to the antenna.

28
 The magnetic loop antenna is an old antenna, however,
many military, commercial, and ham radio operators still use
them today. The Magnetic Loop was widely used in the Vietnam
War due to its high portability.

• Helical Antenna
A helical antenna is an
antenna consisting of a
conducting wire wound in the
form of a helix. In most cases,
helical antennas are mounted
over a ground plane. Helical
antennas can operate in one
of two principal modes:
normal (broadside) mode or
axial (or endfire) mode.

In the normal mode, the dimensions of the helix are small

compared with the wavelength. The far field radiation pattern is
similar to an electrically short dipole or monopole. These
antennas tend to be inefficient radiators and are typically used for
mobile communications where reduced size is a critical factor.
In the axial mode, the antenna produces true circular
polarization. These antennas are best suited for space
communication, where the orientation of the sender and receiver
cannot be easily controlled, or where the polarization of the signal
may change.

Helical antennas can have either a clockwise (right-handed)

or counter-clockwise (left-handed) polarization. Helical antennas
can receive signals with any type of polarization, such as
horizontal or vertical polarization, but clockwise polarized
antennas suffer a severe gain loss when receiving counter-
clockwise signals, and vice versa.

Helical antennas are made of a single driven element which

is coiled in a spiral, or helix. The direction of the coil determines

29
its polarization, while the space between the coils and the
diameter of the coils determine its wavelength. The length of the
coil determines how directional the antenna will be and its gain;
longer antennas will be more sensitive in the direction in which
they point. A reflector is almost always used to increase the
sensitivity, or gain, in one direction (away from the reflector).

Terminal impedance in axial mode ranges between 100 and

200 Ω. The resistive part is approximated by:

where R is resistance in ohms, C is the circumference of the helix,

and λ is the wavelength.

The maximum directive gain is approximately:

where N is the number of turns and S is the spacing between

turns.

• Horn Antenna
A horn antenna is used for
the transmission and reception
of microwave signals. It derives
its name from the characteristic
flared appearance. The flared
portion can be square,
rectangular, or conical. The
maximum radiation and
response corresponds with the
axis of the horn. In this respect, the antenna resembles an
acoustic horn. It is usually fed with a waveguide.

In order to function properly, a horn antenna must be a

certain minimum size relative to the wavelength of the incoming

30
or outgoing electromagnetic field. If the horn is too small or the
wavelength is too large (the frequency is too low), the antenna
will not work efficiently.

Horn antennas are commonly used as the active element in

a dish antenna. The horn is pointed toward the center of the dish
reflector. The use of a horn, rather than a dipole antenna or any
other type of antenna, at the focal point of the dish minimizes loss
of energy (leakage) around the edges of the dish reflector. It also
minimizes the response of the antenna to unwanted signals not in
the favored direction of the dish.

Horn antennas are used all by themselves in short-range

radar systems, particularly those used by law-enforcement
personnel to measure the speeds of approaching or retreating
vehicles.

• Microstrip
In telecommunication,
There are several types of
microstrip antennas (also
known as a printed antennas)
the most common of which is
the microstrip patch antenna
or patch antenna. A patch
antenna is a narrowband, wide-
beam antenna fabricated by
etching the antenna element
pattern in metal trace bonded to
an insulating substrate. Because
such antennas have a very low profile, are mechanically rugged
and can be conformable, they are often mounted on the exterior
of aircraft and spacecraft, or are incorporated into mobile radio
communications devices.

Microstrip antennas are also relatively inexpensive to

manufacture and design because of the simple 2-dimensional
physical geometry. They are usually employed at UHF and higher

31
frequencies because the size of the antenna is directly tied to the
wavelength at the resonant frequency.

• Rhombic Antenna
A rhombic antenna is a broadband directional antenna,
mostly used in HF (high frequency, also called shortwave) ranges.

It is named after its "rhombic" diamond shape, with each

side typically being of wavelength size. Each vertex is supported
by a pole, several meters tall. It is fed at one of the sharp angles
through a balun transformer, and is terminated at the opposite
sharp angle with a non-inductive resistor. It is directional toward
the resistor end, so it "points" toward the region of the world it is
designed to serve.

Rhombic antenna signal-gathering action compared to other

end-fire, backfire and traveling-wave types.

The rhombic antenna can radiate

close to the horizon or at a higher angle
depending on its length, width, and height
relative to the operating frequency.
Likewise, its beam can be narrow or
broad. A proper combination of size,
height, and operating frequency make it
fit for short- medium- or long-range
communication.

Due to its considerable size, it is not

very practical as the sole antenna of a
radio station if operating conditions are expected to change
rapidly. Moreover, it plainly requires a lot of land - especially if
several must be combined to serve a variety of geographic
targets at different distance ranges and on widely different
frequencies.

On the other hand, it is one of the best options for

predictable point-to-point circuits. Its very size gives it a degree of

32
gain, and allows it to capture energy from a wide area, thus
making it a little less susceptible to sharply localized fading than
smaller antennas.

• Slot Antenna
A slot antenna consists of a
metal surface, usually a flat plate, with
a hole or slot cut out. When the plate is
driven as an antenna by a driving
frequency, the slot radiates
electromagnetic waves in similar way
to a dipole antenna. The shape and
size of the slot, as well as the driving
frequency, determine the radiation
distribution pattern. Slot antennas are
often used instead of line antennas
when greater control of the radiation
pattern is required. Slot antennas are
often found in standard desktop microwave sources used for
research purposes.

• Yagi – Uda Antenna

A Yagi antenna has several elements arranged in echelon.
They are connected together by a long element, called the
boom. The boom carries no current. If the boom is an
insulator, the antenna works the same.

33
 The rear-most element is called the reflector. The next
element is called the driven element. All the remaining
elements are called directors. The directors are about 5%
shorter than the driven element. The reflector is about 5% longer
than the driven element. The driven element is usually a folded
dipole or a loop. It is the only element connected to the cable.
Yet the other elements carry almost as much current.

The Yagi is the most magical of all antennas. No attempt will

be made here to explain why it works. The more directors you
add, the higher the gain becomes. Gains above 20 dBi are
possible. But the Yagi is a narrowband antenna, often intended
for a single frequency. As frequency increases above the design
frequency, the gain declines abruptly. Below the design
frequency, the gain falls off more gradually. When a Yagi is to
cover a band of frequencies, it must be designed for the highest
frequency of the band.

An antenna has an aperture area, from which it captures all

incoming radiation. The aperture of a Yagi is round and its area is
proportional to the gain. As the leading elements absorb power,
diffraction bends the adjacent rays in toward the antenna.

34
 The formula for the
aperture area of any TV
antenna is A=Gλ 2/4π where
λ is the wavelength and G is
the gain factor over an
isotropic antenna (not dB).

The bandwidth of a Yagi

can be increased by sizing the reflector for the lowest frequency
of the band while sizing the directors for the highest. But this
decreases the best gain of the antenna. (It is said that the gain-
bandwidth product remains the same.) A better way to increase
the bandwidth is to replace the reflector element with a corner-
reflector assembly.

This boosts the performance on the lower numbered channels

without hurting the high channels. Although the Yagi/Corner-
Reflector might not be the best antenna, it is the most common
UHF TV antenna, mainly because it can be mounted on the front
of a VHF antenna without degrading the VHF antenna.

A UHF Yagi today is designed for channel 69. If you see an old
Yagi, it might be intended for channel 82. In the future they will
be cut for channel 51. It is not possible to tell by looking at a Yagi
which era it belongs to, so be careful.

The Yagi antenna or more correctly, the Yagi - Uda antenna

was developed by Japanese scientists in the 1930's. It consists of
a half wave dipole (sometimes a folded one, sometimes not), a
rear "reflector" and may or may not have one or more forward
"directors". These are collectively referred to as the "elements".

35
 The Yagi antenna

This particular antenna has been optimized for dual band

operation. It is designed to pick up both VHF and UHF
transmissions. Because I live in a regional of NSW in Australia, TV
antennas tend to be single channel types designed either for
higher gain or better directivity. Different examples will be
presented later.

A practical Yagi TV antenna

Looking from left to right

on this dual band Yagi we
have six UHF "director"
elements which improve gain
and directivity. Next is the
UHF half wave dipole which
could have easily been a
folded dipole but is in fact a plain half wave dipole.

The next three much longer elements form a "phased array" for
the VHF band. I am unsure of the function of the three remaining
smaller elements, information is quite scant here but one would
certainly be a UHF "reflector". Likely the other two also fulfill this
function also.

Note: This is a horizontally polarised antenna and is orientated

roughly NNW, 315 degrees.

36
 You will notice the effect of very strong storms from the sea
have had in bending the second larger elements. In my locality
storms are a problem but not as much as roosting parrots such as
large sulphur crested cockatoos.

Comparing a Yagi/Corner-
Reflector to an 8-Dipole-
Reflector

The graph above shows the gain functions for four TV antennas:
• Plot A is the Channel Master 4228 8-Bay, a stacked dipole
reflector antenna.
• Plot B is the Channel Master 4248, a Yagi/Corner-Reflector.
• Plot C is the 4248 with all of its directors removed, making it a
pure corner reflector antenna.
• Plot D is the 4248 with its corner reflector removed and
replaced by a single reflector element, making it a standard

37
 Yagi. The D2 plot shows the backward gain where this exceeds
the forward gain.

The point of this graph is that a Yagi/Corner-Reflector

performs like a Yagi for the high numbered channels and a corner
reflector for the low numbered channels. For the middle channels
it outperforms the sum of the two types.

Radiation patterns

As you can see, the 8-Bay is a very directional antenna. If

miss-aimed by 5° you can lose 1 dB of signal. If the horizon is
more than 5° above horizontal, you should tilt the antenna up to
point at the horizon.

38
 The overhead view shows nulls at 30° and 90° to both sides.
These can be used to eliminate multi-path (ghosts) or
interference. You simply rotate the antenna until the offending
signal is in one of the nulls.

A Yagi also has some forward nulls that can be used as ghost
killers. But a Yagi/Corner-Reflector acts more like a corner
reflector for most channels, and has no nulls. At channel 60 you
can finally see the Yagi pattern start to emerge.

39
 • Log – Periodic Antenna
In telecommunication, a log-periodic antenna (LP, also
known as a log-periodic array) is a broadband, multielement,
unidirectional, narrow-beam antenna that has impedance and
radiation characteristics that are regularly repetitive as a
logarithmic function of the excitation frequency. The individual
components are often dipoles, as in a log-periodic dipole array
(LPDA).

It is normal to drive alternating elements with a circa 180o (π

radian) phase shift from the last element. This is normally done by
wiring the elements alternatingly to the two wires in a balanced
transmission line.

The length and spacing of the elements of a log-periodic

antenna increase logarithmically from one end to the other.

Sample Problems
1. A half-wave dipole antenna is capable of radiating 1 kW and
has a 2.15 dB gain over an isotropic antenna. How much power

40
 must be delivered to the isotropic (omnidirectional) antenna, to
match the filed strength directional antenna?

SOLUTION:
P2
A( dB ) = 10 log10
P1
P2
2.15 = 10 log10
1000
 P 
10 0.215 =  2 
 1000 
 P 
1.64 =  2 
 1000 
P2 = 1640 W

2. Calculate the beamwidth between nulls of a 2 m paraboloid

reflectror used at 6GHz.

Note: Such reflectors are often used at that frequency as

antennas in outside broadcast television microwave links.

SOLUTION:
70λ
φO = (but, the problem involves 2 paraboloid antenna, thus this equation becomes
D
70λ 0.05
φO = 2 x = 140 x
D 2
φ O = 3.5 O

41
 Design
Proper

Theory of Operation

42
Basics
A transmitting antenna takes waves that are generated by
electrical signals inside a device such as a radio and converts
them to waves that travel in an open space. The waves that are
generated by the electrical signals inside radios and other devices
are known as guided waves, since they travel through
transmission lines such as wires or cables. The waves that travel
in an open space are usually referred to as free-space waves,
since they travel through the air or outer space without the need
for a transmission line. A receiving antenna takes free-space
waves and converts them to guided waves.

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation, a form

of rapidly changing, or oscillating, energy. Radio waves have two
related properties known as frequency and wavelength.
Frequency refers to the number of times per second that a wave
oscillates, or varies in strength. The wavelength is equal to the
speed of a wave (the speed of light, or 300 million m/sec) divided
by the frequency. Low-frequency radio waves have long
wavelengths (measured in hundreds of meters), whereas high-
frequency radio waves have short wavelengths (measured in
centimeters).

An antenna can radiate radio waves into free space from a

transmitter, or it can receive radio waves and guide them to a
receiver, where they are reconstructed into the original message.
For example, in sending an AM radio transmission, the radio first
generates a carrier wave of energy at a particular frequency. The
carrier wave is modified to carry a message, such as music or a
person’s voice. The modified radio waves then travel along a
transmission line within the radio, such as a wire or cable, to the
antenna. The transmission line is often known as a feed element.
When the waves reach the antenna, they oscillate along the
length of the antenna and back. Each oscillation pushes
electromagnetic energy from the antenna, emitting the energy
through free space as radio waves.

43
 The antenna on a radio receiver behaves in much the same
way. As radio waves traveling through free space reach the
receiver’s antenna, they set up, or induce, a weak electric current
within the antenna. The current pushes the oscillating energy of
the radio waves along the antenna, which is connected to the
radio receiver by a transmission line. The radio receiver amplifies
the radio waves and sends them to a loudspeaker, reproducing
the original message.

The Log-Periodic Antenna

One of the major drawbacks with many antennas is that they
have a relatively small bandwidth. This is particularly true of the
Yagi-Uda antenna. However, in 1957, a new antenna design, the
log-periodic type antenna, a better way of reception and
transmission was obtained. The log periodic antenna is used in
a number of applications where a wide bandwidth is required
along with directivity and a modest level of gain. It is sometimes
used on the HF portion of the spectrum where operation is
required on a number of frequencies to enable communication to
be maintained. The main feature of this antenna is its frequency
independence for both radiations resistance and pattern.

Why choose Log-Periodic?

A special case of a driven array antenna, log periodic, offers

reasonably good gain over an extremely wide range of
frequencies. It is also highly directional. This is an advantage
against a Yagi type or other array because log-periodic provides a
very wide bandwidth. Most Yagis and other driven arrays are
designed for a very specific frequency or a narrow band of

44
frequency. For the log periodic type, one can design in a greater
frequency band, the reason why it is useful for multiband
transceiver operation and as a TV receiving unit to cover the
entire VHF and UHF bands. There are many types of log-periodic
antenna. For this design, a log-periodic dipole type was
implemented because it provides between 4 and 6 dB gain over a
bandwidth of 2:1 while retaining an SWR level of better than
1.3:1. With this level of performance it is ideal for many
applications, although a log periodic antenna will be much larger
than a Yagi that will produce equivalent gain. However the Yagi is
unable to operate over such a wide bandwidth.

Design Computation
The group decided to use a frequency range of 100MHz –
500MHz. The antenna, which is of a dipole array type of log
periodic antenna, was design with such frequency to ensure
signal reception from the very high frequency’s (VHF) low-band,
high band and at the ultra high frequency range (UHF). The
summary of the computations used in the design of the log-
periodic dipole array antenna is as follows:

Frequency range: 100MHz – 500MHz

Design factor: 0.7

λ 3 x 10 8 m/s 3m
Longest element: = 6
= = 1.5m
2 100 x 10 Hz 2

45
 λ 3 x 10 8 m/s 0.6m
Limiting factor of element: = 6
= = 0.3m
2 500 x 10 Hz 2

L1 = 1.5m
L2 = τ x L1 = 0.7(1.5) = 1.05m
L3 = τ x L2 = 0.7(1.05) = 0.735m
L4 = τ x L3 = 0.7( 0.735) = 0.5145m
L5 = τ x L4 = 0.7( 0.5145) = 0.36015m

Distance from the longest element to the next longer element:

3 x 10 8 m / s
D1 = 0.09λ = = 0.27 m
100 x 10 6 Hz

D1 = 0.27m
D2 = 0.7( 0.27 ) = 0.189m
D3 = 0.7( 0.189) = 0.1323m
D4 = 0.7( 0.1323) = 0.09261m

Construction Procedure
Materials
antenna element
square boom
wire
element holder
screws
clam
element cover
impedance matching device(matching transformer)
boom cover

46
Procedure
1. Prepare all the materials for the antenna construction.
2. Cut the antenna element according to the computed length
as governed by the designed frequency range.
3. Measure the appropriate distances of each element on the
antenna boom with reference to your calculations.
4. Mark the measured distances, cut the boom into the desired
length, and then bore holes according to the markings.
5. Place the element holder on the antenna boom length, and
screw it in place.
6. Screw the antenna elements to its holder.
7. Connect each dipole element through wires.
8. Place the element and boom cover.
9. Test the antenna for reception.

Applications
Like those of the rhombic, the applications of log-periodic
antenna lie mainly in the filed of high-frequency communications,
where such multiband steerable and fixed antenna are very often.
It has an advantage over the rhombic in that there is no
terminating resistor to absorb power. Antennas of this type have
also been designed for use in television signal reception, with one
antenna for all channels including those of the UHF range. As a
matter of fact, most TV antennas in use today are the log-periodic
variety so that they can provide high gain and directivity for both
VHF and UHF TV channels. Log-periodic antennas are also used in

47
other two-way communications systems where multiple
frequencies must be covered.

Cost Analysis

UNIT PRICE
MATERIAL QUANTITY TOTAL (Php)
(Php)
Boom 1 60 60
Antenna
3 25 75
element
Boom cover 2 1.50 3
Element
10 0.25 2.50
cover
10(small), 0.50(small),
Screws 10
5(big) 1(big)
Element
5 8 40
Holder
Clam 1 20 20
Coaxial cable 4 meters 9 36
Balun 1 35 35
Total
281.50

48
Conclusion
and
Recommen
dation

49
Conclusion
After careful analysis and study, the group obtained with the
designed and constructed antenna, the group was able to
conclude that the design of a Log-Periodic dipole array antenna is
a good antenna design to consider for television (TV) signal
reception. With a log-periodic design, one can obtain TV signal of
all channels included in the very high frequency (VHF) and the
ultra high frequency (UHF) band, without suffering video and
audio quality. Less noise and ghosting is attained by properly
tuning and directing the antenna to the direction of highest
reception by installing in an appropriate location and height. It
should be noted here that the main beam of the antenna is
coming from the smaller front element as in the figure below.

With the above mentioned findings, the group was able to

prove the theoretical principle of a log-periodic antenna – its
superiority in reception of VHF and UHF signals against other
driven array antenna types like the famous Yagi-Uda antenna.

50
Recommendation
The conclusion of the group had made its based only on the
direct observation from the TV signals received as pictured in a
television monitor. It is therefore recommended that for a more
specific, detailed, and accurate facts to support the log-periodic
antenna’s efficiency, testing through computer software
simulations should be implemented. With this method, numerical
data and precise evaluation of the antennas behavior will be
obtained – its beam width, directivity, its exact gain, and even the
effects of external conditions such as the prevailing
climate/weather sate.

51