11.11 Hydraulic Power

Aerodyn.
, Structures, Systems
MIAT Module 11 Hydraulic Power (ATA 29)
11.11.1 - HO - 1
Hydraulic Power (ATA 29)
Introduction to Hydraulics
Hydraulics can be used in many areas of engineering and for many applications.
Amongst others, the main ones are:
V to operate manufacturing machinery
V to operate aircraft systems
V to operate vehicle systems
V to operate particular ship machinery.
Like any system, hydraulics has advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:
V Ease of control
V Transmission of large forces and power using small units
V High torque from rest of motors and cylinders
V Self lubricating
V Long service life.
Disadvantages:
V High pressures involve risk of accident.
V Fluid friction reduces efficiency.
Hydraulics is quite similar to pneumatics, the difference is in the method of energy

transfer.
When compared to pneumatic systems the main disadvantages of hydraulic systems

are:
V Oil released from the working component cannot be exhausted to the atmos-
phere and must be returned to the reservoir.
V Leakage can cause problems, such as fluid loss. Therefore facilities must be
available to catch the fluid and return it to the oil reservoir.
Physical Properties and Laws of Hydraulic Fluids
Figure 1 illustrates a hydraulic press, also called ’Bramah press’ (according to

Joseph Bramah [1748 1814], an English inventor).
The figure shows the relationship between force F, pressure p and area A as follows:
V For a given force F, the smaller the area A it acts upon, the greater the pres-
sure p produced.
V For a given pressure p, the larger the area under pressure, the greater the
force F produced.
It can be seen that a small weight over a small area can support a large weight over
a large area.
Aerodyn., Structures, Systems
11.11.1 - HO - 2
By using the following formula the values of pressure, force and area can be
calculated:
p = F
A
F = p ⋅A
F
A = p.
Hydraulic Transmission of Forces
The pressure is uniform at any point in the system, so the following equations can be
obtained:
Ratio of Areas and Forces
The ratio of piston areas is the same as the ratio of forces. If area A2 is twice the
area A1 the force will also increase by a factor of 2.
A2 F2
=
A1 F1
Refer to Figure 2.
The principle of the hydraulic press is based on this formula. An available pressure
can produce a greater force by increasing the working piston area (’force multiplier’).
Operation of the Hydraulic Press
The lever L operates the rod R causing a force on piston A1 which pressurises the
hydraulic fluid in the press.
This pressure acts on the larger working piston A2, which exerts a force on the
workpiece.
Several strokes of piston A1 will continue to raise the pressure and exert a higher
force on the workpiece.
Check valve C1 prevents fluid from returning to the tank.
Check valve C2 prevents fluid from returning to A1 chamber.
The shut off valve allows fluid/pressure to be released (bled) from the workpiece
back to the tank.
Ratio of Pressure
The inverse system of the hydraulic press is a pressure multiplier.

Refer to Figure 3.
2 pistons of different surface area are connected by a rod. Force F1 acts upon the
large piston with its area A1. This force is transmitted to the small piston by the piston
rod and acts on the small piston of area A2. This means that pressure p2 is greater
than pressure p1.
11.11.1 - HO - 3
Explanation by formula:
F = p ⋅ A.
As the applied force is constant (F1 = F2), the following calculation applies:
F = p1 ⋅ A1 = p2 ⋅ A 2
or:
p1 A2
p2 = A .
1
Hydrodynamics
Hydrodynamics is the science of forces acting on or produced by fluids.
Refer to Figure 4.
An equal amount of fluid (volume) flows in the same time period through a pipe with
3 different cross sections (A1, A2, A3). Consequently the fluid velocity (v) must
change, with each change of the cross section (detail a)).
The volume flow rate Q in the pipe is determined by the fluid volume V in liters (l) per
unit time (t) in seconds (s).
V l
Q = in s .
t
The volume may be calculated by means of area A and length s:
V = A ⋅ s
V
A
B 9825
Now determining Q:
B 9825
11.11.1 - HO - 4
Length per time t is velocity v. Thus the flow rate Q also equals the pipe cross sec-
tional area multiplied by the velocity of the fluid:
Q = A ⋅v
B 9825
v
Since the flow rates Q1 and Q2 in a pipe with 2 different cross sections A1 and A2
are identical, the velocities must alter accordingly (detail b)):
Q1 = Q2
Q1 = A1 ⋅ v 1
Q2 = A2 ⋅ v 2
A1 ⋅ v1 = A2 ⋅ v2 .
This equation is called the ’continuity equation’.
Friction and Flow
Refer to Figure 5.
Hydraulic energy cannot be transmitted through pipelines without losses. Friction is

created on the pipe walls and in the fluid itself, generating heat. Hydraulic energy is
converted into thermal energy. A loss of hydraulic energy means a loss of pressure in
the hydraulic fluid.
The hydraulic fluid loses pressure at every constriction in a hydraulic system. This
loss is caused by the friction of the fluid. This pressure loss is referred to as 11p (delta
p) as illustrated in detail a).
This pressure loss at constrictions is a result of conversion to thermal energy. It is

sometimes caused intentionally (e.g. in the case of the pressure reducing valve).
Often such a pressure loss (as the result of heat generation at constrictions) is
undesirable. In operation, all hydraulic fluids are heated up by the many constrictions
in the hydraulic equipment.
If the flow is interrupted, the fluid becomes static, no friction occurs. In consequence,
the pressure upstream and downstream of a constriction are identical, as illustrated
in detail b).
11.11.1 - HO - 5
F2
F1
A1 A2
p
p
p
FB 3135 A
Figure 1 Hydraulic Press (Bramah Press)

11.11.1 - HO - 6
L
R
Workpiece
A1
Ram
A2
Working piston
Check valve C2
Check valve C1
Shut off valve FA 6542 B
Tank
Figure 2 Principle of the Hydraulic Press

11.11.1 - HO - 7
p2
A2
Pressure Intensifier
F2
Figure 3
A1
F1
p1
11.11.1 - HO - 8
a)
b)
A1 A2
Q1 Q2
v2
v1
Q1 = Q2
FA 6555 E
Continuity equation: A1 · v1 = A2 · v2
Figure 4 Law of Volume Flow

11.11.1 - HO - 9
a) Flowing fluid
p1 p2
b) Static fluid
p p
A 6543 B
Figure 5 Pressure Loss in a Hydraulic Fluid

11.11.2 - HO - 1
Hydraulic Circuits
Introduction to Hydraulic Circuits
Refer to Figure 1.
Figure 1 illustrates a simplified hydraulic circuit. This circuit is subdivided into 3 major
groups:
V power generation
V power distribution and distribution control
V actuation (conversion into any other form of power, e.g. mechanical work).
Hydraulic power is carried by the hydraulic fluid.
Hydraulic Fluid
The fluid in a hydraulic system performs various tasks:

V transmission of hydraulic energy
V lubrication of all components (bearings, sliding surfaces, etc.)
V prevention of corrosion of moving internal parts
V removal of dirt, abrasive matter, etc. to the filter
V dissipation of heat.
It must be realised that hydraulic systems are closed circuits: not any hydraulic fluid
leaves this circuit (except for leakage).This is in contrast to pneumatic systems,
where the air, after having performed its work or function, is bled into the environ-
ment.
Hydraulic fluids are chemical fluids with particular characteristics. Some hydraulic
fluids are dangerous and represent a serious risk to health and safety.
Appropriate safety precautions have to be strictly observed when working with

hydraulic fluids.
Hydraulic Power Generation
Hydraulic power is generated by a driven pump. The pump

V draws the fluid out of the reservoir
V applies pressure to the fluid
V forces it into and through the hydraulic system.
Up to now, there are 2 main elements at the power generation level:

V hydraulic reservoir
V hydraulic pump.
In technical applications reservoir, pump and associated valves are summarised to

one major component, called ’hydraulic power pack’.
11.11.2 - HO - 2
Hydraulic Power Distribution
The hydraulic fluid is then forced through hydraulic pipes and hoses which have to
withstand the hydraulic pressure. Within the distribution system there may be a
number of
V safety devices, such as safety valves
V control devices (valves) which
-- control the amount of flow
-- control the direction of flow.
Figure 1 illustrates, at the distribution level, a flow control valve called ’directional
control valve’ (DCV).
The DCV in this example has three switching positions:

V DCV position a) (illustrated position):
The fluid from the pump cannot pass the DCV and is directed back to the
reservoir. The hydraulic circuit is in idle.
The result is that no hydraulic pressure is applied to the actuator.

V DCV position b):
When the directional control valve in Figure 1 is moved by one switching

position to the left side, then the right valve block (right line) forces the fluid
from the pump into the right side of the actuator.
The actuator piston is forced to the left and drives, via its piston rod, any
mechanism.
Within the actuator cylinder there is also fluid on the left side of the piston. As
the piston is moved to the left, this portion of fluid is forced to the reservoir via
the left line of the directional control valve.
V Switching position c):
When the DCV block is moved to the right, the left part of the DCV block
forces the fluid from the pump to the left side of the actuator. This results in
moving the piston back to its center position and forcing the corresponding
fluid portion back to the reservoir via the DCV.
Note: It can be recognised that hydraulic components such as the illustrated directional
control valve must be fabricated with high precision.
Actuation
Figure 1 illustrates a double sided (double acting) hydraulic cylinder (’actuator’).

According to the applied hydraulic pressure the piston is moved fore and back thus
driving any other mechanical component.
Besides hydraulic cylinders, a number of other components can be used as

actuators, depending on the required type of work to be performed.
11.11.2 - HO - 3
Hydraulic System Safety
It may happen that the hydraulic pressure generated by the pump may not reach the
actuator, even if the DCV is in an open position (for example by obstructions in the
hydraulic system). The pump continues to generate pressure so that the risk for
exploding will increase. To prevent damage to the system a pressure relief valve
is fitted to the system, preferably near the hydraulic pump.
The pressure relief valve shown in Figure 1 above the pump is spring loaded. As
soon as the pump generates excessive hydraulic pressure, the fluid acts on the
pressure relief valve against the spring, thus allowing the high pressure fluid to pass
the valve and to flow back into the reservoir. The result is that the hydraulic circuit is
released from excessive hydraulic pressure.
11.11.2 - HO - 4
Pressure relief valve
Power generation
Reservoir Pump
Directional control Power distribution and

valve (DCV) distribution control
Cylinder
Actuation
FB 3197 D
Figure 1 Hydraulic Circuit: Basic Set Up

11.11.3 - HO - 1
Components of Hydraulic Circuits
Reservoir
Refer to Figure 1.
Each hydraulic system must have a power pack, which serves several purposes:
V storage of the hydraulic fluid
V displacement of the fluid
V separation of fluid and air
V heat dissipation.
Components of the Reservoir
Filler
The filler of a hydraulic system must always contain a mesh strainer to retain any
foreign matter during filling.
Drain Plug
The drain plug must be fitted at the lowest point of the system (usually the reservoir).
When changing the fluid, the reservoir and filters must be cleaned.
Fluid Level Indicators
The fluid level is checked regularly by means of a dipstick or shown by indicator

glasses. The minimum and maximum levels should be marked.
Ventilation
Each reservoir must be provided with adequate ventilation, containing an air filter.
This ventilation is required to ensure that the atmospheric pressure can always act
on the fluid surface so as to keep the pump primed and the oil free from air.
Baffle
The baffle
V divides the reservoir into the suction chamber and the return line chamber. In
the latter chamber the fluid is allowed to settle and any foreign matter will be
deposited
V makes the reservoir mechanically stronger
V prevents surging on corners.
11.11.3 - HO - 2
Hydraulic Pumps
Refer to Figure 2.
Hydraulic pumps operate according to the displacement principle. Therefore the fluid
in the lines is subjected to pressure and is displaced in the direction of the power
component. In some hydraulic pumps it is possible to change the delivery rate; this is
done by changing the volume of the pump chamber or by increasing the speed of the
pump.
The fluid in hydraulic pumps may be delivered by
V pistons
V sliding vanes
V screws
V gear teeth.
Refer to Figures 3 and 4.
One characteristic all types of hydraulic pump have in common is the displacement of
the fluid in the direction of the power component. The fluid flow is not interrupted
during displacement, however it pulsates slightly due to the design of the pump. Only
screw pumps operate with almost no pulsation.
Hydraulic Service Components
Filter
Refer to Figure 5.
Filtering of the fluid in hydraulic systems is of major importance for their operation
and service life. Metal and seal particles, as well as dust and dirt in the air are prone
to contaminate the fluid. These particles of various sizes must continuously be
removed, otherwise they may lead to problems or even breakdowns.
An appreciation of the degree of filtration required in some high pressure hydraulic
systems may be gained from the comparison given in Figure 6.
The following filtration methods are used in hydraulic systems:
V suction line filtration
V pressure line filtration
V return line filtration (most common).
Pressure Gauge
Refer to Figure 7.
The pressure gauge consists of the following main parts:
V casing
V Bourdon tube (tube spring)
V lever
V gearwheel segment
V pinion
V pointer
V scale.
11.11.3 - HO - 3
The pressure is applied to the Bourdon tube. The tube bends slightly outwards
(straightens slightly). The amount of bending depends on the pressure.
The travel resulting from the bending is transmitted via a lever to the gearwheel
segment and the pinion. The pinion and the pointer are rigidly connected, and
therefore the pointer deflects. The pressure can be read from the scale.
Pressure Relief Valve
Refer to Figure 8.
The pressure relief valve (PRV) is used for
V limiting the working pressure to a specific adjustable value
V setting the maximum pressure in the hydraulic system
V protecting the system against excessive pressures.
It consists of the following functional parts:
V housing
V taper seat
V compression spring
V set screw
V nut.
Each hydraulic system must be fitted with a pressure relief valve behind the pump to
prevent accidents and damage caused by excessive pressure.
Spring loaded pressure relief valves are used for adjusting the working pressure and
for limiting the operating pressure, or are employed as safety valves for secondary
purposes.
In detail a) the valve is in its initial position, the compression spring forces the taper seat
against the bore. The fluid entering at pressure p pressurises the taper seat.
The following force acts:
F = p ⋅ A [N]
where:
p = pressure upstream of tapered seat in kPa
A = area of annular face in cm2.
The spring force acting on the taper seat can be adjusted by means of the set screw
via the compression spring. If the pressure slowly rises above the opening pressure,
the taper seat is lifted (detail b)), creating a gap (T) through which the fluid returns to
the reservoir.
As the result of the flow characteristics of the fluid, the opening does not close again
when the opening pressure is reached but only after a further drop in pressure
(closing pressure) occurs.
Accumulator
The purpose of the accumulator is to deliver fluid to the hydraulic system in case of
an emergency, caused by pump failure, and to dampen pressure peaks during
switching operations. In hydraulic systems in which the work process requires large
fluid flows for a short period, the accumulator serves as a pressure reservoir.
11.11.3 - HO - 4
The hydraulic pump in such systems needs only to be of sufficient capacity to

recharge the accumulator when demand is low. Accumulators also dampen
unpleasant noise during operation and smooth the pulsating fluid flow delivered by
the pump. They offset leakages and serve as a source of energy supply for control
circuits of pilot controlled valves.
Refer to Figure 9.
The gas bag accumulator comprises the following functional parts:

V steel container
V gas bag
V gas valve
V poppet valve
V venting screw
V fluid port.
For operation, the flexible gas bag of the accumulator is charged with nitrogen from a
pressure bottle via the gas valve until the required charging pressure (P e1) is
reached. The gas bag fills the steel container and closes the poppet valve. The
nitrogen in the gas bag has the volume V1 (detail a)).
When the pump is started, the hydraulic fluid delivered by the pump passes to the
accumulator container via the poppet valve and compresses the nitrogen in the gas
bag to the required maximum working pressure (Pe2). The volume of the nitrogen
decreases to V2 (detail b)).
If the pressure in the hydraulic system drops, the fluid in the accumulator is displaced
by the higher pressure from the expanding gas bag until the loss of pressure is
compensated. The pressure in the gas bag drops from Pe2 to Pe3, the gas volume
expands from V2 to V3 (detail c)).
MIAT
Filler with dipstick and mesh strainer
Re n line connection
o pump
ir ilter
Re rn line
Fluid level uction line

indicator (max.)
Module 11
Inspection cover
Casing
Fluid level
indicator (mi

Glass ube

Drain plug
11.11.3 - HO - 5
B 3257 A
Re n chamber le Suction chamber
Figure 1 Reservoir
11.11.3 - HO - 6
Piston
Sliding vanes
Screws
Gear
FA 6554 B
Figure 2 Principles of Displacement Pumps

MIAT
Hydraulic pumps (positive displacement pumps)
ane pumps Reciprocating piston pumps
Constant--delivery
Constant--delivery Adjustable vane pumps Adjustable reciprocating
Module 11
reciprocating piston
vane pumps piston pumps
pumps
Gear pump Sliding- Sliding--vane pump Axial piston pump Axial piston pump
-vane pump Screw Radial piston pump Radial piston pump
pump In--line pump

A 6547

11.11.3 - HO - 7
Figure 3 Types of Hydraulic Pumps
11.11.3 - HO - 8
Gear pump Radial piston pump
Axial piston pump

Axial piston pump (swashplate)
Axial piston pump

Spindle pump (wobble plate)
FA 6550 E
Series--piston pump Vane pump
Figure 4 Examples of Hydraulic Pumps

11.11.3 - HO - 9
A B
FA 6551 C Fil er element
Valve opens in the event

of blocked filter
Figure 5 Filter
MIAT
40 micron (minimum visible 2 micron (maximum size
size with the naked eye) permitted in some systems)
Module 11
12 micron (grain of talcum powder)
70 micron (grain of salt)
desirable maximum size of contaminant

Note: The circles are approx. 1,000 times the actual size.

B 3258 C
1 micron= 1 mm
1, 000
11.11.3 - HO - 10
Figure 6 Micronic Rating of Filters
11.11.3 - HO - 11
Casing
Scale
Bourdon
tube
Pinion
Lever
Poin Gearwheel segment

FA 3101 A
Figure 7 Pressure Gauge

11.11.3 - HO - 12
a) Initial position
Set screw
Housing
Compression spring
aper seat Nu
b) Lifted position
p
FA 6548 D
T L
Figure 8 Pressure Relief Valve

a) b) c)
Gas valve
MIAT
Gas bag
pe2
pe3
V2
pe1 V3
Steel container
V1
Module 11
Poppet valve
Venting screw
Fluid port
Figure 9 Accumulator (Gas Bag Type)

11.11.3 - HO - 13
11.11.4 - HO - 1
Hydraulic Control Elements
Directional Control Valves

Directional control valves consist of the following functional parts:
V housing
V sliding spool
V seals.
2/2 Way Directional Control Valve
Refer to Figure 1.
2/2 way directional control valves are used for the control of the fluid flow by closing
or opening the passage.
The sliding spool shuts off the way P - A in the neutral position (detail a)).
When the lever is actuated, the sliding spool releases the way P - A.
Once the lever has been released, the compression spring returns the sliding spool
to the neutral position. Leakage oil is removed via the drain.
Refer to Figure 2.
4/2 way directional control valves are used for the flow control of the fluid in both
directions.
In the neutral position the sliding spool opens the ways P - A and B - T (detail a)).
When the lever is actuated, the flow from the ways P - B and A - T is opened
(detail b)).
When the lever is released, the compression spring returns the sliding spool to the
neutral position.
Refer to Figure 3.
4/3 way directional control valves are employed for the flow control of the fluid in
both directions, including a recirculation in the neutral position. They are used for the
control of double acting cylinders or hydraulic motors.
The sliding spool of the 4/3 way directional control valve permits the flow P - T in
the recirculating neutral position (detail a)), A and B being blocked.
By moving the lever to the right, position ’a’ is reached (detail b)), and the flow can
pass freely the ways P - A and B - T.
By moving the lever to the left, position ’b’ is reached (detail c)), and the flow can
pass freely the ways P - B and A - T.
11.11.4 - HO - 2
Non Return Valves
Refer to Figure 4.
Non return valves (NRV) prevent pressure surges from the hydraulic system into the
pump and emptying of pipes and hoses (quick connect couplings).
The non return valve permits fluid flow in one direction, whereas the flow in the
opposite direction is blocked. It consists of the following functional parts:
V housing
V valve cone
V compression spring.
Pilot Controlled Non Return Valves
Refer to Figure 5.
The pilot controlled non return valve permits fluid flow in one direction, blocking it in
the opposite direction. The flow in the blocked direction may be released by a control
fluid, actuating a servo piston.
The following functional parts are found in a pilot controlled non return valve:
V housing
V servo piston
V check cone
V cover
V seals.
Flow Control Valves

Refer to Figure 6.
Flow Control Valve
The flow control valve is used to create a hydraulic resistance. It consists of the
housing with ports and a constant constriction (bore).
The pressure built up ahead of the hydraulic resistance permits flow dividing. Due to
the constriction in the flow control valve the pressure increases so that part of the
pump delivery flows through the constant constriction. The flow rate in this part of the
line, i.e. after the constriction, is reduced. The remainder flows via the pressure relief
valve back to the reservoir.
The fluid arriving with pressure p1 (detail a)) must flow through the constant
constriction, which acts as a resistance. This results in a pressure drop, so that the
pressure p2 down line the flow control valve is lower than p1.
The difference between these two pressures is referred to as the differential pressure
or pressure difference 11p (delta p):
∆p = p 1 – p2.
11.11.4 - HO - 3
The flow rate through the flow control valve is a function of the following:
V cross section of the constriction
V differential pressure 11p
V the viscosity (thickness) of the fluid.
Therefore, a large cross section results in a low resistance and a high flow rate, and
a small cross section results in a high resistance and a small flow rate (detail b)).
The flow control valve is used for simple speed changes in the event of approx. constant
pressure conditions (11p constant) and when precise speeds are not required (presses,
lift tables). It is also employed very frequently for damping pressure surges, e.g. in
pressure gauges.
Variable Flow Control Valve
Refer to Figure 7.
The variable flow control valve is used for creating an adjustable hydraulic resis-
tance.
Accurate regulation of the flow rate is not possible since the flow rate through the
flow control valves at the same setting depends on the pressure drop and the fluid
viscosity. The variable flow control valve is used in hydraulic systems for infinitely
variable flow control purposes, e.g. lifting platforms and clamping fixtures, where the
flow rate is not required to be particularly accurate.
2- Way Flow Control Valve
Refer to Figure 8.
The 2 way flow control valve maintains a constant return flow rate Q at varying
output and input pressures.
The following functional parts are found in a 2 way flow control valve:
V housing
V throttle adjusting screw
V regulating piston
V compression spring.
Note: The regulating piston and compression spring together form a pressure
compensator.
The volume flow must pass through gap 1 and gap 2. Gap 1 can be changed in size
by turning the throttling screw, thus varying the flow of fluid.
If the flow rate Q is specified by a given position of the restrictor, the regulating piston
and the compression spring ensure that this flow rate is maintained in the event of
pressure fluctuations in the inlet and/or outlet of the 2 way flow control valve.
The purpose of this valve is to ensure a constant flow rate under various loads. This
type of valve is used for synchronisation of cylinders, precise limiting of lowering
speeds for hoists, etc.
11.11.4 - HO - 4
Adjustable One Way Restrictor
Refer to Figure 9.
The adjustable one way restrictor (sometimes also called ’variable return orifice
non return valve’) limits the fluid flow in one direction, but ensures the full flow
cross section in the opposite direction.
Adjustable one way restrictors are used where only an approx. constant flow rate is
required in one direction and unrestricted flow in the opposite direction.
11.11.4 - HO - 5
a) Not actuated = closed
Housing Sliding spool
Drain
Fluid supply
Compression connection Seals
spring
b) Actuated = open
Connection to working elements
A
FA 6567 D
P
Drain
Figure 1 2/2 Way Directional Control Valve

11.11.4 - HO - 6
a) Neutral position
Compression spring Housing Sliding spool
Seals
b) Actuated position
FA 6569 C
T B P A

11.11.4 - HO - 7
a) 1st way
Seal Housing Seal Sliding spool
Notch
Drain B P A T Drain
b) 2nd way
Position ’a’
c) 3rd way
Position ’b’
FA 6571 F
B P A T

11.11.4 - HO - 8
a) Closed position
Compression
Housing spring Cone
pe2 pe1
pe2 > pe1
b) Open position
p
FA 6572 D
pe2 < pe1
Figure 4 Non Return Valve

11.11.4 - HO - 9
a) Flow blocked from B to A

Check cone
Cover Servo piston
B
A
Seal Housing Spring Seal
b) Flow from A to B
B
A
c) Flow from B to A
FA 6573 C
Figure 5 Pilot Controlled Non Return Valve

11.11.4 - HO - 10
a)
p1 p2
Bore Housing
∆p
b)
A 6566 C
Figure 6 Flow Control Valve

11.11.4 - HO - 11
Housing Throttle adjusting screw
p1
FA 6574 B
Annulus Seal
Figure 7 Variable Flow Control Valve

11.11.4 - HO - 12
Regulating Compression
Housing piston Gap 2 spring
FA 6576 B
Gap 1 Throttle adjusting screw
Figure 8 2 Way Flow Control Valve

11.11.4 - HO - 13
a) Adjustable flow direction

Throttle adjusting screw
Housing
Sealing ring
Restriction
Spring Valve cone
b) Full flow direction
B
FA 6577 B
Figure 9 Adjustable One Way Restrictor

11.11.5 - HO - 1
Hydraulic Working Elements
Straight Line Hydraulic Cylinders
Single Acting Cylinder
The single acting cylinder converts the fluid pressure into a linear force and motion.
Refer to Figure 1.
It comprises the following functional parts:

V housing
V piston rod
V piston
V seals.
In operation, the fluid enters the cylinder housing on the piston cylinder side.
Pressure builds up and the piston with rod moves out (feed). It returns after the
directional control valve has been actuated by an external force due to the
weight m. The return motion may also be initiated by a built in
compression spring.
Piston Speed and Force
l
The forward speed v (in m/s) is a result of the flow rate Q (in s) and the piston area in
(cm2):
flow rate Q
forward speed v = .
piston area A
l
Example: Q = 1,5
s
( dm
s
) 3
A = 78.54 cm2 = 0.7854 dm2 (given diameter is 10 cm)
v = ? m/s
v= Q
A
1, 5 dm 3
v =
0.7854 dm2 ⋅ s
v = 1.91 dm∕s.
v = 0.191 m∕s.
11.11.5 - HO - 2
Double Acting Cylinder
The double acting cylinder converts the fluid pressure into a linear force and motion.
Their flow direction can be changed.
Refer to Figure 2.
During the advance stroke the fluid enters the cylinder at port 1 and acts on the
piston cylinder side. Pressure builds up, causing the piston with rod to move out. The
fluid on the piston rod side is displaced and flows into the reservoir via port 2.
During the return stroke the fluid enters the cylinder at port 2, causing the piston to
move in. The fluid on the piston cylinder side is displaced and flows into the reservoir
via port 1.
If the pressure for the advance and return strokes is equal, the greater force is
exerted during the advance stroke since the full piston face is greater than its annular
face.
Hydraulic Motors
The hydraulic motor develops a torque at the output shaft. The hydraulic energy is
converted into mechanical energy by the pressurised hydraulic fluid.
Refer to Figure 3.
A hydraulic motor consists of the following functional parts:

V housing with control ducts
V internal gearwheel
V external gearwheel
V drive shaft with collector.
In operation, the hydraulic fluid flows from port 1 to port 2 (or vice versa, depending
on the direction of rotation). The hydraulic fluid, entering through one of the ports,
rotates the gearwheel and drives the drive shaft by means of the crankshaft. The
alternating increase and decrease in the flow rate is controlled by the collector and
the control ducts in the housing.
Hydraulic motors of all types and designs are used in every branch of industry. They
are employed, for example, as drives for all types of vehicles, roll drives in steel
works and rolling mills, as spindle drives in injection and pressure die casting
machines, as well as drive elements for all types of rotary motions in shipbuilding.
11.11.5 - HO - 3
Scraper ring Bearing cap
Housing Pressure release
Piston rod side

Piston rod
Annular face
Piston
Piston cylinder side

essure inle
Seals Base cap
FB 3259 C
Re urn spring
Figure 1 Single Acting Cylinder

11.11.5 - HO - 4
a) Advance stroke/Working stroke
Port 1 Port 2
b) Return stroke
Port 1 Port 2
c) Effective areas
FA 6594 D
Piston area Piston annulus area
Figure 2 Double Acting Cylinder

11.11.5 - HO - 5
Por 1
Port 2
Housing Internal gearwheel
Drive shaft
with collector
FB 3260
Crankshaft External gearwheel
Figure 3 Hydraulic Motor

11.11.6 - HO - 1
Hydraulic System Diagrams
Symbols in Hydraulic Circuit Diagrams
Hydraulic circuit diagrams are drawn by the design engineer during layout and
design of a new system and, generally, serve the following purposes:
V The manufacturer uses the circuit diagrams to build and assemble the sys-
tem.
V The user can obtain valuable information for operation and troubleshooting
from the circuit diagrams supplied by the manufacturer in manuals and docu-
mentation.
The symbols are standardised to enable all users to interpret hydraulic circuit
diagrams.
Symbols of Lines, Reservoirs and Working Elements
Refer to Figure 1.
Hydraulic lines, i.e. the connections between hydraulic elements, are drawn as lines.
Connections are drawn with a dot, crossing lines which are not connected are drawn
without a dot.
The general symbol of a shut off valve is used for manually operated valves which
allow to disconnect a system or part of a system from the reservoir.
The triangle in the pump symbol indicates the pressure outlet and the flow direction.
Fluid treatment elements, e.g. filters, are represented by squares with additional
symbols inside.
Refer to Figure 2.
The symbol of a hydraulic motor contains a triangle to indicate the flow direction at
the pressure inlet. A reversible motor has 2 triangles to represent the possibility to
apply pressure to both connections.
Principles of Valve Demonstration and Actuating Elements
Refer to Figure 3.
The symbols used for the representation of valves and actuating elements in
hydraulic circuits are similar to those used for the representation of valves and
actuating elements in pneumatic circuits.
The main difference between the two types of system is that in pneumatic systems
the air is usually exhausted into the atmosphere. This is represented by a triangle. In
hydraulic systems the outlet into the tank is depicted by a reverse T.
11.11.6 - HO - 2
Symbols of Diverse Hydraulic Elements
Refer to Figure 4.
The symbols of other hydraulic elements often represent a typical design. Neverthe-
less, the symbol gives no information on the actual design.
In the non return valve (NRV) symbol there are a ball (drawn as valve element), the
valve seat (represented Y shaped) and, if applicable, a spring.
The flow restriction in a flow control valve is represented by two arcs. Adjustability, as
usual, is represented by an inclined arrow.
11.11.6 - HO - 3
Standard
Working line
Control line (pilot line)
Drain line
Flexible pipeline
Line connection (fixed)
Line crossing
Connection point (not connected)
Connection point with connecting line
Shut--off valve (general)
Hydraulic pump with electric motor M
Hydraulic accumulator
Hydraulic reservoir
Pressure gauge
Filter
A 3147 C
Figure 1 Symbols of Hydraulic Lines,

Connections and Power Packs
11.11.6 - HO - 4
Single--acting cylinder, return move--

ment by external force
Single--acting cylinder, return move--

ment by spring
Double--acting cylinder with single--

ended piston rod
Hydraulic motor with single
A 3149 C
directions of rotation
Hydraulic motor with two directions

of rotation
Figure 2 Symbols of Hydraulic Working

Elements
11.11.6 - HO - 5
A
2/2--way valve,
normally closed
P
A
2/2--way valve,
normally open
P
3/2--way valve,
normally closed
T
A
3/2--way valve,
normally open
P T
3/3--way valve, mid-

-position closed
A B
4/2--way valve
P T
4/3--way valve, mid-

-position closed
A B
A 3151 B
5/2--way valve
R T
P
Figure 3 Symbols of Directional Control Valves

11.11.6 - HO - 6
A B
Non--return valve without spring
A B
Non--return valve with spring
Throttle with constant A B

restriction
set
Flow control valve, adjustable A B
adjustable
Adjustable one--way restrictor

A 3154 D
Figure 4 Symbols of Diverse Hydraulic

Elements
11.11.7 - HO - 1
Electro Hydraulic Components
Introduction to Electro Hydraulic Control
Electro hydraulics combine electric and hydraulic parts and principles in one system,
as the name indicates.
In practice, this means electrical control of hydraulically operated machinery and

equipment, where the working energy is transferred by the hydraulic fluid, and the signal
flow is provided by electric/electronic means.
Components of Electro Hydraulic Control
Signal Input Devices
Push Button Switches
The function of the push button switch is to make and break contacts while it is
pressed. The switch has two chambers for safety reasons. So, in case of a breaking
contact spring, no cross connection can occur and thus no uncontrolled machinery
movement.
Limit Switches
Light Barriers
The typical commonly used light barrier is of the reflection type.
The reflection type barrier is a design with both transmitter and receiver installed in
one housing. The transmitted beam of light is directed onto a mirror and reflected to
the receiver. An object would break the beam of light and thus trigger a switching
action. Such objects must not have a shining surface, otherwise they will not break
the ray, but constitute a reflector themselves.
Application of NC Contact Limit Switch
Figure 3 shows the application of normally closed (NC) contact limit switches in
electric circuit diagrams. In this case the breaking (reset) of the hold on state is
shown.
At the point, where the direction of cylinder movement is to be reversed, an electrical

limit switch S2 is installed (detail b)).
The limit switch in current path 1 must have the function of an NC unit. It makes relay
K1 ineffective. Forced by spring load, the directional control valve reverses and the
cylinder retracts (detail c)).
11.11.7 - HO - 2
If a proximity sensor is used as limit switch S2, some peculiarities must be con-
sidered. A proximity sensor always actuates a relay and does not directly control the
solenoid coil or other loads (detail a)). In this example a second relay K2 is required,
as a normally open (NO) unit.
Signal Processing Elements
Relays
The function of a relay is to make or break one or more contacts at the same time,
when operated, (e.g. by a push button). It can be designed to switch high powers
with a small amount of control power through a number of contacts (contact
multiplication).
The individual contact banks may be manufactured as NC (normally closed), NO
(normally open) or change over contacts, as the particular application requires.
Signal Converters
Solenoid Valves
Normally, hydraulic solenoid valves are operated by the solenoid armature pushing
the pilot valve and not by pulling it.
In practice, this is realised by a non magnetic tappet embedded in the armature and
sticking out of the casing at one end. Solenoid valves can be subdivided according to
the types of electromagnet used:
V solenoid magnet without idle stroke (Figure 4)
V solenoid magnet with idle stroke (Figure 5).
The latter type features an unfavourable force/way curve. In the initial phase of the
operating stroke, the force is very small followed by a very steep rising curve. For this
reason, the magnetic flux lines are adapted to the spring force curve. The armature
starts with an idle movement, the control piston of the valve is actuated and
compresses the spring.
Pressure Switch
Refer to Figure 6.
The pressure switch is a hydraulically actuated switch. The triggering pressure can
be preset. When the set value is reached, the electrical circuit is switched.
Presetting of the switching pressure is made by a set screw, by which the spring is
preloaded to a determined tension. If the hydraulic pressure acting on the piston
surface becomes higher than the spring tension, a microswitch is actuated via a
lever.
Microswitch
Refer to Figure 7.
Normally the microswitch has a 2 way operation allowing both opening and closing
functions.
The microswitch is protected against overload by mechanical checks. So the piston
stroke is limited.
11.11.7 - HO - 3
Because of the spring travel in the microswitch, the switching characteristic of the
pressure switch causes a hysteresis overlap. This means, that within certain
pressure ranges the pressure switch signal is maintained. Only when the pressure
falls below a determined value, the pressure switch returns to its ’low pressure’
position.
11.11.7 - HO - 4
Electro Hydraulic Control
Electrical Hydraulic
Signal input
-- Push--button
switches
-- Limit switches
-- Proximity
signalling
devices
Signal
processing
-- Contactors
-- Relays
Signal
converters
-- Solenoid
valves
-- Pressure
switches
Signal Output
-- Cylinders
A 6608 C
-- Hydraulic
motors
Figure 1 Signal Flow in an Electro Hydraulic

System
MIAT
Electrical system Hydraulic system
Module 11
S1 S3 K1 Relay contact
Signal output
Signal input
push--button double--acting cylinder
S2
switches Conversion line

Signal processing K1 Y1 Converter
A 6771 F
relay solenoid valve

--
11.11.7 - HO - 5
Figure 2 Example of Electro Hydraulic Conversion
11.11.7 - HO - 6
a) Limit switch
S2
Limit switch
A B
a b
Y1
P T
b) Mechanical limit switch

1
L+
S1 K1 K1
Forward
S2
Return
A1
K1 Y1
A2
L--
Forward
c) Proximity sensor
1 2 3 4
L+
B 2283 E
L--
Figure 3 Application of NC Contact Limit

Switches
11.11.7 - HO - 7
Solenoid
Armature
Non--magnetic tappet
Armature position B A Casing and cover made of

magnetic soft iron
Force F
A 6770 D
A Way s B
Beginning of stroke End of stroke
Armature position
Figure 4 Characteristic Force/Way Curve of a

Solenoid Magnet without Idle Stroke
11.11.7 - HO - 8
Connecting box
C A otal s oke
dle s oke
T A P B
Auxiliary manual control
otal s oke
Idle
Power s oke
stroke
Force N
FA 6781 C
A B C
Way s
Figure 5 Characteristic Force/Way Curve of a

Solenoid Magnet with Idle Stroke
11.11.7 - HO - 9
Adjustment set screw
Microswitch
Compression
spring
Push rod
Connector
Lever
Diaphragm
FA 7111 D
Pressure
P connection
Input
Figure 6 Adjustable Pressure Switch

11.11.7 - HO - 10
2 4 1
Movable contact
Pin (insulated)
Switching--off of rising pressure
Pressure
Hysteresis
Switching--off of dropping pressure

FA 6787 B
Time
Figure 7 Microswitch
11.11.8 - HO - 1
Electro Hydraulic Circuits

Electro hydraulic circuits are a combination of hydraulic working elements, electro
hydraulic control components and electrical devices.
In general, electro hydraulic circuits are illustrated by means of 2 circuit diagrams,
an electric and a hydraulic one.
If necessary, function diagrams of the circuits are added.
Indirect Control of a Piston by Push Buttons

Figure 1 represents the indirect control of a piston by 2 push buttons with the help of
2 circuit diagrams, a hydraulic and an electric one.
The piston rod of the double acting cylinder is extended by operating a push button.
If the second push button is pressed the piston rod is retracted. The speed of the
piston is set by a 1 way flow control valve.
Circuit Description
The functional requirements are met by means of a latching circuit. Relay K1 is
operated by push button S1. The 2 NO relay contacts are now closed. NO contact
K1 in current path 2 supplies a voltage to the relay itself, and NO contact K1 in
current path 3 energises the solenoid coil of the 4/2 way solenoid valve. The piston
extends.
The extension will go on, even with push button S1 released, as the voltage remains
applied to the relay via the NO contact in current path 2. Therefore, the relays are
said to be latched. After having reached full extension, the cylinder remains in the
end position, because solenoid coil Y1 continues to be energised.
Retraction is initiated only, after the supply in current path 1 has been broken by
push button S2. The contacts K1 are opened, solenoid coil Y1 is disabled, and the
4/2 way solenoid valve returns to the rest position. The piston of the double acting
cylinder is retracted.
The latching characteristic allows the signal to be set (stored) by push button S1 and
reset (erased) by push button S2.
Indirect Control of a Piston by Push Buttons and Pressure Switch

Figure 2 shows the indirect control of a piston by two push buttons and a pressure
switch in two circuit diagrams, a hydraulic and an electric one.
If the set pressure of 20 bar is reached (which e.g. is necessary to assemble the
parts of a housing by means of a pressing device), the piston rod will be retracted. If
the set joining pressure is not reached, the manual return travel is initiated by
actuating push button S2 (BACK).
Circuit Description
FORWARD push button S1 energises relay K1. The piston of the double acting
cylinder extends throttled down. When the end position is reached, a pressure is built
up on the piston cylinder side. At 20 bar, pressure switch p acts, relay K1 is
de energised and a drop out occurs. As a result the piston is retracted.
11.11.8 - HO - 2
Door Control by a Double Acting Cylinder and Push Buttons
Refer to Figure 3.
A double acting cylinder is used for closing and opening a door. ’Inching control’
means that the cylinder motion is stopped in any required position. The cylinder shall
be hydraulically clamped in any intermediate position.
Circuit Description
The non return valve, pilot operated, prevents any forward movement of the piston
rod. Only when push button S1 is actuated, the 3/2 way (Y2) solenoid valve will be
reversed, the non return valve opened and the piston rod moves ahead.
As soon as S1 is no longer pressed, the 3/2 way (Y2) solenoid valve reverses to the
original position, and the non return valve is closed immediately. The piston rod is
clamped hydraulically and stops. Hydraulic clamping prevents the piston rod from
being pulled out by a load on the piston.
When S1 is actuated again, the piston rod moves on forward, until the desired end
position is reached. If push button S2 is pressed, the piston rod starts moving back
towards the rear position. When S2 is released, the 4/2 way (Y1) solenoid valve
reverses direction, and the piston rod stops and is clamped hydraulically.
11.11.8 - HO - 3
Hydraulic circuit diagram
a b
Y1
Electric circuit diagram

1 2 3
L+
S1
Extension K1 K1
S2
Retraction
A1
K1 Y1
B 0845 B
A2
L--
2 --
3 --
Figure 1 Indirect Control of a Piston by

Push Buttons
11.11.8 - HO - 4
Hydraulic circuit diagram
20 bar
A B
a b
Y1
P
Electric circuit diagram
1 2 3 4
L+
S1
K1 K1
FORWARD
S2
BACK
K1 H1 Y1
L--
FORWARD
B 0846 B
2 --
3 --
Figure 2 Indirect Control of a Piston by

Push Buttons and Pressure Switch
Hydraulic circuit diagram Electric circuit diagram
MIAT
1 2 3 4
L+
S2
K1 K2
S1
Y1 Y2
K2 K1
Module 11
K1 K2 Y2 Y1
L --
2 3 1 4
M
Figure 3 Door Control by a Double Acting Cylinder and Push Buttons

11.11.8 - HO - 5
11.11.9 - HO - 1
Aircraft Hydraulic Components
Hydraulic Fluids
The main task of hydraulic fluids is to transmit the force applied at one point in the
system to some other location and to produce quickly any desired changes in
direction or size of this force.
To do this, the fluid must be relatively incompressible and must flow easily.
Desirable Properties of Hydraulic Fluids

V The fluid should be a good lubricant.
The lubricating properties of the fluid must be enough to reduce friction and to
maintain a fluid film strong enough to prevent wear.
V The fluid should be stable to the conditions of use.
It is important that the features of the fluid change very little with use or in
storage.
Stability requirements are of many types but these can be grouped into two
classes:
1. chemical stability
which includes oxidation, thermal, hydrolytic and radiation stabilities
2. mechanical stability
the resistance to change in viscosity which may be caused by the fluid
being subjected to mechanical stress.
V The fluid should have good viscosity characteristics.
Viscosity may be considered as the resistance of the fluid to flow or a measure of

internal friction. Viscosity varies with temperature and with pressure.
Inefficient operation of hydraulic systems due to wrong fluid viscosity include:

-- pump slippage
-- cavitation
-- fluid friction
-- fluid leakage
-- mechanical friction.
Too high a viscosity (too thick) may cause these undesirable results:
-- the greater internal friction of the fluid increases the flow resistance of the
pump and valves
-- the temperature increases; the operation becomes sluggish
-- pressure drop throughout the system increases, and power consumption
increases.
11.11.9 - HO - 2
Too low a viscosity (too thin) may cause these undesirable results:
-- internal and external leakages increase
-- pump slippage increases reducing pump efficiency and increasing oil
temperature
-- rate of wear on moving parts increases
-- system pressure decreases, and precision control may be lost.
A measure of viscosity is the Saybolt universal second. It is a measure of the
time it takes for 60 cm3 of oil to flow through an orifice of 1.76 mm diameter and
12.25 mm long at a specified temperature of 100 °F (38 °C) or 210 °F (99 °C).
The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is mm2/s or cm2/s, (mm2/s = centistoke [cSt]
and cm2/s = stoke [St] ).
The rate of change of an oil viscosity is defined by its Viscosity Index V.I. The
higher the V.I., the less is the change in viscosity with temperature variation.
The Viscosity Index is quite fixed and was established by giving V.I. values of
100 and 0 respectively to the best and worst oils available at that time, with
respect to change in viscosity with temperature.
A thin or low viscosity oil is desired for the lubrication of automotive equipment at
low temperature as this confirms some degree of ease of starting. On warming
up and when normal running temperatures are achieved the oil will thin out gretly
but still lubricate adequately. This gives a demand for an oil giving relatively high
viscosity at high temperatures with a relatively low viscosity at low temperatures,
i.e. an oil of high V.I.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has classified lubricating oils into
viscosity classes. They serve for easier working out of the usability of oils for
different ranges of.
A viscosity class with only a figure behind the SAE (e.g. SAE 30) refers to the
minimum viscosity at 100 °C. The letter W placed behind the figure (e.g.
SAE 10W) classifies oils with a specific viscosity at low temperatures and a
minimum viscosity at 100 °C.
By increased use of V.I. improver additive, oils can be produced with a V.I. of up
to around 140. By this means an oil can be produced that will have the viscosity
at 18 °C of an SAE 10W oil, while at the same time having a viscosity at 99 °C
of an SAE 30 oil. These oil blends are termed ’multigrade’ or ’constant viscosity’
oils and the example given would be graded SAE 10W/30.
In the designation of service oils, for example: OM13, OM15, OMD110, the
figures refer to the kinematic viscosity in centistokes (cSt) at 99 °C.
The viscosity of a fluid increases witha rise in pressure which is a desirable
effect for hydraulic oils. At extremely high pressures the increase becomes
significant.
V The fluid should be compatible with system materials.
The hydraulic fluid should not damage materials used in or near hydraulic
equipment. Included are metals, plastics, surface coatings, elastomers and all
materials of construction.
Compatibility consists of two aspects:
-- first, the fluid should not attack the system
-- second, the system should not attack the fluid.
11.11.9 - HO - 3
V The fluid should have good heat transfer properties.
Hydraulic fluids transfer the heat from one part of the system to another. This
heat may be generated by friction of the moving parts, by fluid friction, by
compression, and by the environment. Many hydraulic systems have heat
exchangers to remove this heat so that the thermal capabilities of the fluid are not
exceeded.
V The fluid should have low foaming tendencies.
The ability of a fluid to release air or other gases without the formation of foam is
an important characteristic of a hydraulic fluid. Excessive foaming can cause
malfunction of the system components. The hydraulic fluid should be relatively
non elastic for proper functioning; mixtures of gas and fluid are much more
compressible than fluid alone.
Compression of a fluid air mixture, by a pump or activators, will increase its

temperature which in turn may cause fluid deterioration by oxidation.
V The fluid should have good demulsifying properties.
Moisture may enter a hydraulic system through contamination or condensation.

This water may either dissolve in the fluid or form two distinct layers.
Dissolved water may react with the fluid producing undesirable products which
can cause corrosion, sludging etc.
Undissolved water may freeze in low temperature conditions forming solid

restriction in lines and blocking filters with ice particles. Good demulsification is
therefore necessary and water traps are fitted to prevent water being carried
around the system.
V The fluid should prevent rust formation
Rusting, which may occur in hydraulic systems above the fluid level in the
reservoir or on parts inadequately covered with fluid, is extremely undesirable.
Particles of rust can act as a catalyst to increase the rate of oxidation of the fluid.
Rust is abrasive and suspended in the fluid can cause severe wear and
scratching of hydraulic system components.
Rusting can be minimised by the use of rust inhibitors.

V The fluid should not deteriorate by oxidation.
The rate at which fluid deterioration takes place depends on several factors
amongst which is the degree of stirring and mixing with the air. A further critical
factor is the temperature of the oil being oxidised since the higher the tempera-
ture the more rapidly oxidation will take place. In fact, the rate of oxidation
approx. doubles for each 11 °C (20 °F) rise in temperature.
In addition, fine particles of metal in the oil can act as powerful catalysts to
accelerate oxidation processes. Iron, copper and lead are particularly active in
this respect.
Depending upon the particular oil composition they may oxidise to form oil
insoluble resins and acids. The former will deposit itself on the hottest parts of the
valves to form lacquer and sludge deposits while the latter can give rise to
corrosion.
11.11.9 - HO - 4
Additives to combat the above problems are generally classified as oxidation

inhibitors.
Synthetic Fluids
Oil OX 8
Their composition is variable but usually based on polyalkyl glycols together with
anti oxidants and corrosion inhibitors. The material must not contain mineral oil or
any components detrimental to natural rubber (used as brake fluid).
Mineral Fluids
Oil OM 13
A light mineral oil of low pour point, containing 0.05 to 0.10 % stearic acid. Particu-
larly used at low temperatures.
Oil OM 15
A low viscosity, low pour point oil blended with an oxidation inhibitor, a viscosity index
improver and 0.5 % tricresylphosphate as an anti wear agent (used in high pressure
units).
Oil OM 33
A refined mineral oil mixed with an anti oxidant, anti corrosion and anti foam agent.
Contains 0.5 % of tricresylphosphate as an anti wear agent. Viscosity index
improvers are not allowed but a pour point depressant may be used up to a
maximum of 1.0 %.
Note: As a rule, hydraulic oils should never be mixed!

Mineral oils require synthetic seals and synthetic oils require natural rubber seals.
Hydraulic Reservoirs
A hydraulic reservoir is a fluid tank. It contains a reserve of fluid for use during the
operation of a system and for replacement of fluid being lost through leakages or by
evaporation. It may also serve other purposes, such as:
V providing a space (expansion chamber) for the storage of any increase in the
fluid volume exceeding the required volume (this may occur when thermal
expansion or foaming of the fluid takes place)
V providing a facility for the escape of any air entrapped in the system
V cooling the hydraulic fluid used in a system.
Non Pressurised Reservoir
Refer to Figure 1.
11.11.9 - HO - 5
In smaller civil aircraft with electrically driven hydraulic pumps non pressurised
reservoirs are used quite often. They are located near the pump. In some types of
aircraft the complete hydraulic power supply including the reservoir, the pump, the
filter, non return valves are combined in a power pack.
Pressurised Reservoir
In many aircraft it is necessary to install the reservoir in a lower position than the
pump fitted. In this case the fluid is not able to flow to the pump without any
assistance. Therefore the fluid contained in such a reservoir is kept pressurised
above the atmospheric pressure in order to force the fluid to the pump.
Another reason for pressurising hydraulic reservoirs is that aircraft sometimes fly at
high altitudes. The atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases and, at
very high altitudes, becomes too low to force an adequate supply of fluid to the
pump.
There are two main methods used to pressurise reservoirs: air and hydraulic
pressurisation.
Pressurising with Air
Refer to Figure 2.
This is accomplished by filling the space above the fluid level with air. The amount
of pressure maintained in air pressurised reservoirs is usually approx. 1 bar
(14.22 psi). There is no separation between the oil and the air.
In turbine powered aircraft the pressurisation of the hydraulic reservoir is obtained

from the compressor section of the engine via a pressure reducing valve.
Pressurising with Fluid
Refer to Figure 3.
This method of pressurisation uses fluid pressure from the main hydraulic pressure
line of the system in which the reservoir is fitted. The reservoir is designed to
generate a fairly low pressure on the supply fluid contained in the reservoir by using
fluid from the hydraulic pressure line which is under high pressure.
Hydraulic Pumps
Hand Pumps
There are two basic types of hand pump: single action and double action. Flow and
pressure is produced by the single action hand pump only during either the upwards
or the downwards stroke of the handle. The double action hand pump produces fluid
flow, and thus pressure, during both strokes of the handle, i.e. during both up and
down movement. This type of hand pump is used in aircraft hydraulic systems.
11.11.9 - HO - 6
Double Action Hand Pumps
Refer to Figure 4.
During the ’out’ (up) stroke, i.e. when the piston is pulled out of the cylinder, fluid is
drawn in through the inlet check valve. At the same time, the fluid at the rear of the
piston is forced out via the pump outlet. When the piston is pushed into the cylinder,
the rod displaces part of the fluid and some of the fluid again is forced out via the
discharge. This provides a continuous flow of fluid regardless whether the piston is
pushed into or pulled out of the cylinder.
Example: Assumptions:
V the front end of the piston has an area of 12.9 cm2
V the rod displaces 16.4 cm3
V the piston moves 2.54 cm per stroke
V the remaining space at the rear of the piston is 16.4 cm3.
When the piston moves out of the cylinder, 32.8 cm3 of fluid are drawn in. When the
piston is now pushed into the cylinder these 32.8 cm3 of fluid are forced to flow to the
rear of the piston. But due to the space at the piston’s rear (16.4 cm3) the remaining
16.4 cm3 of fluid must be forced out via the discharge port.
When the piston is again pulled out of the cylinder, the remaining 16.4 cm3 is forced
out of the pump by the piston. This means that every time the piston is moved out of
the cylinder 32.8 cm 3 of fluid are taken in and 16.4 cm3 are discharged. Each time
the piston moves into the cylinder 16.4 cm3 are discharged but no additional fluid is
drawn into the pump.
Power Driven Pumps
Most power driven pumps used in hydraulic systems of aircraft are of the variable
displacement, compensator controlled type. However, some constant displacement
pumps are used as well. Basic principles of operation are the same for both types.
Note: Because of its relative simplicity the constant displacement pump is used in the
following to explain the principles of operation of power driven pumps.
Pumping Mechanism
Various types of pumping mechanism are used in hydraulic pumps, e.g. gears, vanes
and pistons. The piston type mechanism is most commonly used in power driven
pumps of aircraft hydraulic systems because of its durability and capability to develop
high pressures. In 3,000 psi hydraulic systems piston type pumps are used almost
throughout.
Note: ’Pounds per square inch (psi)’ is a unit for measuring pressure. Although this
designation has been replaced recently by the SI system, it can still be found in
many documents in the field of hydraulics and pneumatics. To convert psi in bar
(kp/cm2) the following rule of thumb may be used:
pressure in psi divided by 14.224 gives pressure in bar.
11.11.9 - HO - 7
This means, the pressure in the systems mentioned above (3,000 psi) is:
3, 000 psi
= 210.9 bar.
14.224
Constant Displacement Pumps
Constant displacement pumps force a fixed or not varying quantity of fluid through
the outlet port during each revolution regardless of the pressure demands. Therefore
the quantity of fluid delivered per minute depends upon the pump’s speed (measured
in revolutions per minute (rpm)).
When a constant displacement pump is used in a hydraulic system in which the

pressure must be kept at a constant level some type of pressure regulator is required
in the system.
Constant displacement pumps may be called ’constant volume’ or ’fixed delivery’

pumps as well.
Piston Type Hydraulic Pumps
Refer to Figure 5.
Piston type hydraulic pumps used in aircraft hydraulic systems are of either the
swash, the angular or the cam type. The common features of design and operation
which are applicable to all piston type hydraulic pumps are described in the following
paragraph.
The basic pumping mechanism of all piston type pumps consists of

V a multiple bore cylinder block
V a piston for each bore
V a valve arrangement for each bore.
The purpose of the valve arrangement is to allow the fluid flowing into and out of the
bores during pump operation. The cylinder bores are arranged symmetrically around
and parallel to the pump axis. The term ’axial piston pump’ is often used when
referring to pumps with this type of arrangement.
All aircraft axial pumps have an odd number of pistons. Piston to bore leakage is
entirely controlled by means of a close and accurate fit between piston and bore.
Packings or sealing devices are not required in piston type pumps.
The clearance is small enough to permit lubrication by the fluid only and to allow for a
slight amount of expansion when the parts become heated during operation.
During manufacture of a piston type pump, each of the pistons is individually fitted to
the bore in which it is to operate.
Pistons must never be exchanged from pump to pump or from bore to bore.
Angular Type Hydraulic Pumps
Refer to Figure 6.
11.11.9 - HO - 8
The housing of the angular type of pump is set at an angle to the cylinder block.
Consequently, there is an angle between the direction of movement of the drive shaft
plate and the direction of movement of the pistons (which are driven by links
attached to the drive shaft plate).
The greater this angle, the longer the piston ’stroke’. Therefore a high angle pump
has a greater output for a given size of bore and rate of revolution than a low angle
pump. All parts within the pump turn together as a rotating group except the outer
races of the drive shaft bearings, the cylinder bearing pin and the oil seal.
The geometry of the pump is designed in such way that the pistons do not move in a
horizontal direction. They only rotate as one group. However, this rotational
movement changes the volume between the top of the piston and the valve plate.
This change of volume creates the pumping action.
The coupling shaft is driven by the engine and causes the drive shaft plate to rotate
about the horizontal axis. The links and the pistons are thus compelled to rotate as
well. Because of the fixed installation of the cylinder block a relative movement
between the block and the pistons occurs which causes a varying volume between
piston and valve plate.
Cam Type Hydraulic Pumps
Refer to Figure 7.
In the cam type pump the pistons are driven up and down in the cylinders by a
wedge shape drive cam. The piston ends carry ball joint slippers (so called ’piston
shoes’) which run on slipper pads. The thick part of the cam pushes the piston to the
top of its stroke. As the cam rotates the piston moves down the cylinder until
reaching the thin part of the cam. Then it is at the bottom of its stroke.
Axial Piston Hydraulic Pumps
Refer to Figure 8.
The axial piston (or: swash type) pump is an energy converter, which features an
axial piston arrangement in a barrel shaped housing. Axial piston pumps may be of
the swashplate or of the bent axis design. The latter are available with fixed or
variable displacement.
A circular arrangement of pistons is located parallel to the drive shaft in a fixed
housing. The pistons run in a cylinder barrel which is firmly attached to the drive shaft
by means of a key. The piston ends are of the ball and socket design and run on
slipper pads. The latter are held on a swivelling, but not rotating, swashplate by
means of holding discs. The swashplate forms part of the housing and therefore has
a fixed swash angle. The stroke during the pistons’ travel is relative to the swash
angle which determines the pump’s displacement.
Flow of Fluid
The flow of hydraulic fluid inside a typical, seven piston pump is as follows:
Refer to Figure 9.
At any instant, three of the pistons are moved away from the top of the cylinder block
and produce a partial vacuum in the bores (see Figure 9, detail a), bores 2, 3 and 4).
These three bores are aligned with the crescent shaped inlet port and draw fluid
from the reservoir.
11.11.9 - HO - 9
At the same time the pistons 5, 6 and 7 are moved towards the top face of the
cylinder plate thereby exerting pressure on the fluid in the bores. Since bores 5, 6
and 7 are aligned with the crescent shaped outlet port the fluid is forced through the
port into the pressure line.
The intake and output actions partially overlap which results in an even and steady
discharge which is virtually free from pulsing.
Need for an Odd Number of Pistons
Refer to Figure 9 again.

The effective change of position of each piston in its bore during rotation is similar to
the action inside the bore of a reciprocating engine. It is therefore possible to use the
terms ’top dead center (TDC)’ and ’bottom dead center (BDC)’ when describing the
travel of the pistons.
At these two positions there is no relative movement between the appropriate piston
and the cylinder block. If the pump had an even number of pistons, two of them
would be at rest (one at the TDC and one at the BDC) at any given moment before a
change in the direction of travel occurred. At the same time, one half of the remaining
pistons would be in the intake phase while the other half were in the output phase.
It is unavoidable to have one piston at rest at any given moment of pump operation,
but it is not necessary to have two pistons at rest at the same time. Having two
pistons at rest at any given time causes disadvantages: increased internal friction
and inertia problems.
Because of the associated loss of engine/electric power, all known axial piston
pumps used for aircraft hydraulic systems are designed with an odd number of
pistons.
Variable Displacement Pumps
Note: In some manuals, the term ’variable displacement’ is replaced by ’variable

volume’ or ’variable delivery’.
Variable displacement pumps have a fluid output which can be varied in order to
meet the pressure demands of the system. In some types the amount of fluid
delivered is controlled mechanically, e.g. by turning a screw or hand wheel.
In most hydraulic pumps fitted in aircraft the variation of the fluid output is accom-
plished automatically by a pump compensator inside the pump.
Variable Displacement Pump with Angular Axis Design
Refer to Figure 10.

In the constant displacement pump with angular axis design the angle between the
shaft and the cylinder block axis is fixed, whereas the angle in the variable displace-
ment pump varies automatically according to the demands of the system.
Refer to Figure 11.
The change of the angle is controlled by a yoke carrying the cylinder block which
swivels around a pivot pin. This arrangement allows the yoke and the cylinder block
to tilt from zero (’no flow’) to a ’full flow’ angle.
11.11.9 - HO - 10
As the pivot is moved upwards the control lens and cylinder block are moved
upwards to reduce the angle. As the angle is decreased the pump stroke is
decreased and so output is reduced.
Figure 11, detail a), shows the pressure dropping below 2,850 psi. As the pressure
decreases, the control spring pushes the control piston upwards and closes the
pressure line. No pressure is felt on the shuttle valve and the shut off valve spring
forces the shuttle valve downwards. The control piston spring pushes to the right and
increases the angle of the pump so increasing output.
Figure 11, detail b), shows the pressure at 3,000 psi. The pressure pushes the
control valve piston down against the spring. Fluid is now directed to the shut off
valve which is held in the ’sensitive’ position. The fluid compresses the control piston
spring which allows the pump output to be reduced to minimum.
Figure 11, detail c), shows the output pressure at less than 1,000 psi. An electrical
signal of the LP switch has operated the solenoid which forces the shuttle upwards.
The pressure forces the control piston and pump to the ’no flow’ position.
Variable Displacement Pump with Swashplate Design

Refer to Figure 12.
A variable displacement pump with swashplate design has a circular arrangement of
usually nine pistons which are located parallel to the drive shaft in a fixed housing.
The pistons run in a cylinder housing which is firmly attached to the drive shaft by
means of a key. The piston ends are of the ball and socket design and run on
slipper pads. These are held on a swivelling, but not rotating, swashplate by means
of holding discs.
The swashplate is built into the housing and can be swashed by an actuator up to an
angle of ± 15° off the center. The distance of the pistons’ travel during one stroke is
relative to the swash angle which determines the pump’s displacement.
When the swashplate is in the ’center’ position, i.e. rectangular to the drive shaft, the
piston stroke and thus the pump displacement are (theoretically) zero. Swashing the
pump off the center changes the direction of flow without changing the direction of
rotation.
The axial piston units are controlled via inlets in a port plate. At any given time four of
the moving pistons are connected to the inlet ports. Another four pistons are
connected to the pressure side and displace fluid. The remaining piston is at the
dead point, i.e. at the point of reversal of movement (TDC or BDC).
Variable Displacement Pump with Cam Type Design

Refer to Figure 13.
A cam type design pump has usually nine pistons and cylinders arranged in parallel
to the shaft axis. The pistons are driven up and down in the cylinders by a wedge
shaped drive cam. They are in contact with the cam via ball joint slippers.
When the thick part of the cam pushes the piston the latter moves towards the top of
its stroke until reaching its TDC. As the cam rotates further, the piston moves down
the cylinder again until, at the thin part of the cam, it reaches its BDC (at the thin part
of the cam). In principle, the stroke is always the same regardless of the amount of
fluid demanded by the system, but the effective length of the stroke controls the
actual amount of fluid delivered.
11.11.9 - HO - 11
A constant displacement pump requires some type of unloading valve. In a variable

displacement pump the pressure, which in a constant displacement pump would
finally actuate the unloading valve, is used to control the output.
The balance of forces controlling the pressure exists between the compensator
spring and the compensator stem piston. A passage from the discharge side of the
pump directs output fluid pressure around the compensator stem. This stem is cut
with a shoulder which serves as a piston. As the system pressure rises, this stem is
pushed up, thereby compressing the compensator spring.
Attached to the system is a spider which moves the sleeves up or down the piston.
Refer to Figure 14.
When the pressure is high (Figure 14, detail b)) it acts on the compensator piston to
raise the spider against the compensator spring. The relief holes near the bottom of
the pump pistons are uncovered during the whole stroke. The piston now moves up
and down, but no fluid is forced out of the pump as it is all relieved back into the
pump.
Near the top of the stroke a by pass hole in the piston aligns with a passage in the
pump housing and a small amount of fluid is by passed back into the reservoir, just
enough for lubricating and cooling the pump.
When the pressure is low (Figure 14, detail c)) the compensator spring forces the
spider and the sleeves down the piston and the relief holes are covered when the
piston is near the bottom of its stroke. In this situation the full stroke of the piston is
utilised for pumping fluid. The fluid is delivered via the check valves into the pump
discharge line.
In any condition of intermediate pressure, the sleeves close the relief holes at some
point along the stroke of the piston. This ensures that still enough fluid is pumped to
maintain the system’s pressure at the level for which the compensator spring is set.
Valves
Self Acting Valves
Hydraulic Fuses
Refer to Figure 15.
Hydraulic fuses (or: flow control valves) are incorporated in hydraulic systems in
order to prevent a continuous loss of fluid in the event of a serious leak. Hydraulic
fuses are purely safety devices, i.e. they are not essential for the operation of the
system.
Hydraulic fuses are usually installed in lines which run in hazardous locations or
which lead fluid to components that are located in such places. Flow control valves
are often installed in hydraulic brake systems.
A hydraulic fuse is designed to permit only a limited quantity of fluid to pass through.
Thereafter, it automatically closes to any further flow of fluid.
11.11.9 - HO - 12
A typical fuse basically consists of

V a housing
V a spool assembly (sleeve and piston)
V a piston return spring
V a valve seat
V a bleed screw.
The sleeve is attached to the housing and centered on the axis of the housing. It has
a polished bore in which the piston operates. Communication holes in the sleeve’s
end closest to the outlet port open the bore of the sleeve to a space between the
sleeve and the housing.
The metering plate divides the fluid entering the fuse into streams of different sizes.
The larger streams flow around the outside of the sleeve and the smaller streams
flow through the inside of the sleeve.
Refer to Figure 16.
Whenever the fuse does not transmit fluid, its piston is pushed towards the inlet end by
the piston return spring (Figure 16, detail a)).
As soon as fluid starts flowing through the fuse the stream of fluid entering the sleeve
reacts on the piston. This results in a slow movement of the piston toward the outlet
end of the sleeve. Meanwhile, the stream of fluid, which flows along the outside of
the sleeve, passes through the communication holes in the sleeve and then out of
the fuse outlet port (Figure 16, detail b)).
As long as the quantity of passing fluid is equal to (or less than) the fuse’s rated flow
capacity, the distance of piston travel is less than the maximum distance possible. As
soon as more fluid than the fuse’s rated flow capacity begins to pass through (e.g. in
the case of a leak in the system), the piston will continue its movement until the needle
at the end of the piston reaches and plugs the outlet opening (Figure 16, detail c)). This
will stop any further passage of fluid through the fuse.
The piston will be held in the blocking position by the pressure of the entering fluid until
the pressure is relieved (Figure 16, detail d)). Whenever the pressure is relieved, the
piston return spring retracts the piston, thus making the fuse again ready for another
passage at its rated amount of fluid.
Because of their nature, hydraulic fuses can only be used in hydraulic lines the fluid
of which flows in one direction and not in those with reversed fluid flow at intervals.
Pressure Control Valves
Balanced Pressure Relief Valves
Refer to Figure 17.

The operation of a balanced pressure relief valve is as follows:
When the main valve is closed, the fluid is flowing via the inlet port P and a throttle
bore to the pilot valve. This is held in its seat by a spring. The tension of the spring
and hence the opening pressure of the valve are determined by an adjustment screw
(Figure 17, detail a)).
11.11.9 - HO - 13
At the inlet side of the valve the fluid exerts a pressure pe1. A pressure pe2 (which is
equal to pe1 because of the uniform pressure distribution) is built up via a throttle
bore (the restrictor) behind the main valve, i.e. before reaching the pilot valve.
When the pressure increases, the pressure acting on the cone of the pilot valve
increases as well. If the pressure exceeds the force of the valve’s spring the pilot
valve will open and fluid will flow to the tank T (Figure 17, detail b)).
The opening of the pilot valve causes a drop of the pressure pe2. The quantity of fluid
flowing through the restrictor no longer permits a further increase of pressure pe2. This
results in a pressure difference (∆p) between pe1 and pe2 which increases with rising
pe1.
The increasing pressure difference ∆p causes the piston of the main valve to lift off
its seat against the spring’s force. The fluid can now flow into another system via
port B (Figure 17, detail c)).
Check Valves
Outboard Connectors
Refer to Figure 18.

Quick disconnect fittings (sometimes called ’ground test connectors’ or ’self sealing
couplings’) are installed in hydraulic systems the lines of which are to be discon-
nected frequently, or when it is desired as a convenient means to connect the aircraft
to test stands. Quick disconnect fittings permit the disconnecting of hydraulic lines or
components of a system without draining the system.
A typical quick disconnect fitting is made up of two major assemblies: a ’male’ part
and a ’female’ part. These two halves are coupled together by male and female
threads. One of the halves, usually the female, is installed at the end of a hose. The
mating half is installed at the unit with which the hose is to be connected. Each half of
the quick disconnect fitting incorporates a spring loaded valve device.
When the two halves of the quick disconnect fittings are disconnected, the valve
device in each part closes automatically. This prevents any drainage of fluid. It also
prevents the entry of foreign matter into the component or line.
When the halves are coupled together, the valve device in each part opens and
permits the free passage of fluid through the fitting.
There are three types of quick disconnect fittings most commonly used in hydraulic
systems:
V One type requires the use of wrenches for coupling and uncoupling the parts.
It can easily be distinguished from the other types by the hexagon contour of
its halves.
Refer to Figure 19.

V The second type may be coupled or uncoupled by hand. It has flutes
(rounded grooves) instead of hexagon flats on the exterior surfaces of the
female half. Its locking mechanism is of the ratchet type. The purpose of the
ratchet lock is to eliminate loosening or separation of the halves caused by
vibration.
11.11.9 - HO - 14
Refer to Figure 20.

V The third and most effective type of quick disconnect fittings differs from the
second type principally in the design of its locking mechanism.
The mechanism is based on a spring loaded union nut instead of a ratchet.
The sleeve has internal hexagon flats in the female half, which interlock with
external hexagon flats on the male half. The only way in which the two halves
can be uncoupled is by sliding the spring loaded sleeve of the female half
away from the interlocking engagement with the mating hexagon of the male
half.
Flow Control Valves

To operate hydraulic systems and components as intended, the flow of fluid must be
rigidly controlled. Fluid must be made to flow according to definite plans. Many kinds
of valve are used for exercising such control.
Selector Valves
One of the most familiar flow control valves is the selector valve, which determines
the direction of the flow of fluid e.g. to extend or to retract the landing gear or to
select the position of the wing flaps.
There are two commonly used types of selector valves. The open center valve
directs fluid through the center of the valve back to the reservoir when a unit is not
being actuated. The closed center valve stops the flow of fluid when it is in its neutral
position. Both valves direct fluid from the pump to one side of the actuator and vent
the opposite side to the reservoir.
Indirectly Controlled Selector Valves

Refer to Figure 21.
Selector valves, which are designed to switch higher pressures and quantities, are
indirectly controlled.
The reason is that the forces on the valve spool during switching are very high. The
pre control valve (also called: ’pilot valve’) is normally electrically controlled, but can
be controlled mechanically, hydraulically or pneumatically as well. The pilot valve will
be supplied via a hydraulic line. It can be supplied internally and externally.
When the right solenoid is energised, the pilot valve moves to the left side. The left
chamber is now pressurised while the right chamber is still connected to the return
line. The increasing pressure moves the spool valve against the spring to the right
side until it touches the housing. Now port P is connected with port B and port A with
port T.
When the solenoid is de energised, the spring loaded pilot valve moves back to the
center position. It blocks the pressure and connects both chambers to the return line.
Servo Valves
Servo valves are similar to selector valves. A selector valve controls an actuator (in,
out or stop). The force on the actuator piston is dependant upon the pressure and the
fluid flow. Servo valves are able to influence pressure and flow to the consumer by
piston overlapping. Depending on the size of the pistons this overlapping can occur
in either of the following three ways:
11.11.9 - HO - 15
Refer to Figure 22.

V Positive overlapping:
If in neutral position, the piston will overlap the ports in the housing. There is no
connection between the ports. For connecting the ports a large movement of the
piston is necessary.
V Zero overlapping:
Only a minimum of piston movement is necessary to connect the ports.
V Negative overlapping:
If the valve is in neutral position, there will be a very small connection
between the ports in the housing.
Refer to Figure 23.
Overlapping in servo valves can be obtained by different piston shapes.
Way Servo Valves
Refer to Figure 24.

With a way servo valve (or directional control or proportional valve) it is possible to
control acceleration, travel and deceleration of an actuator, i.e. both direction and
speed can be controlled with one device. The output fluid flow is proportional to the
input current of the solenoids, i.e. the electrical input signals are converted into a
proportional force.
Example: The pilot servo valve is a pressure regulating valve controlled by a DC solenoid.
Pressure Servo Valves
Refer to Figure 25.

In way servo (directional control) valves the input signal (current) is proportional to
the produced output signal (pressure) whereby pressure servo valves have a
regulating loop circuit.
In this circuit the actual valve pressure is continuously compared with the theoretical
(pre set) value. If there is any deviation the valve (and hence the actual pressure)
will be adjusted.
A pressure servo valve consists of the valve as such, a torque motor (connected to
the current) and a hydraulic amplifier.
Refer to Figure 26.
The main parts of the torque motor are
V a permanent magnet
V an anchor with solenoids
V a reflection plate.
The reflection plate and the control solenoids are supported in an elastic tube. When
a solenoid is energised the reflection plate deflects against the forces of the tube.
The deflection is proportional to the applied current. When the current is removed the
reflection plate moves back to its center position.
11.11.9 - HO - 16
In the hydraulic amplifier, the deflection of the reflection plate is converted into
hydraulic pressure.
Refer to Figure 25 again.
Example: When the reflection plate is moving to the left side its distance to the two control
nozzles is changed. Pressure pA at port A increases and pressure pB at port B
decreases.
The nozzles are designed in such a way that the characteristics of the differential
pressure 11p are linear to the current applied.
As long as the assembly is de energised, the spool of the control valve is held by
springs in its center position. Furthermore, it is pressurised with the system pressure
through the screen filter and the restrictors.
If there is a pressure difference between pA and pB the spool of the control valve
starts to move against one of the springs until it is in balance. Larger spool move-
ment increases the flow through the servo valve and, in turn, increases the speed of
the fluid flow.
Hydraulic Motors
Rotary Motors
Cam Type Axial Piston Motor
Refer to Figure 27.
The cam type axial piston motor comprises the following main functional parts:
V axial pistons
V a cam plate
V a rotating drum with cylinders.
Any number of axial pistons may be accommodated in the drum, although the
minimum number for proper operation is three. The greater the number of axial
pistons, the more uniform the rotation of the hydraulic motor.
Fluid under pressure continually enters the housing of the axial pistons and flows
between the cam plate and the drum. This fluid is to be removed by means of a drain
line so that the housing is always filled with leakage fluid. If the housing were empty,
air could enter the hydraulic system.
The cam plate is required to ensure separation between the inlet and the outlet
sides. The rotating drum with cylinder ports slides past this stationary cam plate.
Several axial pistons must be combined to provide the torque required. This is
assured by providing a kidney shaped pressure zone in the cam plate.
In the hydraulic motor shown in Figure 27, four of the nine axial pistons are pressur-
ised by fluid as the result of the kidney shaped openings of the cam plate. Another
four pistons are connected to the reservoir, while one piston is at its BDC. The axial
piston at BDC is shut off from both the pressure and the return line.
11.11.9 - HO - 17
After traversing the pressure zone and the so called ’cover zone’ at BDC, the axial
pistons are caused by the rotary motion to reach the return zone which has also a
kidney shaped opening in the cam plate. From here, the fluid returns to the reservoir.
11.11.9 - HO - 18
Filler cap
Full Primary return

Sight glass
Add
Stand--by return
Filter
Main chamber
Guide
Proximity
sensor A
Float
Stand--by
chamber
Proximity
sensor B
B 5111 A
Figure 1 Non Pressurised Hydraulic Reservoir

11.11.9 - HO - 19
Filler neck, Connection for

cap and fastener vent line or
pressurising line
Normal fluid level
Glass gauge sight
Finger strainer
Fin Fin
Baffle
Connection
for return line
Stand
pipe
Fin Fin
E 1331 B
Connection Connection for

for emergency main system pump
system pump
Figure 2 Air Pressurised Hydraulic Reservoir

11.11.9 - HO - 20
Normal condition
Low level condition
Operation with external hydraulic power

FB 2835 C
Figure 3 Fluid Pressurised Hydraulic Reservoir

11.11.9 - HO - 21
Outlet Outlet
FE 1332 B
Inlet Inlet
In (or down) stroke Out (or up) stroke
Figure 4 Double Acting Hand Pump

11.11.9 - HO - 22
a) Angular type piston pump

a
Outlet port
P
T
Inlet port
b) Cam type piston pump

Outlet port
a
Inle por
c) Swash type piston pump
a
Outlet port
Legend: T
FE 1333 C
Moving parts
Fixed parts Inlet port
Pressure line
Supply line
Figure 5 Piston Type Hydraulic Pumps

11.11.9 - HO - 23
alve pla
Cylinder bearing pin
Drive shaft plate Universal link Piston A Cylinder block
Seal
Valve plate
Coupling
shaft
Radial
bearing Inlet port
Outlet port
B 2836 C
Drain port Thrust bearing Radial bearing Piston B
Figure 6 Constant Angular Type Pump

MIAT
Oil seal
Internal Drive shaft

splines and cam Check valve Intake
Module 11
Drainage recess
Outlet
Drain port Springs Piston Pressure annulus
Figure 7 Constant Cam Type Pump

11.11.9 - HO - 24
11.11.9 - HO - 25
Piston shoe Piston Cylinder block
FE 1334 D
Swashplate Bearing Spring Drive shaft
Legend: P = Pressure
I = Inlet
TX = Leakage line
Figure 8 Constant Axial Piston (Swash Type)

Pump
11.11.9 - HO - 26
a) Intake and output fluid
Caused by the clockwise turning of the

9 1 motor driving the pump, fluid enters bores 2,
Pressure 2 Inlet
3, 4 and 5 and pistons 2, 3, 4 and 5 move
8 3 outwards.
Pistons 6, 7, 8 and 9 are moving down their
7 4 bores, thereby expelling fluid under pressure.
6 5 Piston 1 is empty.
b) Need for an odd number of pistons
a = zero Drive shaft

.
Piston rod
Piston Cylinder block
6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5
1
E 1335 E
Valve plate
360°
Pressure
channel Pressure port Inlet port Suction channel
Figure 9 Piston Pump Control

Shaft End stop Yoke Inlet Compensator piston
MIAT Module 11
Adjusting screw
Actuator
Cylinder block Control lens Pivot Outlets
Figure 10 Variable Displacement Pump (Angular Axis Design)

11.11.9 - HO - 27
11.11.9 - HO - 28
Case drain line P < 2,850 psi

Control piston Shut off valve
a) 1
Outlet port
1 1
3 Shut off valve
Pump 2 5
yoke
Control piston
Control Control valve
spring
Drive Spring
shaft Adjusting screw
4 Solenoid
Drain line
Suction line
Cylinder block
P = 3,000 psi
b) 1
1
1
3
2 5
Relief valve
P < 1,000 psi

c)1
3
1 5
Legend:
1 = Outlet pressure lines
2 = Compensator pressure lines
FE 1337 E
3 = Control piston pressure lines

4 = To relief valve
5 = Low pressure switch
P = Outlet pressure
Figure 11 Pump Control Mechanism

11.11.9 - HO - 29
Retainer ring
Cylinder block spring Piston shoe
Front bearing Piston
Drive shaft
Shaft seal
Bearing
Valve plate
Actuator Cylinder
block Swashplate Spring
Piston shoe hold--down plate
Pcase
Cylinder block
Control valve
Outlet Swashplate
(High pressure)
Drive shaft
FE 1338 C
Inlet
(Low pressure)
Control
pressure
Pressure adjustment Actuator
Figure 12 Variable Displacement Pump

(Swashplate Design)
Creep plate Piston sleeve Compensator By--pass port Compensator
MIAT
Creep plate stem piston bushing
Nutating bearing Drive cam
plate
Seal
plate Discharge
Drive Compensator
coupling spring
Module 11
Mating
ring Adjusting
screw
Seal
ring
Check valve
Check spring

Seal
spring

Mating ring Intake
FB 5112 A
11.11.9 - HO - 30
Piston Nutating
plate
pivot Cylinder block Intake passage Cylinder bore
Figure 13 Variable Displacement Pump (Cam Type Design)

11.11.9 - HO - 31
a) Operational diagram Intake Control orifice Compensator spring
Drive shaft
Relief
holes Spider
Drive cam
Piston sleeve Compensator piston Discharge
The spider moves the piston sleeves in order to vary the effective
stroke. This movement is a function of the balance of forces between
the compensator spring and the force on the compensator piston.
b) Non flow c) Full flow

Relief holes Sleeve Orifice Compensator stem By pass passage
By pass hole Compensator spring
FE 1339 A
The pressure is high. The compensator When pressure is low, the compen
piston has moved the spider to the top. sator spring moves the spider down
There is no flow out of the discharge. and closes the relief hole as soon as
the piston starts moving upwards.
This provides maximum flow.
By pass pressure Discharge pressure
Figure 14 Control Mechanism of a Cam Type

Pump
MIAT
Spool
Sealing Back up
Housing Restrictor
ring ring
Bleed screw
Seal
Outlet
Module 11
port
FB 5129 C
Piston
Adaptor return Valve seat Connector Nut

plug Gasket spring End cap Thrust

seal wire
11.11.9 - HO - 32
Figure 15 Hydraulic Fuse (Example)
11.11.9 - HO - 33
a) Normal operation Supply

Spool moves against
spring pressure Pressure
Spool drop
Flow demand
Spool movement
b) Normal operation
Flow
demand
ceased
c) Leak condition Supply
Leak in
hydraulic
line
Spool movement
closes outlet
d) Bleed screw open
Spring pressure Supply
returns spool
Bleed
screw
opened
Hydraulic
pressure
released
FE 1340 E
Spool movement
Figure 16 Operation of Hydraulic Fuses

11.11.9 - HO - 34
a) Valve with adjustment screw
Pilot valve Spring Adjusting

T screw
Housing
Spring
Pe2
Main
Restrictor valve
Inlet port P Pe1
B
b) Pressure increased
T Spring Adjusting
Pilot valve screw
Housing
Pe2
Spring
c) Fluid flow Pe2
Housing
Restrictor
Legend:
FE 1341 C
P P = Inlet pressure
Pe1 T = Return
Main Pe1 = Pressure in front
valve of main valve
B Pe2 = Pressure behind
main valve
B = Outlet pressure
Figure 17 Pressure Relief Valve
11.11.9 - HO - 35
a) Disconnected
Male half Female half
b) Connected
E 1343
Figure 18 Operation of Outboard Connectors

MIAT
Flush
Module 11
Approx.
Main plate Gap 0.080 inch
No gap
Figure 19 Outboard Connector (Ratchet Lock Type)

11.11.9 - HO - 36
11.11.9 - HO - 37
Disconnected, both valves closed
Union nut
Spring Sleeve
Bulkhead half Hose attaching half

(male) (female)
Fully coupled and locked, both valves open
Spring ubular valve

Poppet valve
Spring
E 1342 A
Figure 20 Outboard Connector (Union Lock

Type)
MIAT
System pressure
Spring
Spring
Right chamber
Left chamber
Module 11
Valve spool
Pressure line
X T A P B Y
Figure 21 Indirectly Controlled Selector Valve

11.11.9 - HO - 38
11.11.9 - HO - 39
FB 5051 A
Figure 22 Piston Overlapping

11.11.9 - HO - 40
Sharp edged leading edge
Chamfered leading edge
Grooved leading edge

B 5052 A
Figure 23 Piston Shapes

Pilot valve
Solenoid Solenoid
Connector
Housing
MIAT
Housing
Control valve
Module 11
Left chamber Spring Right chamber

Valve Spring
spool
Figure 24 Way Servo Valve

11.11.9 - HO - 41
MIAT
Torque motor
Hydraulic amplifier
Adjusting screw
Module 11
Control valve
FE 1347 D
Spring

Housing Control valve Spring Adjusting screw
11.11.9 - HO - 42
= control pressure at port A = control pressure at port B
Figure 25 Pressure Servo Valve

MIAT
Solenoid Reflection plate Solenoid Permanent magnet
Torque motor
Module 11
Elastic tube
Hydraulic line Hydraulic amplifier
System pressure

A St P T B St

FE 1346 A
Filter Restrictor
11.11.9 - HO - 43
Figure 26 Torque Motor and Hydraulic Amplifier
11.11.9 - HO - 44
Axial piston
Cam plate
Drum
Outlet Swash plate
Shaft
bearing
Output
shaft
Inlet
Cover
zone
Outlet
Cam zone
plate
Inlet
zone
Dead
center
FE 1348 B
Figure 27 Cam Type Rotary Hydraulic Motor

11.11.10 - HO - 1
Aircraft Hydraulic Systems
Note: The hydraulic systems described below are systems of existing aircraft. Although
they are typical of these types of aircraft, certain details may vary according to
the manufacturers (e.g. pressure limits, designations of sensors and switches
etc.). Therefore the descriptions are to be looked at as examples only.
Turboprop Aircraft
Refer to Figure 1.
System Description
The main hydraulic system of a typical turboprop aircraft has a primary and a
standby subsystem. Primary subsystem pressure is generated by an axial piston
main pump driven by an AC electric motor (AC main pump). Standby subsystem
pressure is generated by a gear type pump driven by a DC electric motor (DC
standby pump). The standby pump can be activated automatically or manually.
During cruising flight the only hydraulic loads are the roll spoilers, but hydraulic power
is available for all other loads as well. An automatically activated priority valve
ensures that hydraulic power is removed from the loads except the roll spoilers in the
event of a low fluid level in the main reservoir. At the discretion of the flight crew the
priority valve can be activated or disabled manually.
Primary Subsystem
The AC main pump operates when the MAIN sensor/light at the hydraulic power
panel is pressed (assuming electric power on the AC bus system is available). The
pump draws hydraulic fluid from the main reservoir and supplies the fluid under
pressure through a pressure filter to the consumer systems. Fluid is returned from
the consumers through a return filter to the reservoir.
Standby Subsystem
The DC standby pump can be operated either automatically or manually. The
automatic mode is set when the standby sensor at the hydraulic power panel is set
to ’AUTO’. In this mode the standby pump will start automatically if the system
pressure falls below approx. 1,950 psi (approx. 137.1 bar).
The pump will stop automatically when the system pressure increases to approx.
2,880 psi (approx. 202.5 bar). The standby pump will also start automatically when
the AC main pump is set to off and either the priority valve is activated or the priority
valve sensor is set to ’ROLL’.
Manual operation is selected when the standby sensor is set to ’MAN’. In this mode
the standby pump operates continuously until de selected.
When the standby pump is operating with the priority valve not being activated,
hydraulic fluid is supplied under pressure to the consumer systems and returned in the
same way as in the primary subsystem to the reservoir. When the standby pump is
operating with the priority valve activated, hydraulic fluid is supplied to the roll spoilers
only.
The standby pump is disabled when the standby sensor is set to ’OFF’.
11.11.20 - HO - 1
Fighter Aircraft
Refer to Figure 2.
System Description
The hydraulic power supply system shown in Figure 2 consists of two independent
hydraulic systems (1 and 2). The pressure of the hydraulic system 1 is generated by
the main supply.
The pressure of the hydraulic system 2 is generated by the main supply and an
auxiliary supply. An electrical pump is connected in parallel to the hydraulic pump of
the main supply for back up in case of a hydraulic pressure drop.
During normal operation, both hydraulic systems supply the powered flight controls
circuit and the general supply circuit simultaneously.
The powered flight controls circuit of hydraulic system 1 consists of the working
circuits for
V aileron controls
V stabilator controls
V rudder controls
V yaw damper.
The powered flight controls circuit of hydraulic system 2 consists of the working
circuits for
V aileron controls
V stabilator controls
V rudder controls
V flaps.
The general supply circuit of hydraulic system 1 consists of the working circuits for
V speed brakes
V landing gear and landing gear doors (normal extension and retraction)
V anti skid system.
The general supply circuit of hydraulic system 2 consists of the working circuits for
V landing gear and doors (emergency extension)
V emergency and parking brake (supply via the emergency brake circuit)
V stabilator differential device
V nose wheel steering.
Typical Twin Engined Turbojet Aircraft

Refer to Figure 3.
Hydraulic Power Distribution
There are three independent hydraulic systems: left, right and center. The systems
are powered by a total of seven pumps. Additional pumps in each system ensure
reliability.
11.11.30 - HO - 1
There are two levels of system redundancy: the primary flight controls have inputs
from the three separate systems to power the actuators for the control surfaces and
autopilot servos. Dual power is used for the elevator feel unit, the stabiliser trim, the
yaw damper servos and the brakes. Thrust reverser, landing gear and lift device
systems use a single hydraulic power source only.
The left and right systems are similar to each other. Each system contains one
engine driven pump (EDP) and one AC motor pump (ACMP). A power transfer unit
(PTU) connects both systems.
Components powered by the left system include the flight controls, landing gear,
brakes, left engine thrust reverser, hydraulic motor generator and nose wheel
steering. The left system can be powered by the right hydraulic system through the
PTU using reserve fluid from the reservoir for emergency operation of the landing
gear, lift devices and nose wheel steering.
There is a hydraulic motor generator located in the left system to provide electric power
in the event of loss of the main AC buses. The hydraulic motor generator can also be
driven by the PTU.
The hydraulic motor in the right system powers a hydraulic pump in the left system to
provide sufficient flow to retract the landing gear and lift devices in the event of loss of
the left engine or left engine driven pump.
The actuator for retracting the ram air turbine (RAT) is powered by the right system
as well.
The center hydraulic system is smaller than the left and right systems. It has two
ACMPs and powers only flight controls. A RAT powers the system to provide
hydraulic power for emergency operation of the flight controls. The components of
the system are located in the wheel wells and body fairings.
Components powered by the right system include flight controls, brakes, PTU and the
right engine thrust reverser. Isolation valves provide ACMP output to the brakes only by
utilising reservoir reserve fluid.
MIAT Module 11
min. 1,950 psi

max. 2,880 psi
Legend:
Pressure line
Suction line
Return line
11.11.40 - HO - 1
Figure 1 Hydraulic Power Supply of a Typical Turboprop Aircraft

EASA Part 66
MIAT Cat B1
11.11.10 - HO - 5
AILERON CONTROLS
FB 2839 A
STABILATOR CONTROLS
RUDDER CONTROLS
YAW DAMPER
FLAPS
SPEED BRAKES
DIFFERENTIAL DEVICE
NOSE WHEEL STEERING
Figure 2 Hydraulic Power Supply of a Typical

Fighter Aircraft
MIAT
Left system Center system Right system
Left
system Right
return Center system
system return
return
Reservoir
fill selection Supply
SOV valve isolation SOV
valve
M M M M M M
Pressure
isolation
valve
Module 11
Spoilers
Ailerons
Elevators
Thrust Tail
SOVs Tail
reverser SOV RAT
Rudder retraction
Alternate
brakes Stab trim

FE 1349 C
Hydraulic
Flaps/slats motor Normal brakes
Legend:

generator Autopilot
PTU Supply
Landing gear control Pressure
valve Yaw damper
11.11.10 - HO - 6
Return
Nose--wheel SOV= Shut--off valve
steering PTU = Power transfer unit
RAT = Ram air turbine
Figure 3 Hydraulic Power Supply
of a Typical Twin Engined Jet
Aircraft

11.11 Hydraulic Power

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Aerodyn.

Hydraulic Power (ATA 29)

Like any system, hydraulics has advantages and disadvantages.

Hydraulics is quite similar to pneumatics, the difference is in the method of energy

When compared to pneumatic systems the main disadvantages of hydraulic systems

Physical Properties and Laws of Hydraulic Fluids

Figure 1 illustrates a hydraulic press, also called ’Bramah press’ (according to

Hydraulic Transmission of Forces

Ratio of Areas and Forces

Operation of the Hydraulic Press

The inverse system of the hydraulic press is a pressure multiplier.

Hydrodynamics is the science of forces acting on or produced by fluids.

Friction and Flow

Hydraulic energy cannot be transmitted through pipelines without losses. Friction is

This pressure loss at constrictions is a result of conversion to thermal energy. It is

Figure 1 Hydraulic Press (Bramah Press)

Shut off valve FA 6542 B

Figure 2 Principle of the Hydraulic Press

Figure 4 Law of Volume Flow

Figure 5 Pressure Loss in a Hydraulic Fluid

Introduction to Hydraulic Circuits

Hydraulic power is carried by the hydraulic fluid.

The fluid in a hydraulic system performs various tasks:

Appropriate safety precautions have to be strictly observed when working with

Hydraulic Power Generation

Hydraulic power is generated by a driven pump. The pump

Up to now, there are 2 main elements at the power generation level:

In technical applications reservoir, pump and associated valves are summarised to

Hydraulic Power Distribution

The DCV in this example has three switching positions:

The result is that no hydraulic pressure is applied to the actuator.

When the directional control valve in Figure 1 is moved by one switching

Figure 1 illustrates a double sided (double acting) hydraulic cylinder (’actuator’).

Besides hydraulic cylinders, a number of other components can be used as

Hydraulic System Safety

Pressure relief valve

Directional control Power distribution and

Figure 1 Hydraulic Circuit: Basic Set Up

Components of Hydraulic Circuits

Components of the Reservoir

Fluid Level Indicators

The fluid level is checked regularly by means of a dipstick or shown by indicator

Hydraulic Service Components

Pressure Relief Valve

The hydraulic pump in such systems needs only to be of sufficient capacity to

The gas bag accumulator comprises the following functional parts:

Fluid level uction line

Aerodyn., Structures, Systems

Hydraulic Power (ATA 29)

Figure 2 Principles of Displacement Pumps

ane pumps Reciprocating piston pumps

Aerodyn., Structures, Systems

Hydraulic Power (ATA 29)

Gear pump Radial piston pump

Axial piston pump

Axial piston pump

Series--piston pump Vane pump

Figure 4 Examples of Hydraulic Pumps

FA 6551 C Fil er element

Valve opens in the event