lOMoARcPSD|38912466

Computer maintenance - notes

computer science (Machakos University)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS

Department of Information technology

DIT 1305: PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTER SUPPORT &

MAINTENANCE

Additional Instructional materials for Computer

support and maintenance

@ JAN - APRIL 2019

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 1

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

CHAPTER ONE;

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SUPPORT & MAINTENANCE

What is computer support ?.

Computer support is the process of providing diagnostic, troubleshooting, maintenance and
repair services to a computer or similar device.
It allows end users to seek and receive specialized computer maintenance and management
services, either locally from their home/office or remotely via the Internet.

What is computer maintenance ?

Computer maintenance is the practice of keeping computers in a good state of repair.
Computer maintenance or repair is the process of identifying, troubleshooting and resolving problems and
issues in a faulty computer. Computer repair is a broad field encompassing many tools, techniques and
procedures used to repair computer hardware, software or network/Internet problems. It involves
1. Back up your data.
2. Clean dust from your computer.
3. Clean up your cabling, and repairing networks too.
4. Organize and checking your installation disks.
5. Run antivirus and spyware scans regularly.
6. Clean up your software and repairing softwares.
7. Clean up your OS.
8. Update everything.

Reasons as to why computer maintenance is important:

 Prevent unexpected down times by rectifying problems before they occur
 Prolong the life of computers systems
 Results in increase of computer speed.
 It prevents errors
 It secures data and information
 It saves time.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 2

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

Maintenance Tools & equipments:

Tools that can be used to maintain and repair a computer system include.
 Nut drivers: Removes the hexagonal-headed screws that secure the system-
unit covers, adapter boards, disk drives, power supplies, and speakers in most
systems. They work much better than conventional screwdrivers.
 Torx driver: A special, star-shaped driver that matches the special screws
found in most Compaq systems and in many other systems as well.
 Chip-extraction and insertion tools: Used to install or remove memory
chips (or other smaller chips) without bending any pins on the chip.
 Tweezers and parts grabber: Can be used to hold any small screws or
jumper blocks that are difficult to hold in your hand. The parts grabber is
especially useful when you drop a small part into the interior of a system.
 Pliers: Straightens pins on chips, applying or removing jumpers, crimping
cables, or grabbing small parts.

What is system documentation?

system documentation: The collection of documents that describes the
requirements, capabilities, limitations, design, operation, and maintenance of a
system, documentation is the information that describes the product to its users

Importance of system documentation

 Teaches users how to install and maintain an application
 Provides a representation on how the system works
 Provides ideas for other people to refer to

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 3

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

Types of system documentation

a) Component and Peripheral Documentation
The specific OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) manuals for each
major component such as the motherboard, video card, hard disk, floppy
drive, CD-ROM drive, modem, network card, SCSI adapter, and so on.
b) Chip and Chipset Documentation
The most specific and technical manuals which cover items such as the
processor, motherboard chipset, super I/O chip, BIOS, memory modules,
video chipset, and various disk controller, SCSI bus interface, network
interface
c) Manufacturer-Specific Documentation
If your system is from a name-brand manufacturer--such as IBM,
Compaq, Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba, and others--then there may be a
wealth of information available in manufacturer-specific manuals and
documentation.
d) System-level documentation.
The system-specific manual(s) put together by the system manufacturer or
assembler. Some companies break this down further into Operations,
Technical Reference, and Service manuals.
e) Warranties and Service Contracts
Extended warranties are a more recent trend in the computer industry. With
the current fierce competition among hardware vendors, a good warranty is
one way for a specific manufacturer to stand out from the crowd.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 4

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

CHAPTER TWO;

THE POWER SUPPLY UNIT – PSU

WHAT IS A PSU?

This is the device that supplies power to various components of a computer. It pulls the required
amount of electricity and converts the AC current to DC current, and regulates the voltage to
eliminate spikes and surges

The exact contents of any supply vary depending on both the supply's form factor and its
individual design, but most of them have the same general components.

THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A POWER SUPPLY

It involves converting the 240v AC to 12v DC and 5v DC. this process requires the voltage to be
reduced from 240v AC to DC and to control and prevent unwanted variations.

The 240v AC from the main supply gets into to the PSU and is received by the transformer which
is used to step down the incoming supply to 5v and 12v AC needed on the component.

This is followed by a rectifier which converts the 12v and 5v AC to 12v DC and 5v Dc
respectively. It then gets to a filter, a capacitor and other components whose components is to
smoothen the current.

Finally, it gets to a regulator which is an electric circuit that can adjust the computer voltage to a
precise level and support and prevent unwanted variations.

One regulator handles +12v DC and the other handles +5v DC hence the voltage produced on the
power connectors is +12v DC, -12v DC, +5v DC and -5v DC.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 5

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

 Transformer - steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing - smoothens the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Signs of a faulty Power Supply

Here is a list of common power supply failure symptoms:

 There are strange noises coming from the back side of the computer where the power cord
plugs into the power supply.
 Nothing happens when the computer power button is pressed. Sometimes a light may flash
or flash continuously in the front of the computer or on the back of the power supply.

 The computer turns on for a few seconds and then turns off. (Sometimes this is
unfortunately associated with motherboard failures.

 Computer turns on for a while, but when games or other applications are using the
computer steadily, it will turn off or I get a blue screen.

The following is a list of PC problems that often are related to the power supply:

 Any power-on or system startup failures or lockups.

 Spontaneous rebooting or intermittent lockups during normal operation.
BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 6

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

 Intermittent parity check or other memory-type errors.

 Hard disk and fan simultaneously failing to spin (no +12v).
 Overheating due to fan failure.
 Small brownouts cause the system to reset.
 Electric shocks felt on the system case or connectors.
 Slight static discharges disrupt system operation.

The following fairly obvious symptoms point right to the power supply as a possible cause:

 System is completely dead (no fan, no cursor)

 Smoke.
 Blown circuit breakers

Power Supply Troubleshooting

The first place to start is always confirming that the power supply is operating properly. When
you start troubleshooting a dead computer, never ignore the possibility that the AC power to
the PC's power supply is at fault. Power supplies often fail gradually, giving rise to symptoms
that appear to be caused by individual component failure. Many cheaper PC's ship with power
supplies I would basically describe as "disposable." If I had to choose one part to blame the
majority of intermittent failures in cheap PC's on, it would be the power supply.

Symptoms of an overloaded power supply

 Overheating
 Spontaneous rebooting

Power problems you may expect and need to protect your devices from
 Overvoltages (spikes and surges)
 Undervoltages (brownouts)
 Power failure (blackouts)
 Noisy power (interference)

PSU FORM FACTORS:

QUIZ:

a) With the help of a diagram, Discuss the various PSU form factors stating clearly the key
features of each.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 7

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

CHAPTER THREE:

THE MOTHERBOARDS;

A motherboard is the main board of a computer, usually containing the circuitry for the central
processing unit, keyboard, and monitor and often having slots for accepting additional circuitry.

Types of Motherboards
There are two major types of system boards namely:

Integrated system board

They are called so because the components that would otherwise be installed as expansion
cards are integrated into motherboard circuitry. They were designed because of their simplicity.
They have a disadvantage that when one component breaks you can’t replace the components,
you must replace the whole motherboard.

Non-integrated system board.

They have each major assembly installed in computers as expansion cards. These major
assemblies include the disk controllers, video display controller and their accessories etc.
They can be easily identified because each expansion slot is usually occupied by the mentioned
components.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 8

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

Motherboards

Motherboard components:

1. Mouse & keyboard: Keyboard Connectors are two types basically. All PCs have a Key board
port connected directly to the motherboard.
2. USB (Universal serial bus):
USB is the General-purpose connection for PC. You can find USB versions of many different
devices, such as mice, keyboards, scanners, cameras, and even printers. a USB connector's
distinctive rectangular shape makes it easily recognizable.

3. Parallel port: Most printers use a special connector called a parallel port. Parallel port carry
data on more than one wire, as opposed to the serial port, which uses only one wire. Parallel
ports use a 25-pin female DB connector.

4. CPU Chip : The central processing unit, also called the microprocessor performs all the
calculations that take place inside a pc. CPUs come in Variety of shapes and sizes.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 9

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

5. RAM slots: Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data currently being used
by the CPU. RAM is measured in units called bytes.

6. Floppy controller: The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon cable,
which in turn connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is one that is used to control
the floppy drive.
7. PCI slot: Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus protocol. The PCI bus
is used to connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID controllers) to the main logic of the
computer. PCI bus has replaced the ISA bus.
8. ISA slot: (Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard architecture of the Expansion
bus. Motherboard may contain some slots to connect ISA compatible cards.
9. CMOS Battery: To provide CMOS with the power when the computer is turned off all
motherboards comes with a battery. These batteries mount on the motherboard in one of
three ways: the obsolete external battery, the most common onboard battery, and built-in
battery.
10. AGP slot: If you have a modern motherboard, you will almost certainly notice a single
connector that looks like a PCI slot, but is slightly shorter and usually brown. You also
probably have a video card inserted into this slot. This is an Advanced Graphics Port (AGP)
slot
11. CPU slot: To install the CPU, just slide it straight down into the slot. Special notches in the
slot make it impossible to install them incorrectly. So remember if it does not go easily, it is
probably not correct. Be sure to plug in the CPU fan's power.
12. Power supply plug in: The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the necessary
electrical power to make the pc operate. the power supply takes standard 110-V AC power
and converts into +/-12-Volt, +/-5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt DC power.

 Northbridge - Definition: Refers to the System Controller component of a Pentium

chipset, responsible for integrating the cache and main memory DRAM control
functions and for managing the host and PCI buses.
 South bridge - Refers to the Peripheral Bus Controller component of a Pentium
chipset, responsible for implementing a PCI-to-ISA bridge function and for
managing the ISA bus and all the ports.

The slots and ports found on a motherboard include:

 Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)- connections for video, sound and
video capture cards, as well as network cards
 Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) - dedicated port for video cards.
 Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) - interfaces for the hard drives
 Universal Serial Bus or FireWire - external peripherals
 Memory slots

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 10

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

MOTHERBOARD FORM FACTORS

Motherboard form factors: Determines general layout, size and feature placement on the motherboard.
Form factors such as physical size, shape, component placement, power supply connectors etc. Various

Determines general layout, size and feature placement on the motherboard.Form factors such as
physical size, shape, component placement, power supply connectors etc.

Various form factors of motherboards are AT, Baby AT, ATX, Mini-ATX, Micro-ATX, Flex
ATX, LPX and Mini LPX and NLX.

1) AT (Full and Baby)

The AT motherboard actually comes in two different types: Full and Baby. The primary
difference between the two types is a matter of size, with the Full form at approximately 12" wide
and the Baby at about 8.5" wide. The Full form is usually found with 386 or earlier computers and
fits in a wider case. However, most AT-type motherboards in today’s computer systems are
usually Baby ATs.

Regardless of which type of AT motherboard you are working with, the characteristics are
basically the same. The processor is normally located in the front of the board, which has been an
annoyance to many technicians attempting to install a new expansion card. The serial and parallel
ports are actually located on the back of the case, and attach to the motherboard by headers.

AT (Advanced Technology):

 Oldest and biggest form factor and popular until Baby AT.
 Capable of using 386 processor.
 12' inch size and was difficult to install, service and upgrade.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 11

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

Baby AT:

A Baby AT motherboard is 8.5″ wide and 13″ long. The reduced width means much less overlap in most
cases with the drive bays, although there usually is still some overlap at the front of the case.

 Standard in computer industries and still being used in Pentium class products.
 CPU socket is placed in such a way that it can interfere with longer bus cards.
 Limitation over peripheral card installation.
 I/O ports are connected to pin-outs near the floppy drive which results in jumbling of
ribbon cables.

Advantages of the Baby AT Motherboard Design

The size of 8.5” by 10” makes it easier to design smaller desktop PCs
Most of the board is easily accessible for upgrades and expansion

Disadvantages of the Baby AT design

CPU location – with the processor and heat sink in place, it is difficult to fit a long expansion
card into one of the expansion slots. This is the main problem encountered with the AT-style
motherboard-the CPU can get in the way of the expansion cards.

Motherboard mounting – some system cases are not drilled or punched to support all the
mounting holes on a Baby AT mother-board.

Therefore, the front edge of the system board tends to be left unsupported and over time this edge
can warp (bend) leading to loose components and expansion cards causing intermittent problems.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 12

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

2) ATX

The ATX motherboard specification was introduced by Intel and has become an industry-
accepted standard. While the ATX system board is smaller than a Full AT, it is approximately the
same size as the Baby AT. However, the processor has been moved to the back of the board and
out of the way of expansion cards. In addition, the ATX form integrates the serial and parallel
ports on the motherboard.

ATX (Advanced Technology Extended):

 Improvement done in easy to use, support for current and future I/O, and also to current
and future technology.
 New mounting configuration for power supply.
 Processor relocated away from expansion slots to allow full length add-in cards.
 Provides air-flow through chassis and across the processor.

Some Improvements of the ATX Motherboard Form Factor

 Integrated I/O Port Connectors: Baby AT motherboards use headers which stick up from
the board, and a cable that goes from them to the physical serial and parallel port connectors
mounted on to the case. The ATX has these connectors soldered directly onto the
motherboard.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 13

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

 Integrated PS/2 Mouse Connector: ATX motherboards have the PS/2 port built into the
motherboard.
 Reduced Drive Bay Interference: Since the board is essentially “rotated” 90 degrees from
the baby AT style, there is much less “overlap” between where the board is and where the
drives are thus making it easy to access the board, and fewer cooling problems.
 Reduced Expansion Card Interference: The processor socket/slot and memory sockets are
moved from the front of the board to the back right side, near the power supply. This
eliminates the clearance problem with baby AT style motherboards and allows full length
cards to be used in most (if not all) of the system bus slots.
 Better Power Supply Connector: The ATX motherboard uses a single 20-pin connector
instead of the confusing pair of near-identical 6-pin connectors on the baby AT form factor.
 “Soft Power” Support:The ATX power supply is turned on and off using signaling from the
motherboard, not a physical toggle switch. This allows the PC to be turned on and off under
software control, allowing much improved power management.
 3.3V Power Support: The ATX style motherboard has support for 3.3V power from the
ATX power supply.
 Improved Design for Upgradability: In part because it is the newest design, the ATX is the
choice “for the future”. More than that, its design makes upgrading easier because of more
efficient access to the components on the motherboard.

4) Mini ATX:

 Commonly same as ATX.

 Just change in size from ATX= 12" x 9.6" to Mini ATX= 11.2" x 8.2".

5) Micro ATX:

 Supports current and new processor technologies.

 AGP (Accelerated graphics port) to have high performance graphics.
 Smaller in size and less power supply.

6) Flex ATX:

 A subset of micro ATX.

 Gives chance to system developers to create new personal computer design.
 Enhanced flexibility to allow custom case and board design to be manufactured.
 Small motherboard size and supports current processor technology.

7) LPX (Low Profile Extension) and Mini LPX:

 Based on design by western digital.

 Usually found in desktop pc's.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 14

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

 Case are slim-line, low profile case with riser card arrangement for expansion cards.
 Riser card arrangement means expansion boards are parallel rather than perpendicular.
 This make smaller case but limits number of expansion slots to two or three.
 High quality product at low cost but makes difficult to upgrade and repair.

8) NLX (New Low Profile Extended):

 Supports current and future processor technologies.

 Also supports new AGP and tall memory technology.
 Installing and upgrading the system is easy.

Motherboard installation procedure

1. Orient Case or Mounting Panel: Arrange the case (or removable motherboard mounting
panel) so that the expansion card slots and keyboard and other connectors are farthest away
from you.
2. Find Motherboard Mounting Holes: Examine the motherboard and locate its mounting
holes.
3. Find System Case or Mounting Panel Holes: Examine the system case and see what types of
mounting holes it uses.
4. Orient Motherboard and Match Motherboard Mounting Holes to Case Mounting Holes:
Take the motherboard and physically locate it in space a few inches over the case (or
removable case panel). Orient the motherboard so that it is approximately where it will be
when installed. Any integrated connectors on the back of the motherboard should line up
with the holes in the case designed for them, especially the keyboard connector.
5. Install Standoffs: Attach the mounting hardware, following these specific instructions for
each of the different case hole types.
6. Slide Motherboard Into Place: Follow the appropriate directions depending, again, on the
type of holes being used.
7. Determine If Washers Are Required: Examine the heads of the screws that you will use to
secure the motherboard to the metal standoffs under the screw-in mounting holes. If the
head of the screw is large enough that after tightening the screw the head might make
contact with the circuitry on the motherboard, you must use a plastic or paper washer under
the screw head to prevent accidentally shorting out the motherboard.
8. Screw Motherboard Into Place: Using washers (if necessary), screw the motherboard into
the metal standoffs underneath it. First insert all the screws and hand-tighten them, then
tighten them all using a screwdriver (not too tight).
9. Replace Removable Panel: If your case uses a removable motherboard mounting panel,
replace it into the case now.
10. Test Motherboard Installation: An incorrectly-installed motherboard can be the bane of any
homebuilt PC; strange and unpredictable behavior will result that can be very hard to
diagnose.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 15

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

Procedure of troubleshooting a motherboard

 Turn Off PC, unplug power cord and all input and output devices connected on the back panel
of the unit

 Take the unit out of its original location and place it in a clean surface

 Prepare all the tools you will need(screwdriver, a non-conductive & dry surface like a carton,
book, styro-insulator that came with the motherboard box, paint brush, eraser,
vacuum/blower(optional)

 Be sure your feet is insulated like your wearing a rubber shoes to avoid static discharge from
your body damaging the motherboard
 Unscrew the motherboard, power supply, video card & other screwed cards inside the
protective casing

 Each piece taken out like the memory, video card, etc should be brushed clean and/or
vacuumed and placed on a dry non-conductive surface

 Placed the motherboard on the non-conductive surface you prepared earlier with the memory,
processor, processor fan and power supply(these were the standard devices we needed to test
motherboard for possible failure assuming the motherboard have a built-in/onboard videocard
else you need to connect the videocard as well)

 Attached all devices mentioned on procedure 7 properly. Please please please, always double
check your connections to avoid further accidental damage
 Check motherboard manual for the front panel power on orientation

 Plug-in power supply power cord on an outlet/automatic voltage regulator. Using a standard
flat screwdriver, short the power on jumper pin on the front panel

 When the power Supply, Processor fan turned on, listen carefully for the initialization beep
that indicates that the motherboard is possibly okay.
 If you hear the initialization beep, try to reconfirm by turning off the motherboard by steadily
pressing the power on jumper pin of its front panel until you see that the processor fan totally
turns off. Then repeat turning on motherboard.

 Once beep initialization is confirmed, turn-off motherboard, unplug power supply power cord
and connect the monitor on the isolated motherboard. This is to see if the motherboard boots
properly which will display the bios start-up up to hard disk boot disk error display(no hard
disk connected so this will be the last thing you'll see on the monitor)

 After attaching the monitor on the isolated motherboard, plug-in power supply cord and turn
motherboard on

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 16

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

 If everything works as expected on procedure 13, then the problem of possible motherboard
failure was a dirty motherboard & its parts, solved by cleaning maintenance

 What if symptoms persist? Turn-off motherboard, unplug power cord and try inserting the
memory module on the other memory slot, then replaced memory if nothing happens. Try
changing the Power Supply Unit. Try changing the processor. if no onboard video card is
available try changing it as well. The replacement of parts is done one at a time so don't hurry
and relax. Be patient.

 What if no replacement parts were available? You could still do the memory slot testing. And
if you have a multimeter/multi-tester, you could actually test the power supply output voltage
and you'll need the motherboard manual to verify the expected voltage input in the
motherboard. To turn-on power supply unit manually, insert a jumper wire on the green
colored wire and the other end inserted on any of the black colored wire of the 20 pin
motherboard connector.
 You could also check the motherboard for any capacitor leaks, corrosion and moisture
indications

 You could clear the bios settings as well by removing the cmos battery for 5-10 seconds or
using the motherboard manual locate the cmos reset jumper and reset it using a flat
screwdriver.
 Bios update is sometimes necessary, but only if the bios update procedure is properly tested
proven and is really the solution to the problem. Avoid as much as possible. Might turn your
motherboard into a vegetable.

 If all else fails, try to find a working motherboard to test the other pc parts (memory,
videocard and etc) for performance and stability. Sorry to say, you'll need a new motherboard.
If you’re lucky you could buy it cheap or in a good price without upgrading other pc parts
which is due to technological fast advancement.

Factors one should consider when selecting motherboard for replacement.

 Should support the CPU, RAM, video adapter, and other adapter cards.
 The socket and chip set on the motherboard must be compatible with the
CPU.
 The motherboard must accommodate the existing heat sink/fan
assembly.
 The existing power supply must have connections that fit the new
motherboard.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 17

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

TOPIC FOUR

THE PROCESSOR -: CPU

The central processing unit (CPU), or simply the processor, is the operations center of a
computer. Its job is to provide the devices attached to the computer with directives that retrieve,
display, manipulate, and store information. Therefore, the rate at which the CPU can process
electronic signals is a determinant factor in the speed of the computer.

Refers to a system that accepts a program as input, prepares it for execution and executes the
process defined with data to produce results. Also a short term for a microprocessor or central
processing unit (CPU) in computers.

THE INTEL FAMILY OF PROCESSORS:

 8086 Processors-has 16bit external database
 80286processors-first to implement pin grid array, has a speed of (6-20)MHz ,could
address up to 1.6 MB RAM
 80386processors- used both 32bit data bus and 32bit address bus, has a range speed of
32mhz, used up to 4GB of memory.
 80486processors-had a32 bit data bus, and operated at a minimum of 33mhz
 Pentium and Pentium pro- had 3.1 million transistors, used 64 bit data bus and 32bit
address bus, had a speed of between (60-200) MHZ
 Pentium Pro - 1995-1997 (150-200 MHz)
Typically used in high-end desktops and servers, the Pentium Pro increased memory from
4GB to 64GB. The Pentium Pro had L2 cache from 512KB to 1MB, used a 60 or 66 MHz
system bus, contained from 5.5 to 62 million transistors. It was made with 0.35 process
and housed in a dual cavity PGA package. When introduced, it was touted as being
superior to the Pentium for 32-bit applications.
 MMX and over drive-included 57new instruction for better video audio and graphic
capability
 -used a single instruction multiple data technology(CMIMD)
 -cache memory was double(32kb)
 Pentium MMX - 1997-1999 (233-300 MHz)
Added MMX multimedia instructions to Pentium CPU and increased transistors to 4.5
million. Desktop units used PGA package and 0.35 process while mobile units used TCP
and 0.25 process.
 Pentium 11 - had arange speed of 233-400mhz
 -used asingle edge contact processor connected to motherboard.
BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 18

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

 Pentium II - 1997-1999 (233-450 MHz)

Added MMX multimedia instructions to Pentium Pro and introduced the Single Edge
Connector Cartridge (SECC) for Slot 1. The Pentium II used a 66 or 100 MHz system
bus. Desktop models had 7.5 million transistors, 512KB L2 cache and were housed in
SECC packages. Mobile models had 27.4 million transistors, 256KB L2 cache and were
housed in either BGA or Mobile Mini-Cartridge (MMC) packages.
 Celeron1 –costed less
 Celeron - Introduced in 1998 (266 MHz-2.8 GHz)
Less expensive Pentium chips due to smaller L2 caches. First Celerons had no L2 cache,
but 128KB on-die cache was added in 1999. Celerons started out with 66 and 100 MHz
system buses that migrated to 400 MHz.
 Pentium 111- had speed of (400-933)mhz
 Had 70 new instructions
 Had aaprocessor serial number
 Pentium III - 1999-2001 (500 MHz-1.13 GHz)
The Pentium III added 70 additional instructions to the Pentium II. The Pentium III
used a 100 or 133 MHz system bus and either a 512KB L2 cache or a 256KB L2
Advanced Transfer Cache. Depending on the model, it contained from 9.5 to 28
million transistors, used the 0.25 or 0.18 micron process and came in SECC and SECC2
packages. Mobile units came in BGA and micro-PGA (µPGA) packages.
 Pentium 1V –had a range speed over 1000mhz and speed expressed in GHZ.
 Pentium 4 - Introduced in 2000 (1.4-3.4 GHz)
Latest Pentium architecture started out with a 400 MHz system bus and 256KB L2 cache
(later increased to 800 MHz and 2MB). The first models contained 42 million transistors,
used the 0.18 micron process and came in 423-pin and 478-pin PGA packages. Intel's first
Pentium 4 chipset was the 850 and supported only Rambus memory (RDRAM), but
subsequent chipsets switched to DDR SDRAM.
 Pentium 4 Dual Cores - Introduced in 2005
The Pentium D and Pentium Processor Extreme Edition were the first dual-core Pentium chips
from Intel. Although both chips included Intel's 64-bit EM64T technology (later named "Intel 64"),
the Pentium D did not include Hyper-Threading, but the Extreme Edition did.

PROCEDURE OF INSTALLING APROCESSOR

 Prepare a static save area
 Power down the system and disconnect all the power codes
 Remove the system case and install the screws carefully
 Wear an antistatic wrist band and locate the old processor and ensure its package
 If the heat sink include the fan ,disconnect the power code
 Remove the heat sink if possible taking care not to damage any component near by
 Always use a PGA remove tool to level the old cpu out of the socket
 Don’t use the screw driver as it can damage the near by components and the chips

SIGNS OF AN AILLING PROCESSOR

 Unstable operation
BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 19

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

 System hanging
 Speed problem
 slow processing on the system/ wrong CPU speed at boot time.
 Incorrect configuration
 Failed components
 Power supply problems

How to Troubleshoot a Processor

1. Unplug the computer. Open the computer case. Ground yourself by holding the metal part
of the case. Unplug the power source for the fan sitting atop the processor. Remove any
screws that hold the heatsink and fan. Unlatch the clips on the side of the heatsink and fan
and remove.
2. Touch the processor. If it is too hot for you to keep your finger on the processor, the
processor may be overheating.
3. Check to see that the processor is properly faceted to the socket. If any of the hundreds of
pins that fit into a socket on the motherboard are bent or not seated properly, the computer
will not function.
4. Check the BIOS for proper processor settings. If the BIOS is set to the wrong processor
speed, the hardware can overheat and cause problems with the computer. Check that the
BIOS displays the right processor speed and type when booting the computer.
5. Swap out a good processor with the one having issues, if you have a spare processor that
is compatible with the motherboard. If the computer runs fine with the other processor,
then replace the processor.
6. Check with the motherboard manufacturer to ensure that a new processor you have bought
or may buy is compatible. Most motherboard manufacturers list compatibility
specifications on the corporate website.

Motherboard and CPU Troubleshooting

There are very few instances when you'd turn on a PC, have it either power up or not, and be
able to say, "Oh, that's a motherboard problem." Motherboard failures usually show up as
second level problems, like "I've replaced the video card and the screen is still dead." If you
want to learn how to repair PC's without swapping every part, it's critical to know what to look
for on a powered up system, like a CPU fan that isn't running, or RAM that stays cold.
Sometimes you can spot a blown capacitor on a motherboard, but it's not a common problem.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 20

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 21

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

TOPIC FIVE

THE MEMORY: ADAPTER MEMORY CONFIGURATION AND OPTIMIZATION

Main Memory:

The cycle (input - processing - output) would not be possible without a holding place
for the instructions and data that the processors (CPU) can easily reach. This
holding place is known as memory also called main storage and is internal to the
computer consisting of RAM and possibly ROM.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Is the basic kind of internal memory that holds data and instructions while the
computer is in use.
 It can be read from and written to.
 It is called random access because the processor or computer can access any
location in memory in any order as contrasted with sequential access
devices which must be accessed in order.
 RAM is volatile; losing the stored information in an event of power loss, and
quite expensive.

There are two basic types of RAM.

Static RAM does not need to be refreshed, which makes it faster; but it is also more
expensive than dynamic RAM. Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed thousands of
times per second. Both types of RAM are volatile, meaning that they lose their contents
when the power is turned off.
Over the years, newer computers have been introduced that contain faster
microprocessors. To accommodate the increased speed, chip manufacturers have
designed and built faster RAM chips. SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) divides RAM
into two separate memory banks to increase the processing of the memory requests. To
overcome the performance limitations of SDRAM, two competing technologies have
been developed. RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) involves a new memory design that
achieves a higher data transfer speeds but it is expensive to manufacture. DDR
BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 22

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM) can transfer data twice as fast as SDRAM
because it reads data twice during each clock cycle. Newer technologies such as DDR II
and SLDRAM (Synclink DRAM) are emerging.

ROM (Read only memory)

 Is also random access but only for reads, once data has been written onto a
ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read.
 It refers to special memory used to store programs that boot the computer and
perform diagnostics. Most personal computers have a small amount of ROM
(a few thousand bytes).
 Retains its contents even when the computer is turned off and is therefore
referred to as being nonvolatile.
Types of ROM

ROM: A mask programmed read only memory that can be only be produced by the
manufacturer. It is designed to perform a specific function and cannot be changed.
This is inflexible and so regular ROMs are only used generally for programs that are
static (not changing often) and mass-produced. This product is analogous to a
commercial software CD-ROM that you purchase in a store.

1. Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type of ROM that can be programmed

using special equipment (a PROM programmer.); it can be written to, but only
once. This is useful for companies that make their own ROMs from software they
write, because when they change their code they can create new PROMs without
requiring expensive equipment. This is similar to the way a CD-ROM recorder
works by letting you "burn" programs onto blanks once and then letting you
read from them many times. In fact, programming a PROM is also called burning,
just like burning a CD-R, and it is comparable in terms of its flexibility.

2. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): An EPROM is a ROM that can be

erased and reprogrammed. A little glass window is installed in the top of the
ROM package, through which you can actually see the chip that holds the
memory. Ultraviolet light of a specific frequency can be shined through this
window for a specified period of time, which will erase the EPROM and allow it
to be reprogrammed again. Obviously this is much more useful than a regular
PROM, but it does require the erasing light. Continuing the "CD" analogy, this
technology is analogous to a reusable CD-RW.

3. Electrically Alterable Read-Only Memory(EAROMs) can be modified a bit at a

time, but writing is a slow process and uses non-standard voltages (usually
higher voltages around 12 volts). Rewriting an EAROM is intended to be an
infrequent operation - most of the time the memory is used as a ROM. EAROM
BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 23

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

may be used to store critical system setup information in a non-volatile way. For
many applications, EAROM has been supplanted by CMOS RAM backed-up by
a lithium battery.

4. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): The next level of

erasability is the EEPROM, which can be erased under software control. This is
the most flexible type of ROM, and is now commonly used for holding BIOS
programs. When you hear reference to a "flash BIOS" or doing a BIOS upgrade
by "flashing", this refers to reprogramming the BIOS EEPROM with a special
software program. Here we are blurring the line a bit between what "read-only"
really means, but remember that this rewriting is done maybe once a year or so,
compared to real read-write memory (RAM) where rewriting is done often
many times per second!

Cache memory
After Random Access Memory (RAM)
Cache memory is a type of very fast memory that is used to improve the speed of a computer
doubling it in some cases. It acts as an intermediate store between the CPU and the maim
memory, and works by storing the most frequently or recently used instructions and data so that
it will be very fast to retrieve them again.

Processor

Cache Memory

Main Memory

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 24

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

TOPIC SIX

THE BUS SLOTS AND I/O CARDS:

COMPUTER BUSES

A Bus is a set of parallel wires connecting two or more components in a computer. The
CPU is connected to the main memory by three separate buses. When the CPU wishes
to access a particular memory location, it sends this address to memory on the address
bus. The data in that memory location is then returned to the CPU on via the data bus.
Control signals are sent along the control bus.

a) Control Bus

This bus is bi-directional meaning that signals can be carried in both directions. All
the components in the computer share the data and address buses. Control lines are
used to ensure that access to and use of the data and address buses by the different
components of the system does not lead to conflict. The purpose of the control bus is
to transmit command , timing and specific status information between system
components such as the memory, processor, keyboard input controller VDU output
controller and the Disk I/O controller.

b) Data bus

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 25

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

A data bus provides a bi-directional path for moving data and instructions between
system components. A typical data bus consists of 8, 16, or separate lines. The width
of the data bus is a key factor in determining overall system performance. For
example, if the data bus is 8 bits wide, and each instruction is
16 bits long, then the processor must access the main memory twice during each
instruction cycle.

c) Address bus

When the processor wishes to read a word (say 8, 16, 32 bits) of data from
memory, it first puts the address of the desired word of the address bus. The
address bus is used for communicating the physical addresses of computer
memory elements/locations that the requesting unit wants to access (read/write).

NB: The width of an address bus, along with the size of addressable memory
elements, determines how much memory can be accessed.

Common Bus Interfaces:

a) Small Computer System Interface(SCSI) EISA is the second most commonly
used interface for disk drives. Unlike competing standards, SCSI is capable of
supporting eight devices, or sixteen devices with Wide SCSI.

b) Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) also known as Extended ISA,

EISA is a standard first announced in September of 1988 for IBM and IBM
compatible computers to compete with the IBM MCA bus. The EISA bus is found
on Intel 80386, 80486 and early Pentium computers. The EISA bus provided 32-
bit slots at an 8.33 MHz cycle rate for the use with 386DX or higher processors. In
addition, the EISA can accommodate a 16-bit ISA card in the first row.

NB: Although the EISA bus is backwards compatible and not a

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 26

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

proprietary bus it never became widely used and is no longer found in

computers today.
c) Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) was introduced by IBM in 1987. MCA, or
the Micro Channel bus, was a competition for ISA bus. The MCA bus offered
several additional features over the ISA such as a 32-bit bus (although there was
also a 16-bit bus), ran at 10MHz, automatically configure cards (similar to what
Plug and Play is today), and bus mastering for greater efficiency.

Word size
Word size means the number of Bits that the processor can process simultaneously.
Typical processors can have 8-, 16-, 32-, 64- or even larger word sizes. Word size also
determines the speed of the computer. Bus size means the number of bits that can be
transmitted together. Most mainframe computers have 32-bit words.

I/O Controllers.
Each peripheral device operates in a different way and hence these devices cannot be
connected directly to the processor. The processor communicates and controls a
peripheral device through an I/O or device controller. I/O controllers are available
which can operate both input and output transfers of bits, e.g. floppy disk controller.
Other controllers operate in one direction only, either as an input controller, e.g.
keyboard controller or as output controller, e.g. VDU controller.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES AND INTERRUPTS

5.1 Input Devices
An input device lets you communicate with a computer. They are used to enter information and
issue commands to the computer. Commands tell the computer to do something, like save the
file. A keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital camera, touch pads and joystick are examples of input
devices.
5.2 Output device

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 27

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

An output device displays information on a screen, creates printed copies or generates sound.
A monitor, printer, and speakers are examples of output devices.
The input and output devices are discussed in details in chapter 2 of the module.
5.3 Interrupts
An interrupt is a signal from some device or source seeking the attention of the processor.
The interrupt signal is sent along a control line to the processor, and the currently executing
program is suspended while control is passed to an interrupt service routine.
5.3.1 Types of interrupt
The following are the different types of interrupt that could occur;
 Interrupts generated by the running process; the process might need to perform
I/O, obtain more storage or communicate with the operator
 I/O interrupts; these are initiated by the I/O hardware and signal to the CPU that the
status of a channel or device has changed. An I/O interrupt will occur when an I/O
operation is complete, when an error occurs, or when device is made ready.
 Timer interrupts; these are generated by a timer within the processor, and allow the
operating system to perform certain functions at regular
intervals. For example, each user in a multi-user system may be allocated
Program check interrupts; these are caused by various types of error such as division
by zero.
 Machine check interrupts; these are caused by malfunctioning hardware

5.3.2 Interrupt priorities

There is a special register in the CPU called the interrupt register. At the beginning of
each fetch-execute cycle, the interrupt register is checked. Each bit of the register
represents a different type of interrupt, and if a bit is set, the state of the current
process is saved and the operating system routes control
to the appropriate interrupt handler.

Some interrupts, such as those generate by hardware failure, may need to be dealt
with immediately, whereas such as an I/O device signaling that it is ready for I/O,

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 28

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

can be temporarily ignored. Interrupts are therefore assigned priorities so that when
two interrupts are received simultaneously, the one with the highest priority is dealt
with first. Only an interrupt with a higher priority is allowed to interrupt the
servicing of another.

Class of Interrupt Source of Interrupt Priority

Hardware failure Power failure-initiated when a decline in the 1
internal voltages is detected, giving the OS a few
milliseconds to close down as gracefully as
possible.
Program Arithmetic overflow 2
Memory parity error
Division by zero 2
1
Attempt to execute an illegal machine instruction 2
Timer Generated by internal
Reference outside clockallowed
a user’s within the processor
memory space 32
I/O I/O device signals normal completion or the 4
occurrence of an error condition

5.3.3 The Interrupt Handler

What happens when, for example, a key on the keyboard is pressed, thus generating
an interrupt? A small program called an interrupt service routine (ISR) or interrupt
handler is executed to transfer the character value f the key pressed into main
memory. A different ISR is provided for each different source of interrupt. A typical
sequence of actions when an interrupt occurs would be:
1. The current fetch-execute cycle is completed
2. The contents of the program counter, which points to the next instruction of the
program to be executed, must be stored away safely so it can be restored after
servicing the interrupt.
3. The contents of other registers used by the user program are stored away
4. safely for later restoration
5. The source of the interrupt is identified
6. Interrupts of a lower priority are disabled
BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 29

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

7. The program counter is loaded with the start address of the relevant
8. interrupt service routine.
9. The interrupt service routine is executed
10. The saved values belonging to the user program for registers other than the program
counter are restored to the processor’s registers
11. Interrupts are re-enabled
12. The program counter is restored to point to the next instruction to be fetched and
executed in user program

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 30

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

TOPIC SEVEN

INPUT DEVICES

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Sr.No Keys Description

1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
generally give same layout as that of typewriters.

2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it

consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.

3 Function Keys The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 31

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).

5 Special Purpose Keys Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter,
Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

TYPES OF COMPUTER KEYBOARDS:

Laptop Keyboards

The laptop computer keyboard is a small version of the typical QWERTY keyboard. A typical
laptop has the same keyboard type as a normal keyboard, except for the fact that most laptop
keyboards condense the symbols into fewer buttons to accomodate less space.

Gaming Keyboards

Gaming keyboards are similar to normal keyboards except they generally contain extra features
such as illuminated keys, multimedia keys, an additional LCD screen, palm rest and other
features.

Ergonomic Computer Keyboards

Ergonomic computer keyboards is a computer keyboard designed with ergonomic considerations

to minimize muscle strain and a host of related problems. An ergomic keyboard is designed to
make typing easier and lessen the strain that your hands may suffer, such as “Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome”.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 32

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

Laser / Infrared Keyboards

The laser keyboard is a recent gadget to the computing world. This device projects the keyboard
on to a flat surface, such as a table or desk. This then allows you to type directly onto the table.
However, this invention still needs to be improved and can be frustrating to use at the moment.

Rollup Keyboards

Rollup computer keyboards are extremely good for travelling. Simply roll them up and then
unroll them when you need them again. Typically the material is either silicone or polyurethane.
These devices are meant to be rolled up, rather than folded, as folding can damage the circuitry.

Mouse

Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to
enter text into the computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 33

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

Types Of Mouse

a) Mechanical Mouse

A mechanical mouse is considered as the traditional mouse and is now

replaced by optical mouse. A mechanical mouse has a ball on the bottom,
which is attached to the system unit through a cord. A mechanical mouse
requires periodic cleaning.

b) Optical mouse

Optical Mouse is widely used these days. Like the mechanical mouse, it does
not have any moving parts. It emits & senses light to detect mouse
movements. Optical mouse can be used on any surface with great precision as
compared to Mechanical mouse.

c) Wireless Mouse

A wireless mouse or cordless mouse uses infrared or radio wares to

communicate with the system units. A wireless mouse is battery powered and
can be connected to a laptop or tablet computer.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in
a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 34

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

TOPIC EIGHT

DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES – THE MONITOR

TERMS USED IN DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES:

a) Response Time
 Referring to LCD monitors, this is the time it takes for the liquid crystal inside a screen
panel to respond to applied current. Measured in milliseconds, the lower the value, the
better the screen can fool the naked eye into seeing fluid movement. Quoted response
times may include an element of latency, when a pixel remains lit for a short time after
the current has been removed.

b) Raster
 A raster is a rectangular grid of picture elements representing graphical data for
display. Raster operations (ROPs) can be performed on some portion or all of the
raster.

c) Pixel
 An abbreviation for picture element. In a raster grid, the pixel is the smallest unit that
can be addressed and given a colour or intensity. The pixel is represented by some
number of bits (usually 8, 16 or 24) in the frame buffer, and is illuminated by a
collection of phosphor dots in the CRT that are struck by the beams of the electron
gun.

d) Phosphor
 A luminescent substance, used to coat the inside of the cathode-ray tube display, that
is illuminated by the electron gun in the pattern of graphical images as the display is
scanned.

e) Dot Pitch
 A measurement of distance between the centres of two same-colour phosphor dots on
the screen. The closer the dots, the smaller the dot pitch, and the sharper the image.
See also Stripe Pitch.

f) Convergence
 The term used to describe how accurately the three (red, green, and blue) electron
beams converge to illuminate their respective phosphors in a colour monitor. The

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 35

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

better the guns converge, the sharper the image. If a monitor shows poor convergence,
edges of objects will have a red, blue or green tinge.

1. CRT DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES:

 A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are produced
when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface. Most desktop computer displays
make use of CRTs. The CRT in a computer display is similar to the "picture tube" in a
television receiver.
 A cathode ray tube consists of several basic components, as illustrated below. The electron
gun generates a narrow beam of electrons. The anodes accelerate the electrons. Deflecting
coils produce an extremely low frequency electromagnetic field that allows for constant
adjustment of the direction of the electron beam. There are two sets of deflecting coils:
horizontal and vertical.(In the illustration, only one set of coils is shown for simplicity.)
The intensity of the beam can be varied. The electron beam produces a tiny, bright visible
spot when it strikes the phosphor-coated screen.

 To produce an image on the screen, complex signals are applied to the deflecting coils,
and also to the apparatus that controls the intensity of the electron beam. This causes the
spot to race across the screen from right to left, and from top to bottom, in a sequence of
horizontal lines called the raster. As viewed from the front of the CRT, the spot moves in a
pattern similar to the way your eyes move when you read a single-column page of text.
BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 36

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

But the scanning takes place at such a rapid rate that your eye sees a constant image over
the entire screen.

Advantages of CRT

1. Resolution and Aspect Ratio

They operate at any resolution, geometry and aspect ratio without the need for rescaling the image.

2. Highest Resolutions
CRTs run at the highest pixel resolutions generally available.

3. Black-Level and Contrast

Produce a very dark black and the highest contrast levels normally available. Suitable for use even in dimly lit or dark
environments.

4. Color and Gray-Scale Accuracy

CRTs produce the very best color and gray-scale and are the reference standard for all professional calibrations. They
have a perfectly smooth gray-scale with an infinite number of intensity levels. Other display technologies are
expected to reproduce the natural power-law Gamma curve of a CRT, but can only do so approximately.

5. Motion Artifacts
CRTs have fast response times and no motion artifacts. Best for rapidly moving or changing images.

6. Cost
CRTs are less expensive than comparable displays using other display technologies.

Disadvantages of CRT

1. Sharpness
The CRT's Gaussian beam profile produces images with softer edges that are not as sharp as an
LCD at its native resolution. Imperfect focus and color registration also reduce sharpness.
Generally sharper than LCDs at other than native resolutions.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 37

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

2. Interference
All color CRTs produce annoying Moiré patterns. Many monitors include Moiré reduction, which
normally doesn't eliminate the Moiré interference patterns entirely.

3. Geometric Distortion
Subject to geometric distortion and screen regulation problems. Also affected by magnetic fields from other
equipment including other CRTs.

4. Brightness
Relatively bright but not as bright as LCDs. Not suitable for very brightly lit environments.

5. Screen Shape
Some CRTs have a rounded spherical or cylindrical shape screen. Newer CRTs are flat.

6. Emissions
CRTs give off electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields. There is considerable controversy as to whether any of
these pose a health hazard, particularly magnetic fields. The most authoritative scientific studies conclude that they
are not harmful but some people remain unconvinced.

7. Physical
They are large, heavy, and bulky. They consume a lot of electricity and produce a lot of heat.

FLAT-PANEL DISPLAY MONITOR

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

 Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 38

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert

sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-
Crystal Device)

2. LCD DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES

What is a LCD?
LCD (liquid crystal display) is the technology used for displays in notebook and other smaller
computers. Like light-emitting diode (LED) and gas-plasma technologies, LCDs allow displays to
be much thinner than cathode ray tube (CRT) technology.

LCD (liquid crystal display) is the technology used for displays in notebook and other smaller
computers. Like light-emitting diode (LED) and gas-plasma technologies, LCDs allow displays to
be much thinner than cathode ray tube (CRT) technology. LCDs consume much less power than
LED and gas-display displays because they work on the principle of blocking light rather than
emitting it.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 39

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

An LCD is made with either a passive matrix or an active matrix display display grid. The active
matrix LCD is also known as a thin film transistor (TFT) display. The passive matrix LCD has a
grid of conductors with pixels located at each intersection in the grid. A current is sent across two
conductors on the grid to control the light for any pixel. An active matrix has a transistor located
at each pixel intersection, requiring less current to control the luminance of a pixel. For this
reason, the current in an active matrix display can be switched on and off more frequently,
improving the screen refresh time (your mouse will appear to move more smoothly across the
screen, for example).

LCD Display Technology: Basic Operational Principles

LCD displays consist primarily of two sheets of polarized glass plates with some liquid crystal
solution trapped between them. The type of liquid crystals used in LCD panels have got very
specific properties that enable them to serve as effective 'shutters' that close or open to block in a
varying degree, the passage of light. This blocking—or partial blocking—action takes place in a
perpendicular manner to the passage of light once an electric current flows through the liquid
crystal solution.

This current through the liquid crystals is controlled by a voltage applied between the glass plates
through the use of transparent electrodes that form a grid—with rows on one side of the panel and
columns on the other—representing the picture elements or pixels.

Principal LCD Advantages

1. Sharpness
Image is perfectly sharp at the native resolution of the panel. LCDs using an analog input require careful adjustment
of pixel tracking/phase (see Interference, below).

2. Geometric Distortion
Zero geometric distortion at the native resolution of the panel. Minor distortion for other resolutions because the
images must be rescaled.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 40

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

3. Brightness
High peak intensity produces very bright images. Best for brightly lit environments.

4. Screen Shape
Screens are perfectly flat.

5. Physical
Thin, with a small footprint. Consume little electricity and produce little heat.

Principal LCD Disadvantages

1. Resolution
Each panel has a fixed pixel resolution format determined at the time of manufacture that can not be changed. All
other image resolutions require rescaling, which generally results in significant image degradation, particularly for
fine text and graphics. For most applications should only be used at the native resolution of the panel. If you need fine
text and graphics at more than one resolution do not get an LCD display.

2. Interference
LCDs using an analog input require careful adjustment of pixel tracking/phase in order to reduce or eliminate digital
noise in the image. Automatic pixel tracking/phase controls seldom produce the optimum setting. Timing drift and
jitter may require frequent readjustments during the day. For some displays and video boards you may not be able to
entirely eliminate the digital noise.

3. Viewing Angle
Limited viewing angle. Brightness, contrast, gamma and color mixtures vary with the viewing angle. Can lead to
contrast and color reversal at large angles. Need to be viewed as close to straight ahead as possible.

4. Black-Level, Contrast and Color Saturation

LCDs have difficulty producing black and very dark grays. As a result they generally have lower contrast than CRTs
and the color saturation for low intensity colors is also reduced. Not suitable for use in dimly lit and dark
environments.

5. White Saturation
The bright-end of the LCD intensity scale is easily overloaded, which leads to saturation and compression. When this
happens the maximum brightness occurs before reaching the peak of the gray-scale or the brightness increases slowly
near the maximum. Requires careful adjustment of the Contrast control.
BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 41

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

6. Color and Gray-Scale Accuracy

The internal Gamma and gray-scale of an LCD is very irregular. Special circuitry attempts to fix it, often with only
limited success. LCDs typically produce fewer than 256 discrete intensity levels. For some LCDs portions of the
gray-scale may be dithered. Images are pleasing but not accurate because of problems with black-level, gray-scale
and Gamma, which affects the accuracy of the gray-scale and color mixtures. Generally not suitable for professional
image color balancing.

7. Bad Pixels and Screen Uniformity

LCDs can have many weak or stuck pixels, which are permanently on or off. Some pixels may be improperly
connected to adjoining pixels, rows or columns. Also, the panel may not be uniformly illuminated by the backlight
resulting in uneven intensity and shading over the screen.

8. Motion Artifacts
Slow response times and scan rate conversion result in severe motion artifacts and image degradation for moving or
rapidly changing images.

9. Aspect Ratio
LCDs have a fixed resolution and aspect ratio. For panels with a resolution of 1280x1024 the aspect ratio is 5:4=1.25,
which is noticeably smaller than the 4:3=1.33 aspect ratio for almost all other standard display modes. For some
applications may require switching to a letterboxed 1280x960, which has a 4:3 aspect ratio.

10. Cost
Considerably more expensive than comparable CRTs.

3. LED DISPLAY

An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting diodes as pixels for a video
display. Their brightness allows them to be used outdoors in store signs and billboards, and in recent years
they have also become commonly used in destination signs on public transport vehicles. LED displays are
capable of providing general illumination in addition to visual display, as when used for stage lighting or
other decorative (as opposed to informational) purposes.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 42

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUYING A COMPUTER MONITOR

1. Size

By size, we mean the diagonal measurement of the screen itself. Back in the day, meaning the
90s, bulky CRT monitors in the 14- and 15-inch range were the norm. But oh how times have
changed. With flat LCD monitors becoming more commonplace, it’s pretty common to find a 24-,
27-, or even a 30-inch monitor for a reasonable price.

Having a bigger screen allows you to view more data without having to close or shuffle windows.
But be sure you carefully measure your workspace to ensure the monitor will comfortably fit on
your desk.

2. Resolution

By resolution, we mean the number of pixels a monitor has to display an image. A monitor’s pixel
count consists of two numbers (e.g. 2560-by-1440), with the first one being the number of
horizontal pixels and the second being the vertical pixel count. A smaller count, like a 1920-by-
1080 (common on 24” monitors), means the pixels are more spread out. Therefore, every icon,
letter and window appears larger on the screen.

If you’re buying a monitor for maximum display capacity, be sure you choose one with a larger
pixel count.

3. Aspect Ratio

The monitor’s aspect ratio is defined as the ratio between the display area’s width and height. The
most common aspect ratios are either a 16:9 or 16:10. A 16:9 screen for example is good for
playing widescreen, high-def content. The 16:10 has more vertical pixels, which makes it ideal for
looking at large spreadsheets and the like.

4. Backlighting

LED backlighting has become more commonplace with today’s computer monitors. Unlike cold
cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs), the LED screens are thinner, generate less heat, and warm up
much faster. They also use less power and do not require mercury, unlike the CCFLs of
yesteryear.

5. Twisted nematic (TN) or In-plane switching (IPS)

LCD monitors are available in two different panel types. TN is the least expensive and most
common, while the IPS panels are higher-quality, yet more expensive. IPS is often found in
professional-grade displays due to its wider viewing angles, ability to display more colors and
other attributes important to professional photographers, artists and graphic designers.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 43

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|38912466

6. Video input

This really depends on the age of your computer. If it’s older, you’ll need an analog, or VGA.
Newer computer models use a digital connection for the monitor (e.g. DVI, HDMI or
DisplayPort). Most monitors come with one analog and one digital video input.

7. Ergonomic flexibility

The stand the monitor sits on is almost as important as the technical aspects described above. You
don’t want to have to put your beautiful new monitor on top of a stack of books to be able to use
it without hurting your neck. Many displays are really limited in that they only allow you to tilt
the monitor back a few degrees. More advanced ones though allow you to tilt, adjust the height,
swivel left and right and other neat things.

BY: MR. KEVIN NJAGI (LECTURER - MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY) @ JAN - APRIL 2019 44

Downloaded by Adele 05 (wwusijali@gmail.com)