Fundamentals of

Electrics and Electronics

Spring 2024
 Lecture 2 Contents
• Chapter 2
• BASIC LAWS
• Ohm’s Laws
• Nodes, Branches, and Loops
• Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Series Resistors and Voltage Division
• Parallel Resistors and Current Division

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
• Introduction
To actually determine the values of (V, I) in a given circuit requires
that we understand some fundamental laws that govern electric
circuits.
These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the
foundation upon which electric circuit analysis is built.

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow
of electric charge. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known
as resistance and is represented by the symbol R.
The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends
on A and its length l

The circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior

of a material is the resistor.

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
OHM’S LAW
• Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is credited with
finding the relationship between current and voltage for a resistor.
• This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.

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Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
OHM’S LAW

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS

• A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R,

known as conductance and denoted by G:

The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R.

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
Examples
1. An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.

2. The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element (a

resistor) that converts electrical energy to heat energy. How
much current is drawn by a toaster with resistance 12 Ω at 110
V?

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
NODES, BRANCHES, AND LOOPS
• A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

• A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent

loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology:

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
NODES, BRANCHES, AND LOOPS

Example: Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit.

Identify which elements are in series and which are in parallel.

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
• Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887).
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5

• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

v2 + v3 + v5 = v1 +
v4

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
Example

4. For the circuit find voltages v1 and v2.

5. Find v1 and v2 in the circuit.

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
Example
6. Find the currents and voltages in these circuits.

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION
• The two resistors are in series since the same
current i flows in both of them.
Ohm’s law: v1 = iR1, v2 = iR2 , KVL : −v + v1 + v2 = 0
• The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in
series is the sum of the individual resistances.
• Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in
direct proportion to their resistances; the larger the resistance, the
larger the voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division,
and the above circuit is called a voltage divider
• In general for N series R :

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
PARALLEL RESISTORS AND CURRENT DIVISION
• The two resistors are connected in parallel and
therefore have the same voltage across them.
Ohm’s law: v = i1R1 = i2R2, KCL : i = i1 + i2
• The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the
product of their resistances divided by their sum.
• total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their
resistances. This is known as the principle of current division, and the
above circuit is known as a current divider.
• For N parallel R:

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
Examples
7. Find Req for the circuits.

8. Find the equivalent conductance G eq for the circuit

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
Examples
9. Find I o and v o in the circuit.
• Calculate the power dissipated in the 3-Ω resistor.

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 Chapter 2- BASIC LAWS
Examples
10. For the circuit, determine:
• (a) the voltage v o,
• (b) the power supplied by the current source,
• (c) the power absorbed by each resistor.

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 Chapter 2- Summary
1. A resistor is a passive element in which the voltage v across it is directly
proportional to the current i through it. That is, a resistor is a device that obeys Ohm’s
law, v = iR
2. A short circuit is a resistor (a perfectly conducting wire) with zero resistance (R = 0).
An open circuit is a resistor with infinite resistance (R =∞).
3. The conductance G of a resistor is the reciprocal of its resistance: G = 1/R
4. A branch is a single two-terminal element in an electric circuit. A node is the point
of connection between two or more branches. A loop is a closed path in a circuit. The
number of branches b, the number of nodes n, and the number of independent loops
l in a network are related as b = l + n − 1.

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 Chapter 2- Summary
5. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the currents at any node algebraically sum
to zero. In other words, the sum of the currents entering a node equals the sum of
currents leaving the node.
6. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the voltages around a closed path
algebraically sum to zero. In other words, the sum of voltage rises equals the sum of
voltage drops.
7. Two elements are in series when they are connected sequentially, end to end.
When elements are in series, the same current flows through them (i1 = i2). They are
in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes. Elements in parallel always
have the same voltage across them (v1 = v2).

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 Chapter 2- Summary
8. When two resistors R (= 1/G ) and R (= 1/G ) are in series, their
1 1 2 2

equivalent resistance R and equivalent conductance G are R = R + R

eq eq eq 1 2

9. When two resistors R (= 1/G ) and R (= 1/G ) are in parallel, their

1 1 2 2

equivalent resistance Req and equivalent conductance Geq are

Req = R1R2/ /(R1 + R2) , Geq = G1 + G2
10. The voltage division principle for two resistors in series is
v = (R /(R + R ))v, v = (R /(R + R ))v
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2

11. The current division principle for two resistors in parallel is

i = (R /(R + R ))i,
1 2 1 2i = (R /(R + R ))i
2 1 1 2

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