Thin-Walled Structures 134 (2019) 442–459

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Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Full length article

Cyclic test and numerical analytical assessment of cold-formed thin-walled T

steel shear walls using tube truss
Jingfeng Wanga,b, , Wanqian Wanga, Yaming Xiaoa,c, Bo Yua
⁎

a
School of Civil Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Anhui Province 230009, China
b
Anhui Civil Engineering Structures and Materials Laboratory, Anhui Province 230009, China
c
Anhui Collaborative Innovation Center Advanced Steel Structure Technology and Industrialization, Anhui Province 230009, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Cold-formed thin-walled steel tube truss (CFSTT) shear walls are gradually used in some engineering practice
Cold-formed thin-walled steel tube truss (i.e. residence, supermarket, school etc.) owing to their superiorities such as light weight, better ductility and
(CFSTT) easy construction. However, little attention to the seismic behavior and parametric influence of the CFSTT shear
Shear wall walls has been paid. In this paper, a series of cyclic tests and numerical analysis were conducted to investigate
Cyclic behavior
structural performance of the CFSTT shear walls. Five full-scale CFSTT shear walls sheathed with double-side
Finite element (FE) modeling
oriented strand board (OSB) panels and one pure CFSTT skeleton wall were tested under constant axial com-
Parametric studies
pression combining lateral cyclic load. Failure pattern, horizontal load versus displacement relationship and
ductility of the test specimens were analyzed and assessed. The experimental data showed that the CFSTT shear
walls behaved good hysteretic behavior, ductility and energy dissipation. Following this, a nonlinear finite
element (FE) analysis modeling of the type of cold-formed shear wall was developed, and the accuracy of the FE
models was verified by experimental data. Parametric studies were conducted to explore the effect of X-shaped
bracing number, OSB panel thickness, sheathing type, etc. on the shear bearing capacities and elastic stiffness of
the CFSTT shear walls. The results indicated that the shear bearing capacity and elastic stiffness of the CFSTT
shear wall were obviously affected by number of X-shaped bracing, four-limb lattice stud, thickness of OSB panel
and the type of sheathing. The experimental and analytical results may promote the design and application for
CFSTT shear walls in engineering practice.

1. Introduction double or four limb lattice studs, which was introduced into China from
Canada for its applicability in some residences and supermarkets. The
In recent years, the development of building industrialization has CFSTT structures were designated by Carter charity fund as its specified
promoted the innovation of prefabricated wall panels in China and product [2,3]. The CFSTT shear wall (illustrated in Fig. 1) consists of
other countries. The cold-formed thin-walled steel (CFS) shear wall, as double-side OSB panels, wall studs, top and bottom tracks. Besides, the
one of the main products using C-shaped steel wall stud, was popularly wall stud is composed of double or four square tubes and galvanized V-
used in the low-rise buildings accounting for excellent structural ad- shaped connectors. The double OSB panels were connected with the
vantages, such as high strength, light weight, fairly high standardiza- CFSTT skeleton members by self-drilling screw. The type of cold-formed
tion, efficient energy saving and superior earthquake-resistance [1]. steel shear wall behaves all advantages of conventional CFS shear walls
However, it is well known that the C-shaped steel exhibits poor tor- and moreover shows better architectural aesthetics appearance, good
sional performance under bending and compressive loads. Moreover, economical efficiency as well as superior structural stability. Therefore,
initial imperfection of C-shaped steel behaves significant influence on some engineers and architects radiated an increasingly favor to use the
the performance of CFS shear walls. Consequently, novel cold-formed CFSTT shear walls in low-rise and multi-storey buildings.
thin-walled steel tube truss (CFSTT) shear wall was invented and ap- Up to now, previously published literatures related with the CFS
plied to enhance the shear wall resistance by changing C-shaped steel structures were mainly focused on the shear walls adopting C-shaped
into square steel tube. cold-formed steel as the wall stud. A series experiments had been car-
The CFSTT shear wall was a light-gauge wall with certain spacing of ried out on the CFS shear walls under diverse load conditions. The static

⁎
Corresponding author at: School of Civil Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Anhui Province 230009, China.
E-mail address: jfwang008@163.com (J. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2018.09.038
Received 28 February 2018; Received in revised form 21 September 2018; Accepted 21 September 2018
Available online 05 November 2018
0263-8231/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Wang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 134 (2019) 442–459

great importance for improving the design level of CFSTT shear walls
and provide a useful reference for engineering practice.

2. Experiment description

2.1. Test specimens

According to practical engineering, five single-storey full-scale

CFSTT shear walls with double-side OSB sheathings and one pure
CFSTT skeleton wall were tested and analyzed in this section to explore
seismic performance and failure pattern of the type of shear walls. All
specimens were tested under axial compression combining lateral cyclic
load. The detail information of test specimens was illustrated in Fig. 2.
All the test specimens were 4.2 m wide and 3.25 m high. Table 1 listed
specimen information, including the opening size, opening area ratio
and sheathing type.
The wall studs were composed of two or four cold-formed thin-
walled square steel tubes □40 × 40 × 1.5 mm connected by galvanized
V-shaped connectors (1.5 mm thick). Besides, double-limb lattice studs
were used at the interior locations placed at 0.61 m on center; while
four-limb lattice studs were used at the wall and opening boundaries
according to specification DB34/T 647–2006 [26]. All frame members
consisted of cold-formed steel profile. According to the specification
Fig. 1. Main members of CFSTT frame. GB/T 15856–2002 [27], the frame members were connected by ST4.2-
grade (d=4.2 mm) self-drilling screws. Top and bottom tracks were
made by identical U-section of dimension 150 × 40 × 1.5 mm. The X-
behavior of the CFS-framed shear walls sheathed with different type of shaped bracing on both sides of the wall frame were 100 mm wide and
panels was respectively explored by Lee and Miller [4] and Tian et al. 1.5 mm thick. 1.5 mm thick gusset plates were used to strengthen the
[5,6]. Besides, a plenty of studies on the hysteretic performance of the connection with the aid of X-shaped bracings. Specimens CFSTT1-
CFS shear walls were conducted to explore their failure modes and CFSTT5 were sheathed with 8 mm thick OSB panels. The OSB panels
cyclic performance, such as Wang and Ye [7], Nithyadharan and Ka- were attached with ST4.2 self-drilling screws spaced at 150 mm along
lyanaraman [8], Macillo et al. [9]. In Ref. [9], four full-scale CFS shear the perimeter and spaced at 300 mm in the field of the panels. To ac-
walls sheathed with gypsum-based panels were tested, and the influ- commodate openings, the panels were cut to fit up and down the doors
ence of the aspect ratio, the type of loading and the effect of finishing and windows.
was investigated. The shake table tests were also conducted on cold- The shear capacity of steel-to-steel connection was calculated by Eq.
formed steel framed buildings by researchers such as Schafer et. al [10] (1) according to the specification GB50018 [28], and the shear capacity
and Kim et. al [11]. Apart from these above-mentioned work, extensive of steel-to-sheathing connection was calculated by Eq. (2) in accordance
investigations have been carried out on kinds of alternatives to the CFS with Shi [29]. The shear capacity of steel-to-steel connection and steel-
shear walls, including steel skeleton [12], sheathing type [13], infill to-sheathing connection were 4.37 kN and 0.39 kN, respectively.
material [14], opening [15], connections [16–20], strap-braced [21]
Nvf = 3.7(t13d )1/2f1 (1)
and construction measure [22,23]. However, few literatures on the
experimental response of the CFSTT shear walls have been reported. P = t2 df2 (2)
Hence, the investigation on the type of shear walls is of inevitable ne-
cessity. On the other hand, owing to complex process and larger ex- where: Nfvis shear capacity for single screw connections; t1 is the
pense of experimental models and apparatus, numerical analysis would thickness of steel; d is the diameter of the self-drilling screw; f1 is tensile
be an extremely powerful and effective way for in-depth study to better strength of steel; P is shear capacity for single screw connections of
understand the performance of CFSTT shear walls, which was used steel-to-sheathing; t2 is the thickness of sheathing; f2 is static bending
preferentially for analyzing the behavior of the CFS shear walls [24,25]. strength of sheathing.
Therefore, to explore the properties of the CFSTT shear walls efficiently,
a demand for establishing a finite element (FE) modeling on the type of 2.2. Material properties
shear wall is emerged as well.
The main object of this paper is to make a further investigation on The steel material properties of the CFSTT components were tested
the seismic performance of CFSTT shear walls. Hereinto, five full-scale based on the specification GB/T228.1–2010 [30]. Three tensile coupons
CFSTT shear wall specimens with double-side OSB sheathings and one were cut from the specimen for uniaxial tensile test, the purpose of
CFSTT skeleton wall specimen were tested under vertical axial com- uniaxial tensile test was to determine the yield stress (fy), the ultimate
pression combining lateral cyclic load. The seismic behavior of CFSTT stress (fu), elastic modules (E), and the elongation at fracture (δ). It
shear walls was estimated in terms of failure mode, hysteretic curve, should be noted that steel materials in the type of shear wall mainly
ductility and energy dissipation. A FE analysis modeling for analyzing included the steel skeleton, the steel strip and V-shaped connector. The
the performance of the CFSTT shear wall was developed, and the ac- data of the material tests were listed in Table 2. The stresses (σ) and
curacy of the FE models was verified by the test results in the field of strains (ε) curves were obtained from the coupon tests as depicted in
failure modes and load displacement relationship curves. In addition, Fig. 3.
extensive parametric analysis was utilized to explore the effect of var- The material properties of the OSB panel were obtained: yield
ious parameters on the shear wall, such as X-shaped bracing number, strength was 7.86N/mm2; elastic modulus was 3500N/mm2; Poisson's
OSB panel thickness and sheathing type. The analysis results may be of ratio was 0.3; and density was 650–740 kg/m3.

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Fig. 2. Details of wall specimens (units: mm). Note:1-Gusset plate, 2-Galcanized V-shaped connector,3-Double-limb lattice stud, 4-Four-limb lattice stud, 5-X-shaped
bracing, 6-Bottom track, 7-Top track.

2.3. Test setup and loading procedure facilitate the transfer of horizontal shear load, and the displacement of
the shear wall bottom is restricted by the tension anchors and bottom
The experiments were performed in Anhui Civil Engineering foundation beam. A 500 kN hydraulic jack was suspended off the re-
Structures and Materials Laboratory. The test setup was shown in Fig. 4. action beam and was placed on the distributive girder to impose axial
One 1000 kN MTS hydraulic actuator with a displacement range of ± load on the wall. The distributive girder was 2.4 m length and was
250 mm was mounted on the reaction wall to exert the lateral cyclic identified by box-section of dimension 300 × 250 × 10 × 10 mm.
load to the wall. All tests loading were controlled by displacement. Four The axial pressure of 170 kN (except for the weight of distributive
32 mm diameter steel bars was used to transfer load between hydraulic girder), which was calculated from the typical structural according to
actuator and specimen. The tracks of the test specimens were connected the actual project, was gradually applied to the top of the shear wall.
to the bottom foundation beam by eight Grade 8.8 M16 bolts to The dead loads contain the dead weight of floor, columns, beams and

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Table 1
Description of test specimens.
Specimen label Opening size (mm×mm) Opening area ratio Panel type Sheathing type

Door Window

CFSTT0 —— —— —— —— ——
CFSTT1 —— —— —— OSB Double side
CFSTT2 900 × 2100 —— 13.8% OSB Double side
CFSTT3 —— 1200 × 1560 13.9% OSB Double side
CFSTT4 900 × 2100 1200 × 1560 27.8% OSB Double side
CFSTT5 3000 × 2420 —— 54.6% OSB Double side

shear walls of the structure, while the live loads consist of snow load For the CFSTT shear wall with openings, screw pull-through and
and live load of floor. In the loading phase, triangular waves were used detachment of panel from frame in specimens CFSTT2, CFSTT3 and
for displacement control according to loading history, which was gen- CFSTT4 was earlier than that of specimen CFSTT1. The crack of the OSB
erally applied in accordance with the ATC-24(1992) [31] guidelines for panels in specimens with various types of openings was first observed
cyclic testing of structural steel components (shown in Fig. 5). Δy was around the openings margin angles where lager tension field forces
defined as the predicted yielding displacement corresponding to the existed. It should be stressed that the buckling appeared at lower load
predicted yielding load (Py), and Py was approximately 0.7Pmax (Pmax levels contrast to specimen CFSTT1 owing to the stress concentration
denotes the predicted ultimate loading capacity on the basis of finite around sharp opening corners. For specimen with openings, serious
element analysis). bending of angle steel at the corner of the opening was observed; two
Four linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) were used to self-drilling screws on angle steels were pulled out adjacent to the four-
measure the displacement of the specimens during the test. The layout limb lattice stud, as shown in Fig. 6(d). With regard to specimen
of the LVDTs is illustrated in Fig. 4(b). LVDT #1 (D1) measured the CFSTT5, slight tearing in OSB panels was observed within the vicinity
horizontal displacement of the top of the wall. LVDT #2 (D2) measured of opening when the displacement arrived at 35 mm. Eventually, the
the horizontal displacement of the bottom track of the specimen. LVDT obvious screw pull-through, detachment of panel from frame, and
#3 and #4 (D3 and D4) was used to measure the side-sway of the wall. bulking of the tracks around the four-limb lattice stud were also ob-
served.
3. Analysis of experimental results
3.2. Load-displacement hysteretic curve
3.1. Failure pattern
The force-displacement hysteresis relationship can reflect the cyclic
Failure patterns of CFSTT shear walls (seen in Fig. 6) were in- performance of the CFSTT shear walls obviously, as shown in Fig. 7.
vestigated based on the test phenomena in this section. The test result The drifts were defined as drift= Δ/h. In which, Δ is the measured
showed that the sheathing panels of all walls exhibited bugling at low displacement in the top of the wall; h is the calculated height of the
load levels. For specimen CFSTT1 without openings named that CFSTT wall. The shapes of the curves were stable and plentiful with a no-
skeleton sheathed with double-side 8 mm thickness OSB panels, slight ticeable pinching effect. It could be seen that strength degradation may
screws pull-through and detachment of panel from frame was observed be attributed to cracks of OSB panel, screws pull-through and detach-
with the lateral displacement increasing. When unloading to the zero, ment of panel from frame, fracture of steel strips, and buckling of top
the OSB panels recovered to the original stage. In accompanied with and bottom tracks. Specimen CFSTT1 had a plumper hysteresis loops
screws pull-through and detachment of panel from frame, separating of compared with other specimens. The pinching effect on the hysteresis
sheathing appeared resulting in a descent of shear bearing capacities. loops for specimen CFSTT0 was more obvious, and this may be attrib-
Then a sharp noise owing to extrusion between the OSB panels was sent uted to the absence of OSB panels. Furthermore, the hysteretic curves of
out with an increase of the lateral displacement. After further increase specimens CFSTT2, CFSTT3 and CFSTT4 were similar to each other,
of lateral displacement, vertical cracks and tearing on the OSB panels and the major contribution to this result may come from the setting of
were observed owing to mutual extrusion. By the end of the test, screw four-limb lattice stud. Moreover, the specimen CFSTT5 appeared an
pulled out and the OSB panel appeared serious shedding and detached apparent degradation of shear capacity and lateral stiffness with respect
from frame. The wavy-shape and fracture among the double-limb lat- to specimen CFSTT1, which indicated that the hysteretic behavior
tice studs of X-shaped bracing were observed. Furthermore, the buck- might be obviously influenced by large opening. Consequently, it can be
ling of top and bottom track appeared near the four-limb lattice studs. concluded that the hysteretic curves were related to the opening rate
Detail failure patterns of specimen CFSTT1 were depicted in Fig. 6(b). and the number of four-limb lattice stud.
In term of the specimen CFSTT0, the steel strip appeared yield
firstly. As the test continued, the four steel strips on both sides of the 3.3. Load-displacement envelop curve and ductility
wall showed different degrees of relaxation, and behaved in wave
shapes. The test of specimen CFSTT0 was terminated with signs that The horizontal load-displacement envelope curves (seen in Fig. 8) of
severe local buckling appeared on the four-lime lattice stud and the test specimens were obtained by connecting peak load point at each
bottom track appeared local buckling (seen in Fig. 5a). displacement level according to the load-displacement hysteretic curves

Table 2
Material properties of steel.
Steel components Steel wall thickness (mm) Yield strength fy (N/mm2) Ultimate stress fu (N/mm2) Elastic modulus E (N/mm2) Elongation at fracture δ (%)

Steel strip 1.5 216 314 1.85 × 105 32

Steel skeleton 1.5 300 330 2.02 × 105 19
V-shaped connectors 1.5 361 374 2.45 × 105 19

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Fig. 3. Stress–strain curves of shear wall components.

performance can be significantly improved by setting four-limb lattice

studs at both sides of the opening instead of double-limb lattice studs.
When the opening area is large, setting up four-limb lattice studs has
slight influence for improving its seismic performance. Moreover, the
large opening has more obvious detrimental influence on the elastic
stiffness and shear bearing capacity of CFSTT shear wall. It is re-
commended that the suitable measures are needed to be taken to im-
prove the seismic behavior of CFSTT shear wall with openings.
The displacement ductility factor (μ) was adopted to evaluate the
ductility property of the type of shear wall. The ductility of CFSTT shear
wall was evaluated by the ductility factor (listed in Table 2), namely
μ = Δf,t/Δy,t. Table 2 shows that specimen CFSTT1 has higher ductility
than specimen CFSTT0 because of the stressed skin diaphragm. Whilst,
the ductility of specimens CFSTT2, CFSTT3, CFSTT4 and CFSTT5 are
visibly raised, compared to specimen CFSTT1. The evidence indicates
that openings and four-limb lattice stud have beneficial effect on the
ductility of CFSTT shear wall. The test data exhibits that the displace-
ment ductility factor (μ) of all test specimens is in the scope of
3.22–9.15. Up till now, there were none of detail ductility regulations
for the CFSTT shear wall. Thus, compared the results in this paper with
the Li and Yang [15], it indicates that the type of shear walls exhibit a
good deformability and can satisfy the seismic design requirements of
structures.

3.4. Energy dissipation capacity

The equivalent damping coefficient (ξe) adopted in specification

JGJ101 [33] was calculated by Eq.(3). The idealized load-deflection
relationship may be described as shown in Fig. 10. Table 3 shows the
total dissipation energy Wtotal, the equivalent damping factor (ξe) and
Fig. 4. Experimental setup. Note: ‘(+)’and ‘(-)’mean ‘Positive Direction’ and the energy-dissipating capacity (Ee) of all specimens.
‘Negative Direction’, respectively.
1 SABC + SCDA
=
(3)
e
2 SOBE + SODF
(shown in Fig. 7). In order to determine feature points from the en- Ee = 2 e (4)
velope curves to evaluate earthquake resistance of the specimens
quantitatively, three typical characteristic points (yield point, peak The total dissipated energy Wtotal of the specimens estimated by the
point and failure point) were introduced according to specification areas of the horizontal load versus displacement hysteretic loops and
JGJ/T 101 [32] (shown in Fig. 9). Three typical characteristic points of Wtotal is defined as the areas of the hysteresis curves at failure state.
each specimen in accordance with envelop curves are summarized in Based on the total dissipation energy Wtotal (listed in Fig. 11), ob-
Table 4. According to the test results, specimen CFSTT1 shows greater servation can be drawn as follows: The dissipated energy capacity of
shear bearing capacity and elastic stiffness than other specimens. The specimen CFSTT1 is apparently higher than that of specimen CFSTT0,
comparison between envelope curves of specimen CFSTT1 and CFSTT0 which indicates that the skin diaphragm has significant influence on
demonstrated that OSB panels had significant contribution to the wall energy dissipation. It can be seen that the dissipation energy Wtotal of
stiffness. Specimen CFSTT5 exhibits the lowest shear bearing capacity specimens CFSTT3 and CFSTT4 is higher compared to specimen
and elastic stiffness due to largest opening ratio. It indicates that the CFSTT5, while the dissipation energy Wtotal of the specimen CFSTT2 is
wall opening decreases the shear bearing capacity and elastic stiffness lower than CFSTT5. The result showed that large opening has an ex-
of CFSTT shear wall significantly. Besides, the shear bearing capacity tremely negative impact on energy dissipation of the CFSTT shear wall,
and elastic stiffness are related to the opening type and the amount of but the four-limb lattice stud can improve the energy capacity in a
four-limb lattice stud. When the opening area is small, the seismic certain extent. The opening rate has little effect on dissipated energy

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capacity owing to specimens CFSTT2 and CFSTT3 having almost the

same opening ratio, but the specimen CFSTT3 exhibited better energy
dissipation capability which might be attributed to setting up four-limb
lattice studs for openings.

4. Finite element modeling

With respect to the experimental tests, the numerical analysis

method for studying the performance of CFSTT shear wall is an effec-
tive approach to cut down time and money consumed on further in-
vestigations. However, FE modeling for CFSTT shear wall is a little
complex as it needs to respond to much nonlinear behavior. Therefore,
literatures on FE analysis of CFSTT shear wall are scarce. In order to
resolve these problems, numerical modeling of this type of shear wall
was developed by ABAQUS software. As for the loading procedure, due
to the inherent complex of CFSTT shear wall, the method is time-con-
suming and the calculated results are not prone to convergence. Thus,
Fig. 5. Loading history.
the monotonic response was stimulated in this section.

Fig. 6. Failure modes of all specimens.,.

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Fig. 6. (continued)

4.1. Material modeling elements would be proper for analyzing the stress. The S4R element had
six degrees of freedom per node and provided an accurate solution to
Although the cold-formed thin-walled steel is considered as an or- most applications. Mesh convergence studies were also conducted to
thotropic material due to the different stress-strain responses corre- obtain a reasonable mesh density which provided reliable results with
sponding to longitudinal and transverse directions [33], considering less computational time. The FE mesh for typical components of CFSTT
only the former in the numerical models is adequate. The maximum shear walls was shown in Fig. 12. Five regular elements were meshed
longitudinal strains (εz) reach to the nonlinear curve area, while the on V-shaped connector to achieve accurate mechanical behavior. Par-
maximum transverse strains (εy) were still in the linear part. The tition command for geometric elements was used to divide the struc-
stresses (σ) and strains (ε) curves were obtained from the coupon tests tural components to achieve mesh convergence. Both material non-
as depicted in Fig. 3. The constitutive models of steel were simplified as linearity and geometric imperfections were taken into considering in
bi-linear model. the analytical and the Newton-Raphson equilibrium iteration method
Wood is an anisotropic material, but its mechanical properties will was adopted in the solution [35].
be changed when it is processed into OSB panel. Thus, OSB panel is Considering the failure pattern of the specimens, the screw con-
considered as an isotropic elastic material in FE models in this paper nection interaction between the steel components and the OSB panels
according to the Easley et al. [34]. was stimulated using Spring2 element [36]. The Spring2 element used
by establishing a spring between two points, and the action direction of
4.2. Numerical modeling of CFSTT shear wall spring was fixed towards to a direction which the FE model required.
Each screw was stimulated by three spring element including an axial
Because of the characteristic of the OSB panel, S4R shell elements spring and two shear springs. The spring stiffness was tested by the
would be an effective element type to simulate its deformation features. connection test results in Ref. [28]. The screw connection interaction
For the steel tube, stripe, track and V-shaped connector, using S4R shell between the steel components was stimulated using “Tie” and the

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Fig. 7. Load (P)-displacement (Δ) relationships of test specimens.

surface to surface contact was used to model the contact between then a lateral displacement and an axial force were imposed on the
framing and sheathing. In the bottom of specimens, three displacements shear wall at the second step simultaneously.
and moments along the axis x, y, z were constrained. The top track was
assumed without displacement along the out of plane directions. In the
4.3. Test verification
interest of reflecting the actual loading condition, two types of load
consisting of axial pressure and lateral displacement were applied in
Test results obtained from CFSTT shear walls were used to evaluate
two steps: axial force was imposed on the top track at the first step, and
the effectiveness and accuracy of the numerical modeling. A

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Fig. 8. Load (P)-displacement (Δ) envelope curves of test specimens.

comparison on failure pattern between the experiments and numerical stopped owing to large deformation and bulking. No unexpected fail-
modeling was carried out, as illustrated in Fig. 13. The failure modes of ures exhibited and all the specimens performed satisfactorily.
CFSTT shear walls were consistent with the predicted results. It can be The availability and accuracy of the FE modeling technique were
seen from Fig. 12 that different types of CFSTT shear walls led to dif- validated by comparing the numerical analysis results with the test
ferent failure modes. The FE analysis behaved a good consistent with data. Fig. 6 also gave the comparisons between numerical (dashed
the test results in term of the location of the local buckling. All speci- lines) and experimental (solid lines) load-displacement curves. Com-
mens had achieved an acceptable level of accuracy and the tests were parison of the envelope curves of the hysteresis responses showed that

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Table 4
Energy dissipation of specimens at limit state.
Specimen Limit state Δ/Δy Wtotal (kN·mm) ξe Ee

CFSTT0 Peak load stage 13 3542 0.061 0.382

Failure load stage 16 4871 0.064 0.402
CFSTT1 Peak load stage 7 7204 0.209 1.3165
Failure load stage 9 11,440 0.117 0.734
CFSTT2 Peak load stage 7 6950 0.117 0.735
Failure load stage 9 9398 0.112 0.706
CFSTT3 Peak load stage 11 11,078 0.106 0.665
Failure load stage 13 14,680 0.105 0.663
CFSTT4 Peak load stage 11 8070 0.428 2.689
Failure load stage 16 14,284 0.326 2.049
CFSTT5 Peak load stage 11 9645 0.299 1.876
Failure load stage 16 11,750 0.203 1.277

Fig. 9. Characteristic points of specimens.

the numerical results were agreed well with those of tests. The differ-
ence between the FE analytical and experimental results was possibly
arisen from the difference in the imperfection, site condition and ma-
terial property between the test specimens and FE models. Generally
speaking, the predicted force-displacement curves all specimens were in
good agreement with the test curves.

5. Parametric analyses

A numerical analysis was taken by ABAQUS software to discuss the

effects of five parameters on the performance of the CFSTT shear walls
in this section. The main factors that affect the behavior of this type of
structure were determined.
Based on the FE models, a series of parametric investigation of the Fig. 10. Idealized P-Δ hysteretic relationship.
main variables in a structure design CFSTT shear walls was conducted
to determine the discipline on the shear bearing capacity, corre-
sponding displacement, and elastic stiffness. Five parameters could in- difference. Thus stitching several OSB panels together is a reliable
fluence the properties of the CFSTT shear walls, consisting of: the measure. Two stitching methods of OSB panel including using a whole
stitching method of OSB panel, number of X-shaped bracing, setting of OSB panels (CFSTT1-W) and stitching several OSB panels together
four-limb lattice stud, OSB panel thickness, and wall sheathing type. (CFSTT1-S) were investigated to verify the rationality of engineering
The base model used for comparing the performance of parametric practice in the process of simulation (seen in Fig. 14). Then the hor-
models is CFSTT1. izontal load-displacement curves are depicted in Fig. 15. The results
showed that the shear bearing capacities and elastic stiffness of two
5.1. Stitching method of OSB panels stitching methods of OSB panels had slight difference. It can be con-
cluded that the stitching method of the OSB panels had little effect on
The size of the OSB panels produced by the manufacturer is fixed. So the elastic stiffness and shear bearing capacity of the shear wall, but it
the dimensions of OSB panel need to be combined according to the had a certain extent effect on the stress distribution of the panel (seen in
construction requirements in engineering practice. This paper considers Fig. 16). Therefore, the dimensions of OSB panel can be combined ac-
a whole panel as contrast indicated that shear bearing capacities and cording to the construction requirements and convenience in en-
elastic stiffness of two stitching methods of OSB panels had slight gineering practice.

Table 3
Characteristic values on envelop curves.
Specimen Yielding point Peak point Failure point μ Elastic stiffness (N/mm)

Drift (%) Py,t (kN) Drift (%) Pm,t (kN) Drift (%) Pf,t (kN)

CFSTT0(+) 0.93 15.11 2.20 24.56 2.99 20.88 3.39 10.65

CFSTT0(-) 0.60 12.11 3.20 18.74 3.44 15.93 5.75 7.35
CFSTT1(+) 0.34 40.12 1.01 74.22 1.32 63.09 4.28 5.97
CFSTT1(-) 0.30 33.04 1.01 74.10 1.46 62.99 4.88 5.62
CFSTT2(+) 0.32 27.48 1.36 54.80 1.59 46.58 5.50 0.95
CFSTT2(-) 0.30 29.16 1.37 50.56 1.99 42.98 6.64 1.06
CFSTT3(+) 0.45 34.01 2.10 53.21 2.72 45.23 6.11 5.05
CFSTT3(-) 0.30 17.62 2.10 37.76 2.70 32.10 9.03 3.93
CFSTT4(+) 0.39 27.25 1.77 54.12 2.75 46.00 6.78 4.94
CFSTT4(-) 0.31 20.16 1.37 38.15 2.56 32.43 8.15 4.10
CFSTT5(+) 0.45 12.08 3.19 23.90 4.12 20.31 5.81 1.67
CFSTT5(-) 0.40 8.11 3.20 18.07 3.47 15.36 8.71 1.32

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circumstance and to take full use of the increasing X-shaped bracing,

strengthening the end of the steel strip by four-limb lattice studs was
preliminarily recommended by designers (seen in Fig. 17 (e,f)). Hence,
Fig. 18(b) illustrates the analytical results of their corresponding
strengthened models to present a considerable reference for the en-
gineering practice. The results demonstrated that the shear bearing
capacities of Model-X2-strengthen and Model-X3-strengthen increased
respectively by 36.8% and 49% with respect to Model-X1, while im-
provements of 29% and 45% in elastic stiffness were observed as well.
Accordingly, it can be figured out that strengthening the wall stud in
the end of steel strip is an effective method to increase the contribution
of X-shaped bracing.

5.3. Four-limb lattice stud

Fig. 11. Total energy dissipation for the test specimens. The four-limb lattice stud is a significant design parameter in
practical engineering. In this paper, in order to achieve the goal of the
variation of four-limb lattice studs in the FE models, four-limb lattice
5.2. Number of X-shaped bracing studs of specimens CFSTT2, CFSTT3, CFSTT4 and CFSTT5 (except for
four-limb lattice studs on the both side of the specimens) were replaced
Projects usually employ one X-shaped bracing to improve the by double-limb lattice studs. The models without four-limb lattice studs
bearing capacity of shear wall. While, only one X-shaped bracing won't on the side of opening were defined as CFSTT0. Fig. 19 provided a
make for a good construction when the wall is too long. So some de- comparison of the horizontal load versus later displacement (P-Δ) re-
signers suggested using two or three X-shaped bracing to avoid the lationship with the change of four-limb lattice studs. The analysis re-
problem. The influence of number of X-shaped bracing on the shear sults indicated that the shear bearing capacities of model CFSTT2,
bearing capacity and elastic stiffness of the CFSTT shear wall is shown CFSTT3, CFSTT4 and CFSTT5 with double-limb lattice studs decreased
in Fig. 17. The numerical models with various number of X-shaped by 3.6%, 4.7%, 26.5% and 16.1% with respect to specimens with four-
bracing (n = 0, 1, 2 and 3) were conducted. Then Fig. 18(a) depicted limb lattice studs. The reason for these simulation results were that the
the horizontal load-displacement curves. According to the numerical shear beating capacity of the CFSTT shear wall would be enhanced by
results, when one X-shaped bracing was set on both sides of the shear setting four-limb lattice studs.
wall, its shear bearing capacity and elastic stiffness respectively in-
creased by 70.2% and 91.6%, compared to the shear wall without X- 5.4. Thickness of OSB panel
shaped bracing. However, when the CFSTT shear wall adopted more
than one X-shaped bracing, the shear bearing capacity and elastic Different thickness of OSB panel including 6, 8, 15 and 20 mm were
stiffness of the shear wall were not affected notably. It indicated that investigated in this section. In this part, the strength of sheathing-to-
one X-shaped bracing was enough to improve the shear bearing capa- frame connections had been improved to meet different OSB panel
city and elastic stiffness, in case that there would be no four-limb lattice thickness. Fig. 20 showed that when the OSB panel thickness of shear
studs setting to strengthen the interior wall studs which were connected walls changed from 6 mm to 8, 15, 20 mm, the elastic stiffness of the
to the end of the steel strip. In order to avoid the aforementioned shear walls was raised by 30%, 47%, 89%, respectively, and the

Fig. 12. FE analysis model.

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improvements in shear bearing capacity were respectively 18.4%, displacement curves for the different types of panel are shown in
30.8%, 41.3%. This result demonstrated that the thickness of OSB panel Fig. 21. The results indicated that the model adopting OSB panels had
had a significant influence on the shear bearing capacity and elastic lower shear bearing capacity than that of models adopting PLY panels
stiffness. and BPLY panels, but the model adopting OSB panels had higher elastic
stiffness. It can be found that the TS panel and GB panel had highest and
5.5. Type of wall sheathing lowest shear bearing capacity and elastic stiffness, respectively. That is
to say, when the TS panels are used in the shear wall, it has good shear
At the same size of shear walls, five models with different types of bearing capacities and elastic stiffness, while the model adopting PB
sheathing including OSB panel, thin steel sheathing (TS), gypsum board panels has poor performance when compared with other panels.
(GB), plywood panel (PLY) and bamboo plywood panel (BPLY) were Therefore, the above mentioned results showed that the ductile mate-
considered. Similarly, the strength of sheathing-to-frame connections rial can be used as sheathing of CFSTT shear wall in engineering
had been changed to match different sheathing types. Table 5 listed the practice, and the PB panel should be used carefully as the wall
material characteristics of various panels. The horizontal load versus sheathing.

Fig. 13. Observed and predicted failure modes.

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Fig. 13. (continued)

Fig. 15. Effect of stitching methods of OSB panels on P-Δ relations for CFSTT
Fig. 14. Assembly of OSB panels. shear walls.

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J. Wang et al. Thin-Walled Structures 134 (2019) 442–459

Fig. 16. Stress distribution for different OSB panel combination methods.

Fig. 17. Number of X-shaped bracing.

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Fig. 18. Effect of X-shaped bracing number on P-Δ relations for CFSTT shear walls.

Fig. 19. Effect of four-limb lattice stud on P-Δ relations for CFSTT shear walls.

6. Discussion circular arc in the practical design. It may be a reliable method to re-
duce the stress around the opening corner. Moreover, this method may
6.1. Opening be possible to postpone the failure proceeding of the OSB panels and
thus improve the ductility and shear bearing capacity of the CFSTT
According to the above studies, the tension field force was lager shear wall.
around the opening corner; while the stress in other places was not
obvious. Therefore, the cracks and local buckling of the OSB panels 6.2. Strengthening of X-shaped bracing
were discovered within the vicinity of opening. Besides, the buckling of
specimens CFSTT2-CFSTT5 appeared first at lower load levels owing to Fig. 18 investigated the influence of X-shaped bracing on the P-Δ
large stress resulted from wall opening. In order to offset the above relationship of CFSTT shear wall. Strengthening the shear wall by X-
deficiencies, it can be considered to replace the sharp corner with shaped bracing may be an effective approach to heighten its

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performance. Moghimi and Ronagh [37,38] had put forward an effec-

tive method to enhance CFS skeleton and indicated that strap bracing
could be adopted to provide a considerable amount of shear bearing
capacity after the appearance of the signs of buckling. Moreover, based
on the above parametric analysis, in case of no four-limb lattice studs
were set to strengthen the interior wall studs which were connected to
the end of the steel strip, setting up one X-shaped bracing was the most
economical measure. Besides, the fracture of the steel strip mostly oc-
curred at the joint with wall studs, which were connected by self-dril-
ling screws. This phenomenon was attributed to the stress concentra-
tion around the self-drilling screws. Therefore, widening the cross
section of steel strip and designing the connection part into dumbbell-
shape to decrease its stress was suggested in this paper to enhance the
strength of X-shaped bracing.

6.3. Strengthening of four-limb lattice stud

Fig. 20. Effect of thickness of OSB panel on P-Δ relations for CFSTT shear walls.

According to the analysis of Section 5.3, four-limb lattice studs for

Table 5 the CFSTT shear wall may be another reliable method to enhance its
Material properties of different wall panels in parametric analyses. shear resistance. Despite the fact that specimens CFSTT2 and CFSTT3
Panel type Elastic modulus E(N/ Yield strength (N/ Poisson ratio v had similar opening rate where α = 13.8%, and 13.9%, respectively,
mm2) mm2) the experimental result (as depicted in Table 4) showed that the total
dissipated energy Wtotal of specimen CFSTT3 was increased by 51.5%,
OSB 3500 7.86 0.30
compared to specimen CFSTT2. Moreover, although the specimen
TS 206,000 320 0.30
GB 1125 0.66 0.23
CFSTT5 has a large opening, its energy dissipation capacity is not sig-
PLY 4000 25 0.15 nificantly lower than that of specimen CFSTT1. These might because
BPLY 7110 55 0.13 that setting up four-limb lattice stud can improve the energy dissipation
and structural integrity of the CFSTT shear wall. According to the FE
Note: TS-thin steel sheathing; GB- gypsum board; PLY-plywood panel; BPLY- analysis results in Fig. 19, the shear bearing capacity and its corre-
bamboo plywood panel.
sponding displacement of the analysis model with four-limb lattice
studs are relatively larger than those of model without four-limb lattice
studs.
Furthermore, when the steel strips fractured, the wall studs showed
no apparent buckling, which demonstrated that there was too much
redundancy in strength for the wall studs. It can be conceived that the
difference in strength level between the thin steel strips and the wall
studs seem a little large, which would stifle the strength of wall studs.
Therefore, designing proper steel strips to match with the strength of
the wall studs is of great importance and it still needs to be further
investigated.

6.4. Strengthening of infill material

In practical engineering, complicated detail of shear walls is re-

quired to meet the requirements of thermal and sound insulation.
Fig. 21. Effect of sheathing type on P-Δ relations for CFSTT shear walls. However, the CFSTT shear wall proposed in this paper held hollow
section and could not meet the above mentioned demands. Hence, some
scholars were focused on the studies of the wall filled with various light
materials, which is recommended in this section either. In some wall
productions, expanded polystyrene (EPS) materials, extruded poly-
styrene (XPS) stuffs, and insulation cotton was attempted to place inside
the cavities or to cover on the outside surfaces of the steel frames.
Besides, a method that using sprayed light weight mortar EPS boards
was introduced according to Ref. [8]. Based on the above literatures, it
can be found that using reasonable filling materials could also
strengthen the stability of the CFSTT shear wall, and thereby its load
carrying capacity as well. This method can not only reduce the carbon
footprint but also can improve living standards significantly.

6.5. Analysis of P-Δ curves

A standard P-Δ curve of CFSTT shear wall under axial and lateral
loads was observed based on amounts of test results and numerical
Fig. 22. Typical P-Δ curve of CFSTT shear wall. analysis (seen in Fig. 22). Test and FE results indicated that the shape

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and trend of the P-Δ curves are related to the various parameters and (4) The extensive numerical parameter analysis results showed that the
each curve could be divided into four parts: shear bearing capacity and elastic stiffness of the CFSTT shear wall
were obviously affected by number of X-shaped bracing, four-limb
(1) The elastic stage (OA). The bearing capacity has an approximate lattice stud, thickness of OSB panel and the type of sheathing.
linear relationship before the lateral displacement reaches the point Different stitching methods of OSB panel had slight effect on the
A. The slope of the OA is the elastic stiffness Ki of the specimen. The shear bearing capacity and elastic stiffness of the CFSTT shear wall.
elastic stiffness may be improved by X-shaped bracing and OSB
panel; while the elastic stiffness may be reduced with the increasing Acknowledgments
of opening rate.
(2) The elastic-plastic stage (AB). The force undertaken by shear wall This work described in paper is supported by the National Natural
shows a nonlinear relationship with the displacement. This phe- Science Foundation of China (Project 51478158) and the New Century
nomenon indicates that the CFSTT skeleton steps into elastic-plastic Excellent Talents in University (Project NCET-12-0838); the authors
stage. Finally, the CFSTT shear wall goes to the yielding strength greatly appreciated the support.
with the P-Δ curve reaching point B.
(3) The strain-hardening stage (BC). With the load and displacement References
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