Civil Engineering Societal & Global Impact

CIVIL ENGINEERING SOCIETAL
&
GLOBAL IMPACT
Authored by
Dr. Shakuntala Acharya
Assistant Professor,
IIT Guwahati, Assam
Reviewed by
Dr. Nikhil Bugalia
Assistant Professor,
IIT Madras
All India Council for Technical Education

Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj,
New Delhi, 110070
BOOK AUTHOR DETAILS
Dr. Shakuntala Acharya, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati (IITG), Indian Institute of
Technology Guwahati (IITG), Kamrup (R), Guwahati, ASSAM (India).
Email ID: shakuntala.a@iitg.ac.in
BOOK REVIEWER DETAILS
Dr. Nikhil Bugalia, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, (India).
Email ID: nbugalia@civil.iitm.ac.in
BOOK COORDINATOR (S) – English Version
1. Dr. Ramesh Unnikrishnan, Advisor-II, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: advtlb@aicte-india.org
Phone Number: 011-29581215
2. Dr. Sunil Luthra, Director, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE),
New Delhi, India
Email ID: directortlb@aicte-india.org
3. Sh. M. Sundaresan, Deputy Director, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: ddtlb@aicte-india.org
November, 2023
© All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
ISBN : 978-81-963773-7-3
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means, without permission in writing from the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE).
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Printed and published by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.
Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
Disclaimer: The website links provided by the author in this book are placed for informational, educational &
reference purpose only. The Publisher do not endorse these website links or the views of the speaker / content of
the said weblinks. In case of any dispute, all legal matters to be settled under Delhi Jurisdiction, only.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to the authorities of AICTE, particularly Prof. T. G. Sitharam, Chairman;
Dr. Abhay Jere, Vice-Chairman; Prof. Rajiv Kumar, Member-Secretary, Dr. Ramesh
Unnikrishnan, Advisor-II and Dr. Sunil Luthra, Director, Training and Learning Bureau for
their planning to publish the books on ‘Civil Engineering – Societal and Global Impact’.
I sincerely acknowledge the valuable contributions of the reviewer of the book,
Dr. Nikhil Bugalia, from Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Madras for his constant support to bring this effort to fruition.
This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts and
authors who shared their opinion and thought to further develop the engineering
education in our country. Acknowledgements are due to the contributors and different
workers in this field whose published books, review articles, papers, photographs,
footnotes, references, and other valuable information enriched us at the time of writing
the book.

PREFACE
“This erring race of human beings dreams always of perfecting their environment by
the machinery of government and society; but it is only by the perfection of the soul
within that the outer environment can be perfected” (CWM, Aphorism 344)
Humans are abundantly creative! Modern wonders and ancient marvels exemplify
this creativity and are testaments to the grit and tenacity of the great minds who have
shaped our world today. However, unrelentless development sought at any cost is an
erroneous dream and this book, titled ‘Civil Engineering – Societal and Global Impact’,
is a reflection on and a response to, the profound need for sustainable development and
the crucial role the designer- engineer plays in improving the quality of life and
environment in which we live. The motivation of writing this book is to expose the civil
engineering students to the varied dimensions of sustainability, the impact of civil
engineering and its ability to be a vehicle of change for a sustainable future.
Keeping in mind the purpose of wide coverage as well as to provide essential
supplementary information, the topics recommended by AICTE have been included in a
very systematic and orderly manner throughout the book. Sections like multiple choice
questions, short and long question and answers, and supplementary reading material
with easy to refer QR codes have been provided, in text and in the ‘Know More’ Section.
Various books, research publications, white papers and reports from national and
international bodies have been incorporated. Apart from illustrations and examples as
required, the book has been enriched with images from real locations, with in text
explanations for proper understanding of the related topics.
In this first edition of ‘Civil Engineering – Societal and Global Impact’, an
attempt has been made to cover the vast landscape of knowledge in the domain of Civil
engineering, from its historical relevance and evolution, across technical know-how on
infrastructure, the environment the built-environment, to pragmatic knowledge on codes,
standards, and project management, through the lens of Sustainable development goals.
All comments and suggestions that will contribute to the improvement of the future
editions of the book, are welcome, and my sincere gratitude to all who enjoy this journey
of learning. It has been a great learning experience for me as well.
The intent is to empower the students to be more than just an engineer, but a
leader, a thinker, a problem solver; and imbibe in them a sense of social responsibility
and environmental stewardship. I sincerely hope that this book will instil a sense of
curiosity and awe in the world of Architectural design, Engineering and Construction,
with Sustainability as a guiding principle, and encourage them to seek out creative and
conscientious ways to contribute to society.

OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION
For the implementation of an outcome-based education the first requirement is to develop
an outcome-based curriculum and incorporate an outcome-based assessment in the
education system. By going through outcome-based assessments evaluators will be able
to evaluate whether the students have achieved the outlined standard, specific and
measurable outcomes. With the proper incorporation of outcome-based education there
will be a definite commitment to achieve a minimum standard for all learners without
giving up at any level. At the end of the programme running with the aid of
outcome-based education, a student will be able to arrive at the following outcomes:
PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyse
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues, and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding
of the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own
work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
COURSE OUTCOMES
After completion of the course the students will be able to:
CO-1: Impact of Civil Engineering and Resource use
CO-2: Infrastructure and its resource requirements (energy, etc)
CO-3: Sustainability of the Environment, including its Aesthetics
CO-4: Potential of Civil Engineering towards Economy
CO-5: Built-Environment and factors impacting the Quality of Life
CO-6: Precautions and measures towards Sustainability
CO-7: Applying professional and responsible judgement, and developing a leadership
role.
Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes

Course (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12
CO-1 - - 1 2 2 - 3 1 - - - 2
CO-2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 - - - - -
CO-3 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 3 1 1
CO-4 - - - - - - 3 2 3 1 3 -
CO-5 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 - - - 1
CO-6 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 - 1
CO-7 1 2 3 2 2 3 3 1 2 1 3 1
GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS
To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) knowledge level and skill set of the
students should be enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper
implementation of OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in
OBE system may be as follows:
● Within reasonable constraint, they should manoeuvre time to the best advantage of
all students.
● They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without
considering any other potential ineligibility to discriminate them.
● They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level
before they leave the institute.
● They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with the quality
knowledge as well as competence after they finish their education.
● They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance
capabilities.
● They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate
newer approach.
● They should follow Blooms taxonomy in every part of the assessment.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Teacher should Student should be Possible Mode of
Level Check able to Assessment
Students’ ability to
Create create Design or Create Mini project
Students’ ability
Evaluate to Argue or Defend Assignment
justify
Students’ ability to Differentiate or Project/Lab
Analyse distinguish Distinguish Methodology
Students’ ability to Operate or Technical Presentation/

Apply use information Demonstrate Demonstration
Understand explain the ideas Explain or Classify Presentation/Seminar
Remember recall (or remember) Define or Recall Quiz
GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS
Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the
responsibilities (not limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
● Students should be well aware of each UO before the start of a unit in each and
every course.
● Students should be well aware of each CO before the start of the course.
● Students should be well aware of each PO before the start of the programme.
● Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
● Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and
real life consequences.
● Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations Full form

ADAM Automated Drafting and Machining
AEC Architectural design, Engineering and Construction
AI Artificial Intelligence
AMRUT Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
AR/VR Augmented and Virtual Reality
ARAI Automotive Research Association of India
ARCs Autonomous Robotic Construction systems
AV Autonomous Vehicles
BAS Building Automation Systems
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
BIG Bjarke Ingels Group
BIM Building Information Modelling
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
BMS Building Management Systems
BOM Bill of Materials
BOQ Bill of Quantities
BAS Building Automation Systems
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
BIG Bjarke Ingels Group
BIM Building Information Modelling
CCS Carbon Capture and Sequestration
CEOS Committee on Earth Observation Satellites
CII Confederation of Indian Industry
CLT Cross-Laminated Timber
CM Construction Management
COP Climate Change Conference
CPS Cyber-physical Systems
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
CTCN Climate Technology Centre and Network
CTDP Comprehensive Telecom Development Plan
C-DoT Centre for Development of Telematics
C-V2X Cellular Vehicle-to-everything
CAD Computer Aided Drawing
CAR Civil Air Regulations
DGCA Directorate General Civil Aviation
DOE Department of Electronics
DSD Division of Sustainable Development
DSRC Dedicated Short-Range Communications
DUAC Delhi Urban Art Commission
ECV Essential Climate Variable
EETSD Environmental Education & Training for Sustainable Development
EF Ecological Footprint
EMS Energy Management Systems
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
EoL End of Life
EPA US Environmental Protection Agency
EPI Environmental Performance Index
ERNET Education and Research Network
ETF Enhanced Transparency Framework
EUNIS European Nature Information System
EVA Economic Value Added
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EMS Energy Management Systems
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
EoL End of Life
EPA US Environmental Protection Agency
EPI Environmental Performance Index
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FRA Forest Rights Act
GBCI Green Business Certification Inc.
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEC General Engineering Consultant
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GIS Geographic Information System
GoI Government of India
GPS Global Positioning System
GQII Global Quality Infrastructure Index
GRI Global Reporting Initiative
GRIHA Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment
HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Cooling
HDI Human Development Index
HGL-PCCB High level Group for Partnership, Coordination and Capacity-building
HRIDAY National Heritage city Development and Augmentation Yojana
i4.0 Industry 4.0
IAEG-SDGs Inter-Agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators
IAQ Indoor Air Quality
IBC International Building Code
IBoK Indian Infrastructure Body of Knowledge
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
ICC International Code Council
ICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property
ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEQ Indoor Environment Quality
ITU International Telecommunication Union
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management
IXP Internet exchange points
IGBC Indian Green Building Council
IHDI Inequality adjusted Human Development Index
IIPDF India Infrastructure Project Development Fund Scheme
INTACH Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage
IoT Internet of Things
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPD Integrated Project Delivery
IS Codes Indian Standard codes
ISHRAE Indian Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- Conditioning Engineers
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ISP Internet Service Providers
LCA Life-Cycle Assessment
LCC Life Cycle Costs
LCEA Life Cycle Energy Analysis
LCI Life Cycle Inventory
LCIA Life Cycle Impact Assessment
LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging
LT-LEDS Long-term Low greenhouse gas Emission Development Strategies
MoEF Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
MoHUA Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
NBC National Building Code
NCSDCT National Centre for Software Development and Computing Techniques
NDC Nationally Determined Contributions
NHAI National Highways Authority of India
NHPC National Hydroelectric Power Corporation
NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
NRDW National Rural Drinking Water Programme
NTPC National Thermal Power Corporation
NUSP National Urban Sanitation Policy
ODP Ozone Depletion Potential
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OSH National Occupational Safety and Health
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
ODA Official Development Assistance
PMC Project Management Consultant
PPP Public-Private Partnership
PV Photovoltaic (panels)
QCI Quality Council of India
QII Quality Infrastructure Investment
RDSO Research Designs and Standards organization
RICS Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
ROI Return on Investment
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment
SFM Sustainable facility management
SJVN Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam
SMART Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel
SOM Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill
SPCB State Pollution Control Board
SPI Smart Power India
SRI Smart-readiness indicator
TEC Telecom Engineering Centre
TOR Terms of Reference
TPGEL Tata Power Green Energy Limited
TSDSI Telecommunications Standards Development Society of India
UN United Nations
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also, Rio Conference or the
Earth Summit)
UNEA UN Environment Assembly
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNCTAD UN Conference on Trade and development
UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNSDSN United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network
USGBC US Green Building Council
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNSC United Nations Statistical Commission
UPI Unified Payments Interface
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
VDC Virtual Design and Construction
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
WHO World Health Organization
WRM Water Resource Management
LIST OF FIGURES
Unit 1 Impact of Civil Engineering: An Introduction
Fig. 1.1 : Persian Qanat Profile 3

Fig. 1.2 : 'Harit Kranti' - The Indian Green Revolution 5
Fig. 1.3 : Assembly Line at Ford Motor Co. 7
Fig. 1.4 : Ancient building materials and techniques 11
Fig. 1.5 : Ancient construction tools and techniques 11
Fig. 1.6 : Panama Canal (Top) A Cross Section Canal, (Bottom) Picture 13
Fig. 1.7 : Modular construction - Habitat 67, Montreal (Left) Section drawing, (Right) Photograph 13
Fig. 1.8 : Sustainable Development Goals 19
Unit 2 Importance of Civil Engineering
Fig. 2.1 : Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro 30

Fig. 2.2 : Pages from De Architectura [1475-1543], 32
Fig. 2.3 : Different Architectural styles across Italy 34
Fig. 2.4 : Examples of Gothic Architecture across Europe 34
Fig. 2.5 : St. Peter's Square, Vatican, boasting Michelangelo's 'giant order' 36
Fig. 2.6 : The Great Exhibition pavilions 38
Fig. 2.7 : Examples of Art Nouveau and Art Deco style 38
Fig. 2.8 : Examples of Modernism 40
Fig. 2.9 : Examples of contemporary style 40
Fig. 2.8 : Examples of Parametricism 42
Unit 3 Infrastructure
Fig. 3.1 : Megacities of the World 54

Fig. 3.2 : Illustrative List of Smart Solution, Mission Statement & Guidelines, MoUD, GoI 56
Fig. 3.3 : Future Projects 58
Fig. 3.4 : Delhi Metro Map 63
Fig. 3.5 : Hyperloop Alpha concept sketch 67
Fig. 3.6 : Power Generation from Renewable Energy Sources 70
Fig. 3.7 : Systemic support required for successful WASH initiatives 73
77
Fig. 3.8 : National Infrastructure Pipeline, 2022-25, Sector-wise Fund allocation in %
91
94
99
Unit 4 Environment 100
Fig. 4.1 : Global GHG Emissions, 104
2019, by Country and Sector Fig.
4.2 : Circular Economy, UNCTAD
Fig 4.3 : Essential
Climate Variables,
WMO Fig. 4.4 :
2022 EPI
Framework
Fig. 4.5 : Lifecycle of a Building
Unit 5 Built Environment
Fig. 5.1 : 11 Core Solutions

competencies of
Facility Management
Fig. 5.2 : Elements of a
Building Control
System
Fig. 5.3 : Features of a Building Security
System
Fig. 5.4 : Key Environmental Impacts
during Life Cycle of Building Materials
Fig. 5.5 : Recycling of Building Materials
Fig. 5.6 : Performance criteria
comparison of LEED and GRIHA
Rating Fig. 5.7 : GRIHA v2019 Criteria
and Points
Fig. 5.8 : Smart
Building
technologies and
features Fig. 5.9
: UNESCO
World Heritage
Sites in India
Fig. 5.10:
Retrofitting
117 129
119 130
121 131
123 135
125 139
Unit 6 Civil Engineering Projects
Fig. 6.1 : Typical Project Life 152

Cycle and Project Resources 156
Fig. 6.2 : Elements of a 159
Sustainable Project 160
Fig. 6.3 : 162
Prefabricated 167
building elements
Fig. 6.4 :
Advanced
technologies
Fig. 6.5 : Project Management
Model (Cleland, 1977) Fig.
6.6 : Singapore VDC
Framework 2017
CONTENTS
Foreword iv
Acknowledgement v
Preface vi
Outcome Based Education viii
Course Outcomes x
Guidelines for Teachers xi
Guidelines for Students xii
List of Abbreviations xiii
List of Figures xviii
Unit 1: Impact of Civil Engineering: An introduction 1-25

Unit specifics 1
Rationale 2
Unit outcomes 2
1.1 Dawn Of Civil Engineering: A Brief History 3
1.1.1 Pre-Industrial Revolution 3
1.1.2 Agricultural Revolutions 4
1.1.3 Industrial Revolution 6
1.1.4 Digital Revolution and Industry 4.0 8
1.2 Major Breakthroughs and Innovations 9
1.3 Sustainable Development: Present Day World and Future Projections 15
1.3.1 The Steady Erosion of Sustainability and Mitigative Actions 15
1.3.2 Sustainable Development Goals and Global Impact 17
1.4 Evaluating Future Requirements 19
1.4.1 Sustainability Indicators 19
1.4.2 Monitoring: Methodology and Applications 20
1.4.3 Human Development Index and Ecological Footprint 21
Unit Summary 22
Exercises 22
Know More 24
References And Suggested Readings 25
Unit 2: Importance of Civil Engineering 26-49
Unit Specifics 26
Rationale 27
Unit Outcomes 27
2.1 Civil Engineering: Shaping and Impacting The World 28
2.2 Ancient Wonders and Modern Marvels 30
2.2.1 Ancient Civilizations [4000 – 900 BCE] 30
2.2.2 Classical Period [1000 BCE – 1000 CE] 31
2.2.3 Renaissance & Age of Enlightenment [1400 – 1750 CE] 35
2.2.4 Modernism & Industrial Era [1750 - 1950 CE] 36
2.2.5 Contemporary Style & Digital Era [1950 - Present] 39
2.3 Future Vision for Civil Engineering 42
Unit Summary 43
Exercises 43
Know More 45
Unit 3: Infrastructure 50-87

Unit specifics 50
Rationale 51
Unit outcomes 51
3.1 Habitats 52
3.1.1 Megacities 53
3.1.2 Smart Cities 55
3.1.3 Future Vision of Habitats 57
3.2 Transportation 59
3.2.1 Land Transportation Infrastructure 59
3.2.2 Water Transportation Infrastructure 64
3.2.3 Air Transportation Infrastructure 66
3.2.4 Futuristic Transportation Infrastructure systems 66
3.3 Energy 68
3.3.1 Renewable Sources 68
3.3.2 Non-renewable Sources 71
3.3.3 New Sources and Technologies 71
3.4 Water Resource Management 72
3.4.1 Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) 72
3.4.2 Strategies for water provisioning and management 74
3.5 Telecommunication
3.5.1 Telecom Infrastructure 75
3.5.2 Strategies for water provisioning and management 76
3.6 Infrastructure Development Standards & Codes 78
3.6.1 International and National Codes for Civil Engineering and Construction 78
3.7 Innovations and Methodologies for Sustainability 81
Unit summary 83
Exercises 83
Know More 85
References and suggested readings 87
Unit 4: Environment 88-112

Unit Specifics 88
Rationale 89
Unit Outcomes 89
4.1 Environment, Global Warming and Climate Change 90
4.1.1 Global Warming Phenomena and GHG Emissions 90
4.1.2 Pollution Mitigation 93
4.1.3 Non-Stationarity 96
4.2 Environmental Monitoring & Metrics 97
4.2.1 Environmental Monitoring 97
4.2.2 Global Climate Indicators And Essential Climate Variable (ECV) 98
4.2.3 Environmental Performance Index 101
4.2.4 Other Sustainability Measures 101
4.3.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 102
4.3.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 104
4.3.3 Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) 106
Unit Summary 108
Exercises 108
Know More 110
Unit 5: Built Environment 113-148

Unit specifics 113
Rationale 114
Unit outcomes
114
5.1 The Built Environment and Its Impact 115

5.1.1 Facilities Management 115
5.1.2 Building Control System 118
5.1.3 Energy Efficient Built Environment 123
5.1.4 LEED Rating 126
5.1.5 Intelligent to Smart Buildings 131
5.2 Aesthetics of Built Environment 132
5.2.1 Role of Urban Arts Commissions 133
5.2.2 Heritage Conservation and Structural Repair and Rehabilitation 134
5.3.1 Building Codes 140
5.3.2 Building Information Modeling Standards 141
5.3.3 Environment Management System 142
5.3.4 Iso Tc268 ‘Sustainable Cities and Communities’ 143
Unit summary 144
Exercises 144
Know More 146
Unit 6: Civil Engineering Projects 149-173

Unit specifics 149
Rationale 150
Unit outcomes 150
6.1 Civil Engineering Projects and Its Impact 151
6.1.1 EIA Procedures: Environmental Clearance for Project 153
6.1.2 Sustainable Construction 157
6.2 Project Management 160
6.2.1 Project Management paradigms and systems 161
6.2.2 Quality of Products, Health and Safety aspects for stakeholder 165
6.2.3 Demand and Contribution of Civil Engineers 166
6.3 Innovations and Methodologies for Sustainability in Projects 167
Unit summary 169
Exercises 169
Know More 171
References for Further Learning 174
CO and PO Attainment Table 175
Index 176 - 179
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
● The past to look into the future:

o Pre- industrial revolution
o Agricultural revolution
o first and second industrial revolutions
o IT revolution
● Major Civil Engineering breakthroughs and innovations - a Timeline
● Sustainable Development - Present day world and future projections
o The steady erosion in Sustainability and its global impact
o Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), its impact and possible causes
● Evaluating future requirements for various resources
o GIS and applications for monitoring systems
o Human Development Index and Ecological Footprint
Besides giving a large number of multiple-choice questions as well as questions of short and
long answer types marked in two categories following lower and higher order of Bloom’s taxonomy, a
list of references and suggested readings are given in the unit so that one can go through them for
practice.
There is a “Know More” section, which has been carefully designed so that the
supplementary information provided in this part becomes beneficial for the users of the book. It is
important to note that for getting more information on various topics of interest some QR codes have
been provided which can be scanned for relevant supportive knowledge This section mainly highlights
applications of the subject matter for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial applications on variety
of aspects, case study related to environmental, sustainability, social and ethical issues whichever
applicable, and finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.
Unit 1 - Impact of Civil Engineering: An introduction
RATIONALE
This introductory unit on the historic and socio-economic drivers behind the emergence
of Civil engineering and its profound impact on sustainable development sets stage for
the chapters ahead.
UNIT OUTCOMES
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U1-O1: Understanding/ comprehension of world history and socio-economic
context U1-O2: Knowledge on the major breakthroughs and innovations of the
domain
U1-O3: Knowledge on Sustainable development, its Goals, Impact and Indicators
EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit-1
Outcome (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
s CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6 CO-7
U1-O1 2 2 3 1 2 1
U1-O2 3 1 2 2 1
U1-O3 3 2 3 2 3 2
CIVIL ENGINEERING – SOCIETAL AND GLOBAL IMPACT
The distinct most character of a civilisation is the advent of organised social

and physical infrastructures to improve the quality of civic life. Though formal recognition of this
branch and degree first appeared in the early 18th century, the practice and profession of civil
engineering has existed since the dawn of civilisation. It is the branch of engineering or professional
discipline of; planning, designing, building/construction and maintenance of physical infrastructures
and built environment, to serve the general public or civilians. Since the designed built environment is
a testament to the cultural heritage of a civilization, and a reflection of the socio-cultural, scientific,
and technological advancements of the time, Civil engineering plays a pivotal role in impacting the
society and global population.
In the following Section, the historical events that transformed society and challenged the discipline of
civil engineering to develop is discussed.
1.1 DAWN OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: A BRIEF HISTORY
1.1.1 Pre-Industrial Revolution
Early human history can be dated back to the Stone Age in the Palaeolithic period (2.5 million years
ago – till 10,000 BCE) when early man followed nomadic ways of the hunter-gatherer, lived in
caves and huts or tepees and had begun to develop rudimentary tools of stone and wood. But
around 10,000 BCE, a shift in climate and discovery of farming led the Neolithic man to settle,
mostly along riverbanks, with focus on production of food. This in turn, led to the need to build
secure habitation, plan settlements, and land use, construct transport and irrigation systems, and
design solutions towards water supply and sanitation, which can be identified as the first
examples of civil engineering.
Fig. 1.1 Persian Qanat Profile (source: Manian, et al., 2022 )

In the following era, known as Bronze age, the social organisation altered with kings and leaders
emerging and early towns being established, leading to the migration of people for better wages and
employments. Skills, tools, and techniques that were handed down from generation to generation of
skilled artisans, stonemasons, and carpenters, in a small locale developed into expertise and artistry
that led to the rise of planners, architects and engineers, tackling projects traversing regions and
empires. Between 4000 and 2000 BC, the profession grew from being utilitarian to being a creative
practice of achieving feats of grandeur as is exemplified in the intricate planning of urban housing,
sanitation, and water systems in the Indus Valley civilisations; decadent pyramids and monuments of
Egypt; Qanats in Persia and Mesopotamia; Stonehenge in UK and the Great Wall of China; where
functionality and aesthetics paralleled each other. This is discussed further, with detail in the next Unit.
Most of the construction efforts were achieved by manual labour and non-mechanised tools,
however, two major global occurrences, namely, the Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial
Revolution, created a huge demand of infrastructure for, housing, transportation, sanitation, and
water management, and eventually for environmental planning and construction management.
1.1.2 Agricultural Revolutions
The First Agriculture Revolution, also known as the Neolithic revolution, occurred
in 10,000 BC and led to the organisation of modern man as a producer, rather than a hunter-
gatherer. While the following millennia focussed on socio-economic development and in turn,
creative feats of engineering and design, as discussed above; agriculture continued to be the
primary occupation of the common folk. Across all the major civilisations that arose, from
those in Indus Valley, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, Mesoamerica, Europe, Arabia and
eventually the new nations and colonies; innovations and developments centred on the
methods, tools and techniques to support agriculture, through construction of water supply for
irrigation and sanitation, granaries for food storage, tools and processes for production and
preservation, etc.
However, by the mid- 17th century, an unprecedented growth in agricultural production from
increase in labour and land productivity was observed in two nations, Britain and
Netherlands. This was notably the Second Agriculture Revolution, and it spread across the
other nations in Europe and their colonies in East Asia and North America over the next two
centuries until the late 19th century. While the Dutch observed increase in the agricultural
output per labourer, the British experienced the abundant outgrowth of output with respect to
the population.
The strategic developments and innovations of the British Agriculture Revolution

that shaped the era were; introduction of new crops, selective breeding and the method of
crop rotation; improved design of the plough called the Dutch swing plough; and institution
of land reforms, such as, land conversion, drainage and reclamation, increase in farm size,
and enactment of Enclosure Act. Civil engineering played a significant role here, in the
development of transportation infrastructure – roads, canals, railways, as well as social
infrastructure, such as, development of national markets, supplemented with policies free of
tariff, tolls and customs.
It is interesting to note that, while abundant food supply led to rampant increase
in population, it eventually led to loss of labour force engaged in agriculture, leading to a
need for new occupations. With time, though the inland production was countered with cheap
imports of food supply, this revolutionary spike ensured a complacent food reserve that
allowed a shift in the National priorities, from agriculture to industry. A new working class,
seeking urban employment in the upcoming industries, emerged as a result and fuelled the
onset of the Industrial Revolution.
The first half of the 20th century was rife with war and caused major setbacks in
the developed countries. It is also at this time that several colonised nations sought their
independence, further adding to the need for re-building and self-sufficiency.
The Third Agriculture Revolution, popularly known as the ‘Green

Revolution’, transpired as a response to global hunger and poverty, dilapidated infrastructure,
and scarce and contaminated natural resources by mid-20th century. New technologies and
cutting-edge research in the areas of high-yield crops, hybridized seeds, genetically modified
organisms (GMOs); use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides; methods of controlled
irrigation and mechanized cultivation; characterise this era.
MS Swaminathan, agronomist and parliamentarian, loving called the ‘Wheat man

of India’ invited Norman Borlaug, the ‘Father of the Green Revolution’, at the brink of a
famine in 1961, and initiated collaboration with the Ford Foundation to import newly
developed variants of wheat and later rice. Punjab became the birthplace of the Indian Green
Revolution or ‘Harit Kranti’ and the Government of India facilitated programs to support
farmers in the use of agrochemicals and irrigation. Late Prime Minister Shri Lal Bahadur
Shastri, gave the slogan 'Jai Jawan Jai Kisan'. Today, India is the world’s largest rice
exporter.
Fig.1.2 : 'Harit Kranti' - The Indian Green Revolution

Presently, several strategies and contributions of the ‘Green revolution’ is being

questioned, despite the fact that it addressed world hunger, poverty, and reconversion of land for
agriculture. The decrease in food security and increase in production of export crops, has been
unwarranted results of the same. However, while a rehauling of perspectives is underway to ensure
long-term sustainability, some of the fundamental innovations and engineering contributions of this
time set the tone for the future.
1.1.3 Industrial Revolution
While the North American colony was the primary producer of cotton, India was compelled to
cultivate indigo on large-scale, despite several revolts by farmers. These two crops propelled
the production of indigo-dyed cotton fabric, which in turn, thrust the need to improve the
existing hand production to machines and mills, leading to the evolution of the design of cotton
mill - from Spinning Jenny (1764) to the Power Loom (1787), to meet growing demands and
establish a monopoly in international trade. This marks the First Industrial Revolution,
spanning approximately 100 years from 1760 – 1850, characterised by mechanisation, fuelled
by abundant coal supply and the optimisation of the design of steam engine by James Watt in
1765. new profession in engineering – mechanical engineering, was born, and several machine
and production line innovations were developed.
Studies and experiments looking into the phenomena of electricity, by Benjamin

Franklin, James Watt and Alessandro Volta, eventually gave rise to the Second Industrial
Revolution between 1850 – 1917 with electrical energy as a new source of power that enabled
mass production. However, by the mid-19th century, the working conditions in the factories
across Europe worsened and there was worker unrest leading to The Great Reform Movements,
thereby slowing the industries. By early 20th century, World wars and demand of independence
by colonies, further led to the slowing of Europe as a forerunner in industry, and USA emerged
as the promised contender.
The span between 1877-1917, termed as the ‘Gilded Age’ of America by satirical
author, Mark Twain, is characterised by massive economic growth, fuelled by development in
the areas of manufacturing, railroads, telecommunication, automotive, product and industrial
design, in the newly united federate, post-civil war. A centralised government and growing
bureaucracy looked at expanding their jurisdiction and focussed on public services, through
building of extensive rails and roads, telecommunication infrastructure, ‘mass production’
industries and support facilities for public health and sanitation. A new connected world gave a
global overview to markets, businesses, politics, and the invention of the lightbulb by Edison
allowed prolonged working hours, furthering the industrialisation agenda.
The role of engineers, sanitarians and public health scientists grew in importance,
while new domains of product design and industrial design came into being. Some of the
common products that are used till date, came into conception during this era, such as, the foot-
powered sewing machine, patented by Isaac Singer in 1851; the electric iron, invented by Henry
Seeley in 1882; the first drum washing machine, patented by James King in 1851; and the first
mechanical, hand-cranked, dishwashing device made of wood, was registered in 1850 by Joel
Houghton.
Another key area of innovation continued to be telecommunication. Graham

Bell invented the telephone in1876 and founded the AT&T company. While Edison invented the
phonograph - a sound recorder, in 1877 and the kinetoscope - a peephole video player, in 1892.
Transportation remained a focus and a remarkable innovation that took place at

that time was the design of the ‘Quadricycle’ by Henry Ford in 1896, that featured four bicycle
wheels powered by a four-horsepower, internal combustion engine fuelled by petroleum and not
steam. This led to the establishment of the Ford Motor Co. in 1903, which became the
America's largest car manufacturer, housing a moving assembly line (refer Fig. 3) that made the
Ford model T, a household name. That same year, the Wright brothers took first flight in the
powered airplane, the 1903 Wright Flyer.
Fig. 1.3 : Assembly Line at Ford Motor Co. (source : www.corporate.ford.com)
The use of new source of power – electricity and petroleum; new materials– iron, steel,
glass, rubber; new techniques and design of engineered systems – turbines, engines, motors,
conveyors, etc.; new technology, such as, Babbage’s Analytical Engine or the first computer,
led to mass-production, eased transportation and improved computation and
telecommunication. Unfortunately, the early 20th century saw the onset of two World Wars,
during which, while great scientific and engineering progress was made, catastrophic societal
and environmental damage was onslaught.
1.1.4 Digital Revolution and Industry 4.0
An era of rebuilding began around 1947, which is noted as the Third Industrial
Revolution or Digital Revolution, characterised by the adoption of digital technologies, many
of which had its precursors developed during the World Wars. It is also at this crucial time in
history when India received her independence and was faced with many challenges, and took
time to catch up to the state of the art.
The early years of the ‘Information Age’ saw several firsts. In 1943, the ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was developed; In 1947, the first working
transistor was designed at Bell Labs, and later the MOFSET or MOS transistor was
developed. In parallel, at Fairchild Semiconductor; the first monolithic integrated circuit chip
was developed in 1959, alongside research and development in the area to improve the MOS
chips, paving the way for the first microprocessor, Intel 4004. This technology also led to the
development of image sensors for future digital cameras. In the 1960s and 70s, early CAD
(Computer aided Drawing) software were sprouting, with Sutherland’s SKETCHPAD,
popularly nicknamed, ‘Robot Draftsman’ and Hanratty’s Automated Drafting And Machining
(ADAM).
1969 saw the breakthrough invention of the ‘internet’, when a message over the first
wide-area network, ARPANET, was sent to public. This further led to development of inter-
networking protocols, and with the introduction of the first home computer in 1970, a
proliferation of digital technology and information sharing became the new way of life. Apart
from utilitarian needs of digital record keeping, computation and automation, computers also
led to a thriving video gaming industry that excelled in the development of first game
consoles, game graphics and arcade games. Over the next decade, industrial robots, CGI in
film and animation, electronic music and signages, were widely incorporated and eventually,
the first mobile phone by Motorala in 1983 and the first digital camera in 1988 came into
being.
The internet arrived in India in 1989, through the development of our indigenous
network commissioned by the Department of Electronics (DoE), modelled on the ARPANET,
named ERNET (Education and Research Network) and as a start, it connected IISc
Bangalore, 5 IITs, NCSDCT (National Centre for Software Development and Computing
Techniques) and DoE. Hardware and computers were already being imported by 1981 and
India was already exporting software. In 1984, C-DoT (Centre for Development of
Telematics) was established under the leadership of Sam Pitroda to design digital exchanges,
but later expanded to develop software applications. In 1993, satellite link became operational
in Bangalore Software Technology Park, and by 1998, VSNL launched Internet services that
enabled companies operating from these parks to engage international clients. The
Information Technology India market accounts for 9.3% of India's GDP and 56% of the
global outsourcing market (IBEF, 2022) and all six Indian brands feature among the top 10
fastest-growing IT Services brands over the course of 2020-2022.
While digitisation remains integral to our present day lives, a new technological
advancement is on the horizon, termed as Industry 4.0 or the 4th Industrial Revolution,
characterised by artificial intelligence, advanced robotics, internet of things (IoT), cloud

computing and cyber-physical systems (CPS). ‘i4.0’, coined in 2015, leverages
interconnectivity and big data to facilitate quick and decentralised decision-making and
allows to cater to customised solutions for individual needs, in contrast to ‘mass -produced’
solutions, and imbibes increased automation, improved communication, Machine-to-machine
as well as Human-Computer Interactions, and self-monitoring and autonomy.
Several i4.0 technologies, such as, Building Information Modelling (BIM) with cloud
technologies, additive manufacturing or 3D printing, AR/VR (Augmented and Virtual Reality), drones
and unmanned aerial vehicles, etc. is widely being used in the Architectural design, Engineering and
Construction (AEC) domain today.
1.2 MAJOR BREAKTHROUGHS AND INNOVATIONS
From early man’s tools to present technology of using drones, unmanned vehicles, and cloud
computing; the major breakthroughs and innovations that moulded what civil engineering is today is
as follows:
Tools, the first breakthrough that enabled construction, were developed from available natural
materials, dating back to the Neolithic age. Stone axe with wooden handle, bone hammer,
stone adze, celt, flake tools, sickle, drills and even, sledge, have been discovered from that
era. Ancient tenements and structures were primarily built of raw natural resources that were
abundant in the region, such as, rocks and stones, timber and bamboo, mud, and clay, etc.
Bricks, were a major innovation and till date, is the integral building-block of most
structures. Sun-baked mud bricks or ‘adobe’, cemented by lime mortar, was extensively used
in Indus Valley and Egypt. Later, kiln-fired, and glazed bricks were developed in
Mesopotamia. Large rocks were also chiselled and faced into massive bricks. This in turn, led
to innovations in new tools, such as, ramp, lever, lathe; and techniques, such as, butterfly
interlocking, method of drilling stone, enamelling; led to development of complex and tall
structures, such as, pitched- brick vaults, and pyramids.
Cranes, pulleys, and jibs to raise construction materials to great heights, employing metal
cramps to join large stone blocks, and development of early ‘construction drawings’, to build
mega-structures, such as, groin vaults, arch bridges and the early multi-storied buildings were
some of the contributions of the Greek.
Road design and construction, as we know it today, was first formidably developed by
Romans and the first known roadway, the Appian Way or the ‘Queen of the roads’, was
constructed in 312BCE, connecting Rome with its allies in Capua. The design comprised of
digging shallow trenches with retaining walls on either side, filled with layers of; levelled
earth and mortar or sand topped with rocks, crushed rocks or gravel cemented with mortar
and surfaced with blocks of cut rocks, arranged pebbles, iron ore or hardened lava.
Roman cement, developed by adding volcanic ash, called pozzolana, in lime mortar to make
it harden under water, is one of the major breakthroughs in the history of civil engineering
and construction. This further led to the development of Roman concrete, where concrete
made of rubble and mortar was filled inside stone or brick formwork, which was later
replaced with the use of removable wooden shuttering; this technique allowed building of
arches, barrel vaults and domes over large spans.
Romans also introduced, the use of lead or ‘plumbum’ for pipes and roof covering, thus being
the origin of the word plumbing; and centralised heating achieved through raising the floor
above a wood or coal fire exhaust. They also made use of glass for windows and in mosaics.
Iron reinforcement dates back to the time of the ancient times when cramps and bolts were
in use to either hold together stone blocks or timber members in trusses. Later in the 15th
century, the same were used by Brunelleschi in the design of the dome, where two layers of
domes met at the top in an open stone compression ring and iron cramps held together tie
rings running horizontally between ribs. The design was improved in cupola of St. Peter’s
Basilica, where three continuous iron chains held the dome in tension.
Pile driver, a tool to drive ‘piles’ or vertical, pole-like, structural members of deep
foundation, driven deep into the ground where the soil is loose, to support piers, bridges,
cofferdams, etc., was invented in 1500.
First railway line has been referred to in 1515, having wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope
through a treadwheel operated by manual power. Several funiculars have been spotted across
Europe, however, the world’s oldest operational railway - the Middleton Railway, was built in
1758 in Leeds, UK.
Drafting and surveying tools like, the line gauge, plumb line, the carpenter’s square, the
spirit level, and the drafting compass were developed in the 17th century.
Structural iron was introduced as a building material with the availability of iron, soon
replacing wood and charcoal. Iron ore was smelt with the use of coke on a mass scale in
1702. Christopher Wren used iron hangers to suspend floor beams at Hampton Court Palace,
and iron rods to repair Salisbury Cathedral and strengthen the dome of St Paul’s Cathedral,
and iron columns in the House of Commons. Cast-iron was used for the bridge at
Coalbrookedale in 1776, while wrought iron was used for the roof structure of the Louvre,
Paris. Later in the 19th century, the first two exhibitions of The Great Exhibition of the
Works of Industry of All Nations, or the Exposition Universelle, namely, the Crystal Palace
in Hyde Park, London, and the Eiffel Tower, Paris, were also exemplars of iron structures.
Modern road design developed in the 18th century, with method improvements and new
technique proposals by Tresaguet, Metcalf, Telford, and McAdam. The present design is an
adoption, named the ‘Tar McAdam Road’, patented in 1901.
Fig. 1.4 : Ancient building materials and techniques - (Top Left) Egyptian Hieroglyph showing building construction with
brick; (Top Middle) Roman Cement, (Top Right) Lead ‘plumbum’ Pipes, (Bottom Left) Sun-dried Mud bricks of
Mesopotamia ; (Bottom Right) Roman Road
Fig. 1.5 : Ancient construction tools and techniques - (Top Left) Greek crane, (Top Righ) Designs of Pile Driver,
(Bottom) Rondelet's drawing of reinforcement iron bars (Blasi and Iori, 2008)
First iron chain suspension bridge in the Western world was the Jacob's Creek Bridge
(1801), Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James. However, Union
Bridge (1820) is the oldest operational chain suspension bridge.
The first wire-cable suspension bridge was the Spider Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1816),
Portland cement was patented in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin and its modern common version
was developed by his son, William, in the 1840’s.
The first advertised prefabricated home was the “Manning Portable Cottage” conceived in
1830 by London carpenter H. John Manning. Shortly after in 1845, Isambard Brunel designed
the prefabricated wood and canvas, Renkioi Hospital, for assemblage on site at the Crimean
War.
The first systematic national building standard was established with the London Building
Act of 1844, and by 1855, Metropolitan Board of Works was set up. Meanwhile in the USA,
the City of Baltimore passed its first building code in 1891and by 1908 a formal building
code was rafted and adopted.
Reinforced concrete was invented in 1849 by Joseph Monier and the first reinforced
concrete bridge was built by the inventor-engineer.
Building of the Panama Canal between 1905-14, was a feat of civil engineering as it was the
biggest earth dam in the world and created the largest man-made lake, by deepening of the
Pacific and Atlantic canal entrances, widening and deepening the Gatun Lake navigational
channel. It remains one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world.
Mass production of Steel, was enabled by the Bessemer process, introduced in 1855.
However, the move to steel as an important material date back to 1740, with the development
of the crucible steel technique by English inventor, Benjamin Huntsman, who also established
a steelworks at Sheffield, England. This was further supported with the use of steam engines
to operate heavy machinery and the invention of steel roller for steel production by Henry
Cort in 1783.
Along with mass-production of Glass and the urge to explore non-traditional design and
construction in mid- 19th century, the first skyscrapers, namely, the Empire State Building,
Rockefeller Center and Chrysler Building, in New York were conceived. The Empire State
Building was constructed in only 13 months, towering to a height of 443 meters and 102
stories, it was the tallest building of its time in 1931.
Prestressed concrete invented by Freyssinet in 1928 and further applied it to develop precast
segmental construction.
Fig. 1.6 : Panama Canal (Top) A Cross Section Canal, (Bottom) Picture
Fig. 1.7 : Modular construction - Habitat 67, Montreal (Left) Section drawing, (Right) Photograph
The following innovations are of particular importance in modern construction and will be further
discussed in later Units.
Modular construction of home systems first materialised in 1933 with the Winslow Ames
House by Robert W. McLaughlin and his firm, American House Inc. Cemesto, a panel board
made from sugarcane, patented by the John B. Pierce Foundation, was used and in 1942 the
US government employed Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill (SOM), to come up with a scheme
called “Flexible Space”. One of the most remarkable prefabricated, modular megastructures
remains the Habitat 67, by Moshe Shafdie for the Expo in Montreal. The market is projected
to increase from $92.18 billion in 2018 to $130 billion in 2030.
Development of CAD (Computer Aided Drawing) software can be traced back to the
development of PRONTO, the first commercial numerical-control programming system by
Dr. Patrick Hanratty in 1957, and to the first ‘Robot Draftsman’ or SKETCHPAD application
developed by Ivan Sutherland’s during his doctoral work at MIT in 1963, that used a GUIA
graphical user interface that facilitated human-computer interaction through visual aids or
icons.
BIM (Building Information Modeling) as a concept can be traced between 1970-1990 to the
first software tools developed for modelling buildings, i.e., the Building Description System,
GLIDE, RUCAPS, Sonata, Reflex and Gable 4D Series. The term 'Building Information
Model' first appeared in a 1992 paper authored by van Nederveen and Tolman, but it was only
in 2003 that Jerry Laiserin, acknowledged the contributions of Autodesk, Graphisoft and
Bentley systems and standardized the term as a common name for the digital representation
of the building process.
Construction 3D Printing is the technology of using additive manufacturing technique

through computer-controlled activities of; sequential extrusion of material, such as, 3D
concrete, powder bonding and additive welding, through Autonomous Robotic Construction
systems (ARCs) or Freeform Construction. While empirical development of this technology
started out in early 2000s, it may be traced back to the 1950’s when robotic bricklaying and
on- site automated fabrication was being explored. Presently various applications, such as,
fabrication of houses and construction components, building bridges and canals, and even
artificial reefs are being made (Refer KNOW MORE Section to know about India’s Research in this area)
Smart buildings and Building Automation systems are terms used in conjunction today to
refer to buildings that use IoT technology to monitor and connect various devices, sensors,
hardware, software to manage various building services, such as, HVAC, lighting, fire
protection, security, and access control, etc.
While various innovations have transformed design, engineering and construction, good
old-fashioned soundness of the principles of civil engineering remains fundamental to the success of a
built- environment and the hallmark of a good engineer. This is elucidated by the infamy of the Tower
of Pisa, popularly called the ‘Leaning Tower’, near Florence Italy, and the remarkable team that saved
it from collapsing. The 56m freestanding campanile, or bell tower, began to lean within five years of
work
commencing in 1173, caused by shallow foundations in unstable sub-soil. It took 200 years to
complete, all the while continuing to tilt, until 1993 when it was reportedly at an alarming 5degree tilt.
This lean was corrected by a team of experts that devised a solution called ‘soil extraction’, where a
series of tunnels on the side opposite to the tilt was dug to drain the soil and remove small amounts of
soil, while reinforcing the foundations with 15m concrete pillars and harnessing with steel cables to
pull it back in position, till it self-corrected by 2001.
Every breakthrough and innovation, however, has profound consequence associated with it.
These impacts maybe positive, like development of civic amenities, transport facilities,
telecommunication, and global trade; or negatives, like deforestation, loss of indigenous flora and
fauna, colonisation, poor labour conditions and poverty; and are increasing at a global level with the
advent of globalisation and enhanced connectivity. Civic life is nested on Society, Economy, and
Ecology (or Environment), known as the three pillars of Sustainability, with the overarching intent to
improve quality of life for today’s populace and future generations.
1.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

PRESENT DAY WORLD AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS
With Industry 5.0 on the horizon, a long-term, sustainable point of view for development is
the need of the hour. The concept of ‘Sustainability’ was first introduced in the context of
development in the book ‘Our Common Future’, popularly known as the Brundtland Report, from the
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), published in 1987 by the United
Nations. It defined the term as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs” and propagated the principles of ‘Sustainable
development’ that focuses on environmental protection and social equality along with economic
growth. This eventually laid the foundation for formulating global Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) in 2015, adopted by 193 committed member states of the United Nations with the projection
of meeting the goals by 2030.
1.3.1 The steady erosion of Sustainability and Mitigative Actions
Following the world wars and the advent of the Third Agricultural revolution, two evocative
pieces, namely, ‘The Silent Springs’ (Carson, 1962) which argued against excessive use of
pesticides like DDT and its harmful impact on several species, and ‘Scarcity and Growth’
(Barnett and Morse, 1963) which empirically established the burden on natural resources, can
be noted as the beginning to a paradigm shift at a global level to address issues of
sustainability at the intersection of social and environmental or natural ecosystems. However,
the impending ecological crisis was first noted in the previous century, with Swedish scientist
Arrhenius, in 1896, predicting the change in surface temperature owing to greenhouse effect
caused due to increased fossil fuel use, later corroborated by Guy Callendar in 1938 who
connected carbon dioxide increase in earth’s atmosphere to global warming. Research across
1940’s through the 1960’s revealed the implications of CO2 emissions; with Plass reporting
that CO2 in atmosphere captures infrared radiation, otherwise lost to space, and Keeling
producing concentration curves
for atmospheric CO2 showing a downward trend in annual temperatures. The 60’s was a
decade of ecological strife, with Monaco opposing French plan to dump radioactive waste in
the Mediterranean Sea, and catastrophes such as, the Torrey Canyon oil tanker spillage off the
coast of England and the Santa Barbara oil spill. These findings and events led to the first
Earth Day celebration in 1970 and the creation of the US Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). Further, an inter-governmental conference of experts for Rational use and
conservation of Biosphere (UNESCO, 1970) was convened, and in 1990 Earth Day went
global.
India, too, saw its share of conservation movements. The Chipko Movement of 1973
was a non-violent social and ecological ‘andolan’ by rural villagers, mostly women,
protesting government backed logging in the Himalayan regions of Uttarakhand, India.
Inspired by the Bishnois of Khejari, who were killed trying to protect their sacred trees in
1730’s in the kingdom of Marwar, the Chipko protestors stood hugging trees and in 1987, this
movement was recognised with the Right Livelihood Award for its conservational efforts.
This further inspired several other similar conservation movements across Rajasthan, Bihar,
Himachal Pradesh, the ‘Appiko movement’ in Karnataka and the Western Ghats in 1983, as
well as campaigns to protect the canopies planted along the Grand Trunk Jessore Road in
West Bengal, as recent as 2017. India enacted the Wildlife (protection) Act in 1972, Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act in 1974, Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act in 1981, followed by the Environment (Protection) Act in 1986. The 21st century has seen
several amendments and additions, such as, special regulations to Environment Act for
ozone-depleting substances in 2000 and Coastal zone notification in 2018, The Energy
Conservation Act 2001, and Biological Diversity Act 2002. While most of these aimed at
protection and conservation of natural Environment, in 2006 the enactment of the Forest
Rights Act (FRA) for scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers, recognised the
interdependency within the socio- ecological ecosystems and introduced an unprecedented
reform at the intersection of the Ecology and Social dimensions of sustainable development.
While development remained the key motivation, various strategies, policies and acts were
established between 1967- 1987 to further the sustainability discourse in the West. The Clean
Air or Air Quality Act (1967), the National Environmental Policy Act (PEA, P.C.E.A., 1969)
and the Endangered Species Act (1973) were passed by the US Congress; and legal action for
environmental damages was pursued by Environment Defense Fund (EDF 1967,
www.edf.org). Several books and papers, such as, ‘Only One Earth’ (Dubros and Ward,
1971), ‘Limits to Growth’ (Meadows et al., 1972), ‘Polluter Pays Principle’ (OECD, 1972) ,
‘World Conservation Strategies’ (Talbot, 1980, released by IUCN), ‘Global 2000 Report’
(Barney, 1980 and Council on Environmental Quality), and UN’s ‘World Charter for Nature’
(un.org) were published; and various events, such as, ‘Habitat’ - the UN Conference on
Human Settlements in 1967, the International Conference on Environment and Economics by
OECD in 1984, and the UN General Assembly of 1987, where the foreword of ‘Our Common
Future’ was presented, took place. This culminated into the ‘Agenda 21 Declaration of
Environment and Development’ (UNCED, 1992), an action plan proposed for the 21st century
in the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. The UN Conference on Sustainable Development or Rio+20
was held twenty years later in 2012, where the process to develop measurable goals and
targets as a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) was adopted, along with green
economy policies, and in 2015 the fifteen-year plan to ‘2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development’, bearing the
17 goals and 169 targets were committed to by 193 member nations. Currently, between October
and December 2022, the Rio +30 conference is being organised.
1.3.2 Sustainable Development Goals and Global Impact
The present condition, post pandemic, with respect to each SDG (sdgs.un.org) is as follows:
1. No Poverty – COVID 19 pushed 8 million workers into poverty worldwide and working
poverty rate climbed for the first time in two decades. Furthered by inflation, wars and
political crisis, and disaster there is an ongoing migration and refugee crisis making ending
poverty the foremost priority.
2. Zero Hunger – 1 in 10 people worldwide are suffering from hunger and 1 in 3 people lack
regular access to adequate, in addition, food shortages and soaring food prices affected 47%
of countries in 2020, up from 16% in 2019. Ending hunger, achieving food security and
improved nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture are some of the primary targets.
3. Good health and well-being – The COVID 19 led to 15 million deaths and essential health
services in 92% of countries got disrupted (2021), leading to reduction in global life
expectancy and prevalence of anxiety and depression. Thus, ensuring healthy lives and
holistic well-being at all ages is a critical goal.
4. Quality Education - Between 2020-21, over half of in-person instruction at schools were
missed by 147 million children, and it is estimated that 24 million learners worldwide, from
pre-primary to university level, may never return to school. At the same time, many countries
have started improving classroom infrastructure as 25% primary schools still lack electricity,
drinking water and basic sanitation, and around 50% lack computers and internet access. In
addition, skill and competence development is a driver for industry readiness, improved
economy and social upliftment, making quality education a major goal.
5. Gender Equality - While there was a rise in women employment in 2019, the 45% global
employment loss in 2020 set back the equal representation pace. It was also revealed through
a 15 year survey, that 1 in every 4 women, accounting to 641 million women, were subject to
violence at least once in their lifetime. Therefore, exalting women is decisive towards a better
and inclusive future generation.
6. Clean water and sanitation – World’s water ecosystems are degrading at alarming rates,
with over 85% of wetlands being lost, while 733+ million people live in countries with high
and critical levels of water stress. This goal aims to ensure availability and sustainable
management of water and sanitation for all, as 4 times increase in requirement is estimated by
2030.
7. Affordable and clean energy - While progress in energy efficiency is underway, and total
renewable energy consumption has increased, the annual energy-intensity rate needs to go up
from 1.9% presently to 3.2% by 2030. The key hurdles are; slowdown in electrification due to
the challenge of reach, the use of inefficient and polluting cooking systems, and decline in
financial flows to develop countries for renewables, making affordable and clean energy a
priority.
8. Decent work and Economic growth – While global unemployment plummeted, child labour
worldwide continues to account to 1 in 10 children. Presently annual growth rate of global
real GDP per capita got affected by rising inflation, supply-chain disruption, policy
uncertainties,
etc. Thus, full, and productive employment is crucial for decent work and sustainable
economic growth.
9. Industry, innovation and infrastructure – While global manufacturing has bounced back
and is on a steady rise, over the COVID crisis it was noted that high-tech industries are more
resilient than lower-tech counterparts, with small scale industries lacking financial support
and loss in manufacturing jobs. Therefore, building resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation is key.
10. Reduced inequalities - The pandemic caused a first rise in between-country income
inequality, and global refugee figures hit a record high. In addition, discrimination on at least
one of the grounds prohibited under international Human Rights Law is still faced by 1 in 5
people, making reducing inequality a major global goal.
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities - As rapid urbanisation occurs, issues of; polluted air
breathed in by 99% of urban population, municipal solid waste of which only 55% is
managed, and 1 billion slum dwellers indicate the need to make cities and human settlements
inclusive, resilient, and sustainable.
12. Responsible Consumption and production – With reliance on natural resources increasing
over 65% globally from 2000-2019 and large amounts of food is either lost between
harvesting and reaching markets, or wasted at the consumer level, making sustainable
consumption a pivotal goal.
13. Climate Action – Droughts estimated to displace 700 million, extreme weather, and other
natural disasters estimated to increase by 40% by 2030, climate catastrophes are surmounting.
70-90% of coral reefs have diminished and CO2 emissions have gone up to its highest in
2021, while climate finance has dropped with a shortfall of 100 billion dollars in 2019;
showcasing the grim state of affairs and the urgency for climate action as a global goal.
14. Life below Water - Oceans are our planet’s largest ecosystem and is endangered due to ocean
warming, eutrophication, acidification, over-fishing, and plastic pollution; with over 17+
million metric tons of plastics choking the ocean and acidification hindering the ocean’s
capability to absorb CO2 emissions to moderate climate change. Conservation and sustainable
use of marine resources is a necessity.
15. Life on Land – Almost 90% of global deforestation is due to cropland expansion and
livestock grazing, and around 40,000 species are at the risk of extinction. Protecting,
restoring, and promoting sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, managing forests
sustainably, combating desertification and address land degradation and biodiversity is our
moral duty.
16. Peace, Justice and strong Institutions – With a quarter of the world’s population living in
conflict-affected countries and corruption and bribery rampant, providing justice for all, and
building effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels is imperative for
peaceful societies.
17. Partnerships for the Goals - Post pandemic, with rising debt burdens threatening developing
countries and global Official Development Assistance (ODA) declining for SDG data, it is
vital to strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnerships for
sustainable development.
Each SDG has a number of Targets, each measurable by indicators; for example, Target
1.1 ‘By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people
living on less that $1.25 per day’ can be measured through the indicator 1.1.1 ‘Proportion of
population living below the international poverty line by sex, age, employment status and
geographical location (urban/rural)’. India, as the fifth largest economy and the second largest in
population in the world, plays a crucial role in the achievement of Agenda 2030 and the future.
The SDG India Index, an aggregate measure presented in a comprehensible, interactive
dashboard (2020-21; http://sdgindiaindex.niti.gov.in ), for 16 goals with 115 quantitative
indicators and a qualitative assessment of SDG 17, tracks and monitors progress of all states and
union territories.
Fig. 1.8 : Sustainable Development Goals (source : www.sdgs.un.org)
As the world moves towards sustainable development, the role of civil engineering becomes pivotal,
needing to shoulder the responsibilities of designing and developing sustainable solutions.
1.4 EVALUATING FUTURE REQUIREMENTS

Brundtland’s Commission (1987), in its definition of Sustainable Development, stressed on the “future
generations” and the ability to “meet their needs”. These needs and whether or not the ability to attain
them by future generations can be assessed by sustainability indicators attributed to each SDG and its
respective targets and are measured with various monitoring applications that capture quantitative
data, further collated and represented in Indices to offer a holistic view on sustainable development.
1.4.1 Sustainability Indicators
Sustainability indicators are measurable aspects of the three dimensions of sustainability –

social, environmental, and economic, and are essential for monitoring and calibrating the
performance and quality of the sustainability goals. In addition, these help in decision-making
by providing aggregated information to incorporate physical and social science into
actionable items and help in predicting early warnings to prevent setbacks.
Division of Sustainable Development (DSD) and Statistics, under the UN Department of

Economic and Social Affairs drafted the first set of indicators, which was later collated with
methodology sheets for each indicator into a single publication known as the ‘blue book’
(1996). The same was revised in 2001 having 58 indicators, classified into themes, such as,
poverty, governance, health, education, demographics, natural hazards, biodiversity,
consumption, and production patterns, etc. Every theme, in turn was categorised into sub
themes with core indicators, for example – Poverty is sub-thematised into; ‘income poverty’
measured by the indicator ‘proportion of population living below national poverty line’, and
‘income equality’ measured by the indicator ‘ratio of share of national income of highest to
lowest quintile’, etc. Certain sub-themes maybe measured by several indicators, such as,
‘Education level’ is indicated by: ‘gross intake ratio to last grade of primary education’, ‘net
enrolment rate in primary education’, ‘adult secondary (tertiary) schooling attainment level’.
Interestingly, several indicators have links to more than one theme, such as, ‘proportion of
population with access to safe drinking water’ is primarily applicable to Poverty and Health,
but also has secondary linkages to governing water utilities, and in turn, to Governance
theme.
1.4.2 Monitoring: Methodology and applications
Monitoring is a major task for assessing the implementation and impact of a strategy for
sustainable development. A variety of data and statistics are required for monitoring and to
capture this, methodologies to measure the indicator, collect the data accurately and timely,
outline the apt unit of measure and method of computation, etc are developed by three key
bodies, namely the UNSC, HGL-PCCB, and IAEG-SDGs. The latter has selected custodian
agencies, such as, UNEP, WHO, World Bank, FAO, UNESCO, OECD, etc, for periodically
collecting and updating data on indicators, across themes, at global, regional, and national
levels. Ten principles for Global monitoring indicators (UNSDSN, 2015) entail;
1. Limited in number and globally harmonised,

2. Simple, single-variable indicators, with straightforward policy implications,
3. Allow for high frequency monitoring,
4. Consensus-based,
5. Consensus-based, in line with international standards and system-based information,
6. Constructed from well-established data sources,
7. Disaggregated (by sex, age, location, income, spatial - rural/urban)
8. Universal,
9. Mainly outcome-focused,
10. Science-based and forward-looking,
11. A proxy for broader issues or conditions.
Indicators to be measured are categorised with respect to global, national and

thematic, and Data in turn, is sourced from census data and Household surveys (Demographic
and health surveys, Fertility and Family Surveys, Reproductive health surveys, Labor Force
survey, R&D Surveys etc); Administrative data (formal waste collection and management
data from municipalities, National production, international trade statistics); Civil
registrations
(birth certificates, death certificates, etc), Vital statistics and health records; School-based or
citizen-led learning assessments; as well as from Geographic Information Systems (GIS) that
uses remote sensing, GPS (global positioning system), aerial photographs, LiDAR (Light
Detection and Ranging) and satellite imagery from US Geological Survey/NASA Landsat data,
for mapping and surveying.
GIS is an application that uses geographical and spatial data in conjunction with
attribute (additional information in tabular form) data to map, analyse and assess indicators. It
uses imagery data-type, which includes aerial photos, satellite images, thermal images digital
elevation models, scanned maps, land maps, land classification maps, etc. Satellites are used to
scan the earth, either through - scanning mirrors that scan quickly, back and forth over an area
while taking an image, as used by Landsat or Multispectral scanners, called ‘whiskbroom
scanning’, or via ‘push broom’ scanning where a row of silicon detectors take images as the
satellite flies over an area. GIS not only aids in cartography but helps geospatial mapping and
analysis of real-world problems to offer insights through visualisations. The ‘Global Geodetic
Reference Fame’ (UNDESA) allows the precise determination of locations and quantification of
changes, useful for various indicators through mapping physical infrastructure, buildings and
settlements, population distribution, transport networks, elevation and depths, water and land
cover and use, etc.
1.4.3 Human Development Index and Ecological Footprint
While SDGs are a tool for addressing developmental progress, there are other indices that also help
measure the impact of human development.
One such, is the Human Development Index (HDI) that offers an “alternative, single
number measure of capturing progress in three basic dimensions of human development:
Health (life expectancy at birth), Education (expected and mean years of schooling) and
Living standards (Gross National Income per capita)” as defined by the Human Development
Report (UNDP). This index was further refined and reintroduced in 2010 as ‘Inequality
adjusted HDI’ (IHDI) accounting for the inequalities between the various nations, noting that
HDI maybe perceived as a potential while IHDI reflects the reality. Another important
indicator is the Ecological Footprint (EF) that measures the human - a person or a group,
demand on natural capital. It estimates the productive land and sea area needed to support a
population in terms of its consumption of renewable resources and absorption of waste
generation. It shows whether a country is living within the biocapacity of its own territory or
is drawing on the ecological capital of other nations. Both HDI and EF have attracted
criticism owing to aggregation as a single number upon summation of different indicators,
each having different units, and in turn, missing the finer details that represents the scenario
realistically.
The upcoming decades, bound by a common developmental discourse since the industrial
revolution, and further today, by digitisation and globalisation, faces the inadvertent need to
strive towards Sustainable development and to understand the importance of innovation and
social responsibility, particularly through Civil engineering in shaping and impacting the world.
UNIT SUMMARY
The Unit covers, in brief, the developmental history from ancient to pre-industrial era, giving an
overview of the pockets of civilisations across the world and their prowess in engineering,
architectural and construction capability. The Unit further traces the oncoming of the second
agriculture revolution and how it prompted the first industrial revolution, followed by decisive
events and occurrences termed as further revolutions – green revolution, digital revolution, etc.,
and culminates the discussion with the impact of the above on the natural environment and social
welfare, leading to the importance and need for sustainable development, and how present
measures have been instituted to achieve the same.
EXERCISES
I. Multiple Choice Questions
Q. 1.1 What is the system of transporting water from aquifers and wells to the surface through
underground aqueducts, found in Persia and Mesopotamia?
(a) Baoli
(b) Qanat
(c) Reservoir
(d) Hammam
Q. 1.2 When did the ‘Green Revolution’ take place?

(a) late 19th century
(b) early 20th century
(c) 10,000 BC
(d) mid 20th century
Q. 1.3 Who coined the term “Gilded Age”?

(a) Mark Twain
(b) FD Roosevelt
(c) Henry Ford
(d) Earnest Hemingway
Q. 1.4 Under who’s leadership was C-DOT (Centre for Development of Telematics)
established in India?
(a) JRD Tata
(b) Manmohan Singh
(c) Sam Pitroda
(d) Sundar Pichai
Q. 1.5 In which year was the ‘2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’ adopted?
(a) 2020
(b) 2015
(c) 1987
(d) 2000
Answers of Multiple Choice Questions: 1.1 (b), 1.2 (d), 1.3 (a), 1.4 (c), 1.5 (b)
II. Short and Long Answer Type Questions
Q. 1.6 What is Sustainable Development? What are the SDGs?
Q. 1.7 What are the different modes of monitoring SDGs? Enlist the Ten principles of Global
monitoring indicators as per UNSDSN (2015)?
Q. 1.8 Define Human Development Index (HDI) and Ecological Footprint? What are the
shortfalls of these indices?
KNOW MORE
Civil Engineering during the Industrial Revolution in Britain
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Civil_Engineering_during_the_Industrial_Revolution_in_Britain
India’s IT Revolution
https://www.sritechnocrat.com/blog-story-of-india-it-revolution.php
Sustainable Development Goals and Indicators
https://resources.unsdsn.org/indicators-and-a-monitoring-framework-for-sustainable-development-goals-
launching-a-data-revolution-for-the-sdgs
https://undesa.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=4741ad51ff7a463d833d18cbcec29fff
3D printing technology and application research in India

Rahul, A. V., Santhanam, M., Meena, H., & Ghani, Z. (2019). Mechanical characterization of 3D
printable concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 227, 116710.
Dey, D., & Panda, B. (2023). An experimental study of thermal performance of 3D printed
concrete slabs. Materials Letters, 330, 133273.
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
Books and Publications

● [Book] Fletcher, B. (1896). A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. Batsford.
[Book] Stearns, P. N. (2020). The industrial revolution in world history. Routledge.
● [UN Report] Brundtland, G.H. (1987) Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on
Environment and Development. Geneva, UN-Dokument A/42/427.
● Blasi, C., Coïsson, E., & Iori, I. (2008). The fractures of the French Panthéon: Survey and
structural analysis. Engineering fracture mechanics, 75(3-4), 379-388.
● Manian, M.A.; Khoshbakht, K.; Mahmoudi, H.; Liaghati, H. Dynamic Conservation in Risk
Society: A Case Study of COVID-19 Pandemic Risk in Kashan Qanat Irrigated Agriculture. Front.
Public Health 2022, 10, 882943.
Web sources
● https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/
https://sdgs.un.org/goals
● https://resources.unsdsn.org/indicators-and-a-monitoring-framework-for-sustainable-develop
ment- goals-launching-a-data-revolution-for-the-sdgs
● https://undesa.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=4741ad51ff7a463d833d18cbcec29
fff
UNIT SPECIFICS
● The importance of Civil Engineering in shaping and impacting the world

o Responsibilities and Role in reaching SDGs
o Direct and indirect impact with respect to SDGs
● The ancient Marvels and modern Wonders in the field of Civil Engineering
o Ancient Civilizations [4000 – 900 BCE]
o Classical Period [1000 BCE – 1000 CE]
o Renaissance & Age of Enlightenment [1400 – 1750 CE]
o Modernism & Industrial Era [1750 - 1950 CE]
o Contemporary style & Digital Era [1950 - present]
● Future Vision for Civil Engineering
Besides giving a large number of multiple choice questions as well as questions of short and
practice.
RATIONALE
This unit establishes the importance of the profession and practice of Civil engineering in the
context of Sustainable development and future trends and needs. It further emphasizes the roles
and responsibility of the civil engineer.
UNIT OUTCOMES

U2-O1: Knowledge on the role, impact/relevance, and importance of Civil Engineering
U2-O2: Knowledge on the outstanding Civil Engineering feats of ancient and modern times
U2-O3: Knowledge on the future trends in the field

Unit-2
U2-O1 3 2 3 1 1 3
U2-O2 3 2 2 1 2 1
U2-O3 2 1 2 3
Unit 2 - Importance of Civil Engineering
The Civil Engineering discipline encompasses various specialisations,

like, Construction Engineering, Structural Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering, Transportation
Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Materials Engineering, Marine Engineering, Irrigation
Engineering, Highway Engineering, Bridge Engineering, Hydraulic Engineering, etc. The built-
environment, comprising of buildings, bridges, railways and roads, sewers and dams, power pants and
transmission towers and lines, tunnels, canals, and waterways, are all results of these sub-domains. As
discussed earlier, the built-environment, along with the inhabitants and social ecosystem it supports,
has profound impact on the world and is a critical determinant of sustainable development. Hence, not
only is civil engineering of importance for present needs of shelter, sanitation, transportation, and
connectivity, but plays a significant role in addressing the issues and concerns arising due to the
unmitigated urbanisation and economic development.
In the following Sections, a brief discussion on the importance of the discipline in shaping and
impacting the world is followed by tracing the evolution and development of civil engineering practice
through examples across time – from ancient era to present society. These ancient Marvels and
modern Wonders reflect the society in which it thrived, with respect to the events and context
discussed earlier in Unit 1, and paves way for the innovations of the future.
2.1 CIVIL ENGINEERING: SHAPING AND IMPACTING THE WORLD
The civil engineering market is expected to grow 25% each year (2022) up to 11.7 trillion US Dollars
by 2025 (Global Market Insights, Inc.) due to the ever-increasing demand for infrastructure. In
turn, increasing the need of competent engineers possessing sound knowledge of engineering
fundamentals, and software and technical proficiency. In addition, a Civil engineer must hone
skills as identified as the Top Skills for 2025, such critical thinking and creative
problem-solving skills, the ability to communicate and collaborate effectively, coupled with
strong leadership required for project management (World Economic Forum). Beyond the core
activities of designing, i.e., conceptualise novel solutions, develop layouts and perform design
calculations, and On-site supervision, civil engineers are responsible for;
● Oversee or perform soil tests, surveying operations, materials test, etc., and Analyse survey
reports, maps, and other data to plan projects.
● Design and communicate ideas upon interacting with all stakeholders and identify possible
design improvements, as well as incorporate Building codes, standards and guidelines into
the design as required.
● Develop Project scope and timeline, and manage and monitor each stage of project,
● Assess environmental impact and risks, and ensure job site meets all legal guidelines and
health and safety rules.
● Assist with staging, testing, and shipping of equipment prior to deployment.
● Prepare and present technical reports, analysis reports, cost estimates, Bill of Materials
(BOM) and Bill of Quantities (BOQ), environmental impact statements.
● Submit permit applications to local or national agencies, and mitigate conflict.
Civil Engineering plays a significant role in offering methodologies, approaches, assessments of risks
and impacts, as well as technologies and tools to assist decision-makers and technicians to achieve the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in the following ways;
(i) Planning measures to mitigate and adapt to climate change, extreme

weather events, earthquakes, droughts, floods, and other natural disasters.
(ii) Developing efficient and sustainable strategies for resource utilization
while minimizing environmental impact and addressing unequal
distributions.
(iii) Enhancing the safety of structures and infrastructures against exceptional loads
and deterioration over their lifecycle.
(iv) Implementing a comprehensive risk management approach and appropriate
technologies to reduce pollution and environmental degradation, thereby
reducing vulnerability.
(v) Establishing safe drinking water and sanitation systems to safeguard human health.
A huge responsibility of achieving the SDGs lies on the shoulders of Civil engineers and the
need for creative and sustainable solutions is the need of the hour. Most of the 17 SDGs are in
some way connected to the discipline of Civil engineering, directly or indirectly, as illustrated
below, highlighting the importance of the discipline.
● The direct impact that Civil engineering interventions can have, are on SDGs 6 – Clean
water and sanitation, 7 – affordable and clean energy, 9 – Industry, innovation and
infrastructure, 11 – sustainable cities and communities, and 12 – Responsible consumption
and production.
● Under SDG 1 – Eradicate Poverty, its associated Target 1.4 focuses on “access to basic
services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural
resources”, and civil engineers play an active role in planning land use.
● Under SDG 2 – Zero Hunger, Target 2.3 outlines “By 2030, double the agricultural
productivity” and Target 2.4 stresses on “By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems
and implement resilient agricultural practices”, which requires civil engineering
interventions in form of irrigation, water and waste management, transportation, etc.
● SDGs 3 – Health and Well-being, 4 – Quality Education, 8 – Decent work and economic
growth, 13 – Climate Action, 14- Life below water, and 15 – Life on Land can all be improved
by Civil engineering, through infrastructural solutions with reduced environmental impacts
that are socio-economically respondent.
● Further, civil engineering projects and practice can become a potent medium to create
awareness and statements, inspire change and imbibe best practices in the society towards
SDGs 5 - Gender Inequality, 6 – Reduced Inequalities, 16 – Peace, justice and strong
institutions.
2.2 ANCIENT WONDERS AND MODERN MARVELS
The prowess of a civilisation can be contemplated through the tangible and intangible cultural
heritage, and the feats of design, engineering and construction of the ancient world indicates the
advancement and creativity of these long-gone people. While events and aspirations dictated the
progress of the civil engineering practice, the ancient wonders and modern marvels showcase
the importance and impact of the discipline on mankind.
2.2.1 Ancient Civilizations [4000 – 900 BCE]
One of the first, most formidable, examples of civil engineering and urban
planning maybe noted in the Indus Valley, with the city of Harappa being built during the
Bronze Age, in the 4th millennium BC. Sanitation and wastewater systems were uncovered
dating back to 2550BCE in the cities of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Lothal, and well planned
urban housing made of strong leeves or earthen walls, with private toilets and drainage,
networks of reservoirs and canals for irrigation, granaries with air ducts raised on high
platforms, and designated public baths (refer Fig. 1), are some of the remnants of civil
engineering of these flourishing cultures in the valley.
Fig. 2.1 : Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro

(source : https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/slides/bath-indus.jpg)
In parallel, in ancient Mesopotamia (Iraq) along the rivers of Tigris and Euphratyes, the stepped
pyramidal structure referred as Ziggurat, at Ur dates to 4000 BCE, with the ‘White Temple’ on
top of it being built in circa 3500 BCE. Underwater channel systems, called ‘qanats’, were
constructed to route water from aquifers and wells to the surface for consumption and irrigation.
Civil engineering and architecture were at a peak in ancient Egypt. The stepped pyramid dedicated to
King Djoser, of the 3rd Dynasty, located at Saqqara Necropolis in Egypt, was erected around
2700 BCE. Designed and build by architect-turned-God Imhotep, documents reveal his
profound contribution of using shaped stones to create mammoth monuments with simple tools
and mathematics. Shortly after, between 2575–c. 2465 BCE, Pharaoh Khufu of the 4th Dynasty,
commissioned the building of the three principal pyramids of Giza - Khufu or the Great
Pyramid (originally 481 feet); Khafre (471 feet); and Menkaure (213 feet), on the west bank of
the Nile. These two sites, along with the ancient ruins of Memphis, are collectively recognised
as a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Whilst in Europe, the Stonehenge, United Kingdom, was being completed approximately
around 2,400 BCE. It comprises of two rings of standing stones with horizontal lintels on
connecting them, arranged in a ditch with earthen embankments, with a trilithon – a structure of
two large vertical stones with a horizontal resting across them, at the centre. The outer ring has
vertical sarsen standing stone measuring 13 feet high, 7 feet wide and weighing roughly 25
tonnes, and the inner ring has smaller blue stones. The Stonehenge in Amesbury, Silbury Hill –
a manmade earthen mound with pits and tunnels, and other henges at Avesbury, all are
recognised as UNESCO World Heritage sites.
2.2.2 Classical Period [1000 BCE – 1000 CE]
What followed was an era of superlative design and construction, characterised by their architectural
styles, hand in hand with the rise and fall of empires. From 1st millennium BC to 1st
millennium AD, the Greco-Roman style dominated and was termed as ‘Classical’. The Greek,
and later the Roman, primarily military-oriented, focussed on expansion of their empires and
hence, heavily invested on development of infrastructure. Cities emerged, such as, the capital
Rome in Italy; Persepolis in Greece; Marseille in France; ports at Nucratis and later Alexandria,
named after Alexander the Great, in Egypt; and Antioch in modern day Turkiye, once the seat
of both the Byzantime and Roman empire. The Roman’s championed road building and the first
known roadway, the Appian Way or the ‘queen of the roads’, was constructed in 312BCE,
connecting Rome with its allies in Capua. The Romans were also the first civilization of built
permanent bridges or Ponte, as it not only played a strategic role in connecting the vast ends of
the ever- growing empire traversing various rivers, but also was perfected in design to behave
as aqueducts to carry water. Pons Amelius, the oldest stone bridge; Ponte Milvio, the second
bridge; and Pons Fabricius, the oldest bridge still standing, all plied over the river Tiber, while
the Pont du Gard, the tallest Roman bridge, carried water over 50km across southern France to
the colony of Nimes.
Temples, urban settlements, such as cities and ports, and Universities were constructed, offering
a broader picture of the priorities and wealth of the empires of the time. However, it is
interesting to note that there was a strong underlying religious belief system in the
Greco-Roman Pantheon and was a centric theme of construction. The Temple of Artemis at
Ephesus, the Statue of Zeus
at Olympia, the Collosus of Rhodes, the Pharos (lighthouse) at Alexandria, and the
Mausoleums at Halicarnassus, all built at the time, are recognised as amongst the Seven
Wonders of the Ancient World (other two being, the Great Pyramids of Giza and the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon). Other notable religious structures built at the time are, the Parthenon
dedicated to Goddess Athena at the Acropolis, a dedicated site atop Athens; Temple of Jupiter
Optimus Maximus in Rome and those by Herod in the Judea, modern day Jerusalem.
In parallel, between the 10th - 5th century BCE, one of the first universities of the world was
established at Takshashila, near the bank of the Indus River, India. It was a centre of great
learning under the Indo-Greeks, with many scholars from all over the world. Chanakya, the
noted scholar and Prime Minister of emperor Chadragupta Maurya, was a key figure at the
university.
Further north, under the vision of the first emperor of united China, of the Qin dynasty, several
existing piecemeal defensive wall structures were connected in the 3rd century BCE to develop
a singular system of fortification, consisting of river dikes, bulwarks, and natural terrain,
extending form the eastern Hebei province to the Gulf of Chihli. The early ‘Great Wall’ was
built with rammed earth, stones and wood, and later fortified with bricks and tiles with lime
mortar, having passageways blocked by wooden gates. The construction of the Wall flourished
under the Ming dynasty and continued till 17th century CE.
Fig. 2.2 : Pages from De Architectura [1475-1543], first vernacular edition, translated by Cesare di Lorenzo Cesariano
(source : https://www.bada.org/object/first-vernacular-edition-de-architectura-vitruvius )
The development and eventual documentation of the Classical style can be traced to
the earliest temples in Greece, such as that at Samos, built in timber framing. With change in
material, from timber to stone, the scale and proportions grew, whilst retaining and refining
the design elements and principles, that are still seen prevalent today. This was later
composed as a ten-book treatise named, ‘De Architectura’ (refer Fig. 2), authored by architect
and military engineer, Marcus Vitruvius Pollio around 15c. BC, under the patronage of Caesar
Augustus. It covered building materials, construction techniques and machines, guidelines on
design of temples, civil and domestic buildings, common facilities, such as, pavements, water
supply, aqueducts, as well as discussed, scientific and aesthetic principles, such as, geometry,
measurement, buoyancy (Archimedes’ principle), astronomy for sundials, and ‘Orders of
architecture’. In addition, the first book opened with discourse on Town planning,
architecture, and civil engineering, and elucidated the qualifications of an architect-engineer.
Vitruvius proposed the triad of ‘utilitas, firmitas, venustas’ (utility, strength, and beauty), as
aesthetic characteristics of a good design and further developed the terms, order, arrangement,
fit and proportion, which inspired Leonardo da Vinci to later illustrate the ‘Vitruvian Man’.
The 1st millennium AD saw the loss of Antiquity, as it gave way to political ambitions and
philosophical schools of thoughts, led by thinkers such as, Plato and Socrates, leading to a shift
from building of religious centres and temples to that of political and social interests, such as,
the Colosseum in Rome (refer Fig. 3) and various triumphal monuments, such as, Arch of
Titus and Trajan’s column. But in the second half of the millennium, civil infrastructure
continued to be built, such as, Alcantara bridge and baths of Caracalla; the rise of
Christianity once again piqued interest in religious buildings. While several existing
Greco-Roman temples and grottoes were converted in Christian churches, the new Roman
Christian emperors took upon themselves tasks to build several basilica across their kingdom,
from the Basilica of Maxentius and Catacomb of the Via Latina in Rome, and the Papal
basilicas in present day Vatican City; to the Aula Palatina or Basilica of Constantine at Trier,
Germany, and the Hagia Sophia (today known as the Grand Mosque) in Istanbul, Turkiye.
In 5th century CE, another profound institute of education - Nalanda University, in present day
Bihar, India, came into establishment under the vision of the Gupta empire; and monolithic,
rock- carved artistry and construction thrived under the patronage of the Pallava Kingdom in the
southern state of Tamil Nadu. The famed Shore Temple, the rathas or temple-chariots dedicated
to the Pandavas, several mandapas or pavilions, and noteworthy rock reliefs, such as ‘Arjuna’s
penance’, at Malappuram (or Mahabalipuram), has earned recognition as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. Meanwhile in China, the world’s oldest open-spandrel segmental arch-bridge of
stone, fondly called Ānjì, meaning ‘safe crossing’ or Zhaozhou Qiáo, was constructed in the
Hebei Province between 595-605 CE. In the 8th century CE, the Seokguram grotto, as part of
Bulguksa Temple complex, in South Korea, was built and is recognised as National treasure 24
and as a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Thence onwards, the story of civil engineering runs hand in hand with architecture, largely
responding to the human condition and the social context, with respect to, the visual language and
aesthetics, structural layouts and buildings elements, construction techniques and materials, and the
artist- engineer’s creativity. This led to the development of styles categorised into ‘periods’ or
‘movements’.
Following the Classical period, and before the next grand period of the Renaissance, which translates
to ‘rebirth’, where two shorter styles that were found across Europe, namely;
Romanesque, found mostly across Medieval Europe between 1050-1170, retained

several features of the Roman style and is characterized by thick, heavy piers, narrow windows,
stained glass, semi-circular arches, and towers, as in the Tower of Pisa; and Gothic, or Opus
Francigenum, meaning “French work”, was prevalent in the Late Middle Ages in France,
between 900-1300, could be distinguished by pointed arches, high vaulted ceilings, flying
buttresses, and vibrant interiors with stained glass windows, gables, colourful tapestries, etc.
Noteworthy examples are, the Cathédrale Notre Dame in Paris, France, a UNESCO world
heritage site and the Milan Cathedral or Duomo di Milano, Milan, Italy.
Fig. 2.3 : Different Architectural styles across Italy (Left) Colosseum, Rome, Italy (source : photographed by Author,
2015), (Right) Tower of Pisa, Italy
Fig. 2.4 : Examples of Gothic Architecture across Europe : (Left) A model of Notre Dame Church exhibited inside the
premise, Paris, 2019; (Right) A picture of the Duomo di Milano, Milan, Italy, during restoration in 2015
(source: photographed by Author)
2.2.3 Renaissance & Age of Enlightenment [1400 – 1750 CE]
Renaissance, emerged as a response to the over-embellished previous styles drawing inspiration from
the Classical in the early 15th century at Florence, Italy, and spread across rest of Italy, France,
Germany, Russia, Spain and England. It was characterised by use of arched openings,
hemispherical domes, vaulted ceilings, orderly arrangement of columns, and formal landscaped
gardens, exemplifying proportion, symmetry, and order. Several artist-architect- engineers, such
as, Bruneslleschi, Boticelli, Michelangelo, Alberti, Palladio, Bramante, Bruni and Leonardo da
Vinci, and great men of science and philosophy, such as, Copernicus, Galileo, Francis Bacon,
Newton, Keplar, Machiavelli and More, flourished in this period. This age of discovery paved
the path to several scientific and technological advancements of today.
Filippo Brunelleschi, popularly known as the ‘Father of Renaissance’, designed the Basilica di
San Lorenzo, housing the pulpit and tondo works by Donatella; and engineered the world’s
largest brick vaulted dome, measuring 45.5m width and 116m height, for the Santa Maria del
Fiore or Florence Cathedral. Another important advent of the Early Renaissance was the first
theoretical ten-book compilation ‘on the Art of Building’, De re aedificatoria, by Leon Battista
Alberti. It is also the first printed book on architecture, dated 1485, followed by the first edition
print of Vitruvius’ De Architectura (refer Fig. 2).
In the following High Renaissance period, Bramante, under the patronage of the Duke of Milan,
incorporated classical styles in contemporary buildings bringing about a unique character to this
period. Two noted examples are, the abbey church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, where he
introduced the choir and a hemispherical dome with arched classical openings, rooted within an
octagonal drum. He also worked on the cathedral of Pavia, the cloister of San Pietro in
Montorio, and the Cortille del Belvedere, Vatican. In 1506, his design of the rebuilding of St.
Peter’s Basilica was selected, however, owing to his death the new chief Architect and noted
artist, Michaelangelo, stayed true to the original proposal of the Greek-cross plan by Bramante.
Another master builder of the time, Andrea Palladio, titled the “most influential architect of
the Renaissance”, adopted the Classical elements in a less grandiose manner and developed
from it unique features, such as, the Palladian Arch - a scaled triumphal arch with
square-topped opening for windows, the symmetric domed hall with identical four facades with
orders supporting triangular pediments, as in the Villa Capra, famously called ‘La Rotonda’. He
also authored the “I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura" or Four Books on Architecture, published
in 1570.
During the Late Renaissance, also called Mannerism, the trend continued where classical
elements were reinterpreted as is seen by Michelangelo in the St. Peter’s Basilica. The cupola
of the basilica was designed as two masonry shells, one sitting into another, held by ribs which
supported a massive roof lantern, and the exterior boasted a ‘giant order’ (see Fig. 5), defining
the external square, held together by a wide cornice – creating a timeless masterpiece.
Following Renaissance, two styles emerged – the Baroque, and later, more flamboyant, Roccoco,
between 1600-1755 as a sharp contrast to Renaissance. With an attempt to apply certain
classical elements to regional architecture, without regard for the fundamentals of composition
characterising Classical, these two styles are characterised by geometrically exaggerated, ornate
and colourful structures, such as the Palace of Versailles in France, and St. Paul’s Cathedral
in London, and were seen in conjunction with the Counter Reformation movement.
Fig. 2.5 : St. Peter's Square, Vatican, boasting Michelangelo's 'giant order'
(source : photograph by Author, 2015)
2.2.4 Modernism & Industrial Era [1750 - 1950 CE]
Civil engineering remained at the helm during the First Industrial Revolution, with industries
springing up and connectivity, transportation and sanitation became a dire requirement. Several
bridges, canals and sewers were commissioned to carry effluents, goods and people, to and fro
from industries. Noteworthy designs include Bridgewater canal, built by engineer Brindley in
1761, having several tunnels allowing direct travel to coal mines; and the world’s first cast-iron,
arch bridge over the River Severn at Coalbrookedale in 1776, where Pritchard used the brittle
metal to construct a semi-circular structure that transfers load onto abutments, while held in
compression to counter cracks from propagating – a first of its kind.
In 1771, John Smeaton the first self-proclaimed civil engineer, formed the Smeatonian Society
of Civil Engineers. He constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse, off Cornwall, England, and
developed ‘hydraulic lime’ and techniques of dovetail joints and dowels for securing blocks.
Road maintenance also became a priority in the 18th century, with the establishment of turnpikes
trusts and toll roads. Design and construction details of roads saw significant improvement,
with new methods proposed by Pierre Tresaguet in 1764 and later, improved by his mentee,
John Metcalf who proposed convex shaped surface to allow rainwater to drain. Thomas Telford
suggested small stones on the rock foundation further covered with a mixture of stone and
gravel,
having elevated pavements on either sides, known as ‘Telford pitching’, and John McAdam
developed the ‘macadamisation’ where soil foundation is layed with aggregate layers of
angular stones and gravel. This design was later patented as the ‘Tar Mc Adam road’ by civil
engineer, Hooley 1901, as is used today.
Soon railways spread rapidly and took over as the preferred mode of heavy goods transportation, with
engineer Stephenson designing the first steam locomotive in 1825, and later improving it under
the Liverpoool and Manchester railway (L&MR) in 1830.
A prolific civil engineer of the time, Isambard Brunel, pushed the boundaries of engineering
and expanded his role as engineer-architect and designer. By 1833, the Great Western Railway
(GWR) was commissioned under the able guidance of who had assisted on the Thames Tunnel
project which has been incorporated today as part of the London Underground. Brunel, also has
to his credit, design of several remarkable bridges, with the Cliffton Suspension bridge over
Avon spanning 702 m - the longest at the time, as well as for, the world’s longest steamship of
the time, ‘Great Western’, constructed of wood and reinforced with iron diagonals and bolts,
with improved surface condenser incorporated. He continued his experiments and further
designed the first modern ship, Great Britain, which was propeller-driven and iron-hulled. The
Great Eastern, his third transatlantic ship design, was the most technologically-advanced and
luxurious ship of the time and is famed as one of the seven wonders of the Industrial
Revolution. However, it aided the laying of oceanic telegraph cables rather than plying
passengers, and proved to be pivotal in connecting America and Europe. He also designed the
‘Three bridges’, London, that allowed the routes of Great Western and Brentford Railway,
Grand Junction canal and Windmill Lane; and the Renkioi Hospital, a first of its kind hospital in
1845, comprised of pre-fabricated wood and canvas that could be shipped and assembled
on-site, far away in Tukiye, where the Crimean War was underway.
During the Second Industrial Revolution, when the spotlight was on the new nation of United States
of America (USA), the Neoclassical style, as the name suggests, a revival of Classical style,
was adopted to communicate a grand and powerful aesthetic in Gilded Age. Characterised by
triangular pediments, free-standing columns, balustraded balconies, pronounced cornices, and
symmetry, the White House and overall, the Capitol complex in Washington DC, it is
reminiscent of Palladian architecture. Neoclassicalism also spread to England, France and
Russia, with some of its outstanding advocates being, Robert Adam, John Soane and
Claude-Nicolas Ledoux.
Modern design as understood today, epitomized by metal construction, first sprouted its
presence with the first two exhibition pavilions of the World Fairs or the “Exposition
Universelle”. The two were, the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, a cast-iron and
plate-glass structure housing 92,000 sqm exhibition space designed by Joseph Paxton in 1851;
and the Eiffel Tower, Paris, locally referred to as “La dame de fer” (Iron Lady), a wrought-iron
lattice tower designed by architect, Stephen Stauvestre, along with structural engineers, Maurice
Koechlin and Emile Nouguier. With further industrialisation supporting mass production of
steel and glass, these materials became vastly employed as they imbibed a sense of never-before
appeal, and further motivated futuristic styles.
Fig. 2.6 : The Great Exhibition pavilions - (Left) Crystal Palace, London, (Right) Eiffel Tower, Paris
Fig. 2.7 : Examples of Art Nouveau (Left) Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, and
Art Deco style (Right) Chrysler Building, Chicago
Between 1890-1910, aversive to historicism and enthusiastic of modern life, the

unique style of Art Nouveau developed characterised by organic lines and sinuous forms,
achievable by steel frames and exaggerated by glass panes. The style was called Jugendstil in
Germany, Sezessionstil in Austria, Stile Floreale (or Stile Liberty) in Italy, and Modernismo (or
Modernista) in Spain; and was employed in building design by architects, Louis Sullivan across
Chicago and further accentuated by artist-architect, Antoni Gaudi in Spain. Sullivan advocated
the development of original forms and ornamentation, and is identified as ‘Father of
skyscrapers’, exemplified in his design of the Wainwright Building in Chicago. In his firm
worked a young civil engineer and aspiring architect, Frank Llyod Wright, who later was called
the ‘Father of modern architecture’ and like his mentor, developed a style unique to America
– the Prairie style, illustrated through large cantilevers and use of glass held with metal, like the
Robie house or ‘Fallingwater’ – the most famous house in the world.
It was followed by Art Deco style, also referred to as style modern, which
exhibited an affinity with machines as a reflection of modernity. While a short-lived movement
between the 1920’s and 30’s, it had an indelible mark on the skyline of the emerging nation of
USA, with iconic structures, such as, the Empire State Building, Rockefeller Center and
Chrysler Building. This style was characterised by stepped gables, sculptured panels, ornate
geometry, and cubic forms, along with use of unorthodox materials like, exposed steel and
aluminium, decorative glass, ceramic and even, stucco and terracotta. In contrast, Europe saw
the development of the ‘International style’ characterised by rectangular forms, cantilevered
projections, flat roof, ribbon windows, curtain glass, asymmetric facades and lack of
ornamentation, as practiced by Le Corbusier in France, and Walter Gropius and Mies van der
Rohe in Germany.
Various other styles such as, Futurism, Constructivism, Brutalism, De Stijl, and
Bauhaus, all encompassed under the term ‘Modernism’, prevalent during the early 20th century,
were grounded on the principle of ‘Form follows Function’ as stated by Louis Sullivan. Fuelled
by the abundant availability of mass-produced modern materials; they were a stark deviation
from the traditional styles, characterised by functionalism, lack of ornamentation, and rational
use of modern materials true to their nature, with a keenness for structural innovation. Philip
Johnson’s Glass House is an exquisite example.
2.2.5 Contemporary style & Digital Era [1950 - present]
Post-World War II, the international style flourished in the US for commercial buildings, as
evident in the Seagram Building designed by Mies van der Rohe, a champion of minimalism
famous for his aphorism “less is more”.
But soon, in the 1960’s, there was an antagonism towards the bleakness of
modernism, and newer trends, such as, the introduction of the principles of Beaux Arts style by
Louis Kahn and Eero Saarinen; and the need to focus on placemaking, with the local conditions
and contexts through incorporation of vernacular by Robert Venturi, who published ‘Complexity
and Contradiction in Architecture’, gave rise to the Post-Modernism. It challenged its
predecessor with asymmetry, ornamentation, historical details and familiar motifs, and was
characterised by eclectic inspirations and kitsch aesthetics, with focus more on form over
function. Some of the notable examples are, the Lotus Temple in New Delhi, the Sydney Opera
House, and the Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, by pioneer Frank O’Gehry.
The concept of modularity was also catching on, with Archigram collective
proposing a mega-scale modular concept called Plug-in City in 1964 and Shafie Moshdie
designing the Habitat 67, a modular experimental housing. In Japan, the ‘Metabolism’ style
developed, focusing on modularity, flexibility and interchangeable units, as exemplified by the
Nagakin Capsule Tower designed by Kisha Kurokawa in 1972.
Fig. 2.8 : Examples of Modernism - (Left) Frank Llyod Wright's Fallingwater, Pennsylvania,
(Right) Philip Johnson's The Glass House, Connecticut
Fig. 2.9 : Examples of Contemporary Style - (Top Left) Frank O'Gehry's Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao,
(Top Right) Nagakin Capsule Tower Kisho Kurokawa's Nagakin Capsule Tower, Tokyo,
(Bottom Left) Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building, New York City,
(Bottom Right) Renzo Piano and Richard Roger's Centre de Pompiduo,
Paris
Meanwhile in India, between 1950’s-70’s, the young nation also felt the
ripples of these movements, with the vision of setting up a model city – Chandigarh. The task of
designing a modern yet culturally sensitive aesthetic, Le Corbusier devised the city’s masterplan
by applying the concept of Unité d'Habitation. With the Capitol Complex at its heart, clean
geometry and concrete facades were interspersed with motifs and symbology, and compositions
of colour. And in 1961, the year of completion of the construction of the Capital Complex – a
UNESCO World Heritage site, another grand project was in motion. Louis Kahn was
commissioned the tasks of designing the IIM Ahmedabad (1962-74), a vision of Dr. Vikram
Sarabhai and Kasturbahi Lalbhai, to develop professionals for the country’s growing industrial
progress.
The introduction and widespread adoption of the use of CAD software between the 1960’s – 1990’s
led to the widening of architectural styles beyond post-modernism to high-tech or Structural
expressionism, which aimed at showcasing the underlying function-structure of the buildings,
from exterior to the interior, through the use of advanced technology and materials. Aluminium,
steel, glass and concrete offered a sense of grandiose and honesty, with open plans allowing
reconfigurable spaces, large overhangs and lack of load bearing walls. The World Trade Centre
(1971) in New York by Yamasaki, the Centre Pompidou (1977) in Paris by Renzo Piano and
Richard Rogers, and the Burj al Arab (1991) by Tom Wright are some famous examples.
Improved design tools furthered modular construction and led to the development of the Klip
House concept, designed by Interloop between 1997-2001, where modules could be snapped
together to build a unit. Presently, the world’s tallest building, the Burj Khalifa (2010) with the
height of 830m to the tip, housing 163 floors, is an epitome of contemporary architecture. The
three-leafed structure is an abstraction of the desert flower, Hymenocallis, twirling into a spire
as it gains height.
Hand in hand, another trend of the present times, propelled by the development of CAD and other
design tools, is Parametricism. Characterised by the use of algorithmic equations and
computational tools leveraged to generate varied and almost impossible forms which are
complex yet fluid, can be traced back to 1997. Earlier famed architects, Frei Otto and Antoni
Gaudi are often considered inspirations for this style, personified by Pritzker Awardee, Zaha
Hadid. The Guangzhou Opera House, at Galaxy Soho in Beijing China, and the Hyder Aliyev
Centre in Baku, Azerbaijan, are a few of her exemplary works.
While using parametric design not only enables designers to optimise the planning and improve
efficiency of the design, attempts to incorporate sustainability factors is currently being pursued
by noted firms, such as, Ai Space Factory, Foster & Partners, etc. The OPPO R&D
headquarters, named the ‘Infinity Loop’, designed by Bjarke Ingels Group (BIG), China, boasts
an elegant form that is self-shaded, thereby, it reduces the energy usage and increases natural
light. Another remarkable example is the ‘Heart of Yong’an’ by TJAD, China, where
algorithmic modelling has been used to create a hyperbolic, single slope, curving roof structure,
emulating the surrounding mountains, with rammed earth walls and local blue tile roofing.
Fig. 2.10 : Examples of Parametricism - (Top) Views of Zaha Hadid's Hyder Aliyev Center, Baku,
Azerbaijan,
(Bottom) of Bjarke Ingels Group’s Infinity Loop, Hangzhou, China
2.3 FUTURE VISION FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING
With demand for design and construction on the rise, the future holds many propositions. The key themes
for civil engineering, at the juncture of design + technology, will be:
Sustainable Design & construction: Developing Green infrastructure that is safe, inclusive,
energy efficient, and uses materials and techniques that have low environmental impact; using
Nanotechnology and use of nano materials, like, nano-silica, nano-clays, and iron
nanoparticles, incorporated into concrete, and copper nanoparticles used in steel beams; and
realising Futuristic transportation, such as self-drive and travel pods through hyperloop will
improve quality of life.
Cutting-edge technology: Using Augmented and Virtual reality to model real world
construction challenges, as well as provide an immersive experience to visualise concepts via
Digital Twins; and leveraging AI, Big data and IoT to seamlessly harness data for mundane
decisions and support collaborative projects with multiple stakeholders, will improve the quality
and time of the design and construction.
The importance and profound impact of Civil engineering on society and the world, is undeniable
and beckons that formidable and competent civil engineers forge the future.
UNIT SUMMARY
This Unit walks through an aspiring civil engineer on the importance of the profession, its remarkable
lineage of breakthroughs across history and the future scope of the profession. Drawing from the
knowledge shared in Unit 1, this Unit connects to the importance of the profession and practice as
custodians of sustainable development and exemplifies the potential impact of civil engineering on
achieving each SDG, either directly or indirectly. It further discusses the skills required for a
competent civil engineer and the capabilities expected. The next Section elucidates marvels and
breakthroughs in the ancient era up till present times, and continues to highlight in brief the major
themes for the future.
EXERCISES
Q. 2.1 Which of the following is not a Civil Engineering specialisation?

(a) Geotechnical Engineering
(b) Hydraulic Engineering
(c) Environmental Engineering
(d) Urban Planning
Q. 2.2 What are the SDGs that are directly impacted by Civil Engineering?
(a) SDG 11 - Sustainable cities and communities,
(b) SDG 6 - Clean water and sanitation
(c) SDG 16 - Peace, justice and strong institutions
(d) SDG 9 - Industry, innovation and infrastructure
Q. 2.3 Which ancient marvel, recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage site, is the oldest
amongst the Seven Wonders of the World?
(a) Three principal pyramids of Giza
(b) Ziggurat with the ‘White Temple’ at Ur
(c) Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Lothal
(d) The Stonehenge, United Kingdom
Q. 2.4 The Greeks and Roman style of architecture and construction is called?
(a) Renaissance
(b) Ancient
(c) Classical
(d) Gothic
Q. 2.5 Who is the Father of Renaissance?

(a) Leonardo da Vinci
(b) Andrea Palladio
(c) Leon Battista Alberti
(d) Filippo Brunelleschi
Answers of Multiple Choice Questions: 2.1 (d), 2.2 (c), 2.3 (a), 2.4 (c), 2.5 (d)
Q. 2.6 What are the roles and responsibilities of a Civil Engineer?
Q. 2.7 What were the major periods in design and construction? Write briefly on each with an
example of civil engineering.
Q. 2.8 Describe the major future trends in Civil Engineering and elaborate which one is set
out to be the most impact full in the days to come.
KNOW MORE
About Mohenjo-Daro
https://study.com/learn/lesson/harappa-mohenjo-daro-indus-valley-civilization-history-decline.html
https://youtu.be/KhDY4KJuvc0
About Mesopotamia
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EwY-ziBL1Jw
About the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World:
https://youtu.be/1YWPMZ6pHm8
Timeline of Architecture styles:
https://www.worldhistory.org/timeline/architecture/
https://urbandesignlab.in/timeline-of-the-history-of-architecture/
About Renaissance:
https://www.thecollector.com/10-characteristics-of-renaissance-architecture/
http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/renaissance.htm
Road construction
https://dreamcivil.com/history-of-road-development/#_3_Tresaguet_Construction
History of CAD and Design model making
https://www.creativemechanisms.com/blog/the-history-of-design-model-making-and-cad
Historical milestones
https://engineering.rowan.edu/_docs/civilenvironmental/cee-materials-reading-assignment.pdf
Capitol Complex, Chandigarh
https://www.archdaily.com/806115/ad-classics-master-plan-for-chandigarh-le-corbusier
Parametric-sustainable Design
https://parametric-architecture.com/8-spectacular-parametric-designs-generating-sustainable-architecture/
Modular construction
https://99percentinvisible.org/article/modularity-modern-history-modular-mass-housing-schemes/
Leaning tower correction
https://leaningtowerpisa.com/facts/how-pisa-leaning-tower-was-stabilized
High-speed railways
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAIwcJvKEvs

● [Book] Fletcher, B. (1896). A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. Batsford.
● [Book] Stearns, P. N. (2020). The industrial revolution in world history. Routledge.

● [Book] Antonelli, M., & Della Vecchia, G. (2022). Civil and Environmental Engineering for the
Sustainable Development Goals: Emerging Issues (p. 108). Springer Nature
Web sources
● https://www.dezeen.com
● https://www.worldhistory.org/timeline/architecture/
● https://engineering.rowan.edu/_docs/civilenvironmental/cee-materials-reading-assignment.pdf
UNIT SPECIFICS
● The present and future projection of various facets of Infrastructure development

o Habitats - Megacities, Smart Cities, futuristic visions
o Transportation - Roads, Railways & Metros, Tunnels (below ground, under
water); Seaports, River ways and canals; Airfields and Airport, Futuristic systems
o Energy generation - Hydro, Solar, Photovoltaic, Wind, Wave, Tidal, Geothermal,
Thermal energy and New sources
o Water resource management
o Telecommunication - Towers, above-ground and underground cabling
● Awareness of various Codes & Standards governing Infrastructure development
o ISO Codes for infrastructure construction
● Innovations and methodologies for ensuring Sustainability in Infrastructure
practice.
There is a “Know More” section, which has been carefully designed so that the supplementary
information provided in this part becomes beneficial for the users of the book. It is important to note
that for getting more information on various topics of interest some QR codes have been provided
which can be scanned for relevant supportive knowledge This section mainly highlights applications
of the subject matter for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial applications on variety of aspects,
case study related to environmental, sustainability, social and ethical issues whichever applicable, and
finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.
RATIONALE
This fundamental unit discusses the important facets of infrastructure for the better
understanding of its practical aspects during practice of Civil engineering, in the context of
Sustainable development and future trends. It further emphasizes the role of standards and codes,
and highlights the innovations and methodologies the civil engineer can leverage to develop
sustainable infrastructure.
UNIT OUTCOMES
U3-O1: Knowledge on the present and future projection of various facets of Infrastructure
Development: Habitat, Transportation, Energy generation, Water provision and
Telecommunication
U3-O2: Understanding/comprehension of various Codes & Standards governing Infrastructure
development
U3-O3: Knowledge on innovations and methodologies for ensuring Sustainability in
Infrastructure development

Unit-3
U3-O1 3 3 3 - 3 2 1
U3-O2 1 1 1 2 1 1 3
U3-O3 2 1 2 1 2 3 2
MA
Unit 3 – Infrastructure
The term ‘infrastructure’ can be traced to 1927 referring to the various

systems, amenities and facilities of public works that enables the provision of services. For
example, Transportation services is provided by the associated infrastructure of roads, rail lines,
harbours, bridges, etc. and Irrigations and Water management service is provided via dams,
canals, etc. Today, classified as ‘hard’ infrastructure, these physical systems support various
other services such as, waste management, telecommunication, power generation.
Prud’homme (2004) enlisted the common characteristics of infrastructure, as follows:
(i) Infrastructure “are capital goods”, i.e., it is a means to provide service and not
consumed directly, requiring labour and other inputs for it to be useful.
(ii) It is “lumpy” and not incremental, i.e., it is of a limited capacity to handle demand
and cannot meet growing demands. It also requires years for being built and and of
being in use.
(iii) It is long lasting, having long term implications on maintenance and hence,
financing.
(iv) It is space specific and immobile, having further implications on financial capital.
(v) Infrastructure and the service it renders is subject to market failures, decreasing
costs, externalities, etc.
(vi) It is used by both, households and enterprises, as it increases welfare and
productivity.
In contrast, ‘soft’ infrastructure refers to the institutions that maintain health, socio-cultural
and economic standards of a society, such as, healthcare and financial facilities, law
enforcement and education. Of these, some are ‘critical’ infrastructure, identified as per the
priority of the Nation. For India, these are Power, Telecom, Aviation, Energy, Banking,
Cybersecurity and Disaster Management.
Another classification of infrastructure is based on its direct or indirect impact on production.

The types that are essential for either improving or impeding production and distribution,
such as, power, irrigation, transport, communication, etc., are classified as ‘Economic
Infrastructure, while those that aid economic progress, such as, Education, Healthcare and
Housing, are classified as ‘Social Infrastructure’.
3.1. HABITATS
Together, these various facets of infrastructure respond to the physical characteristics of a region to
support the use of resources and productivity by the inhabitants beyond the boundaries of their
natural habitat, with the underlying motivation for socio-economic development. In the following
Sections, the present and future projection of various these various facets are discussed.
European Nature Information System (EUNIS) defines a habitat as “a place where plants or animals
live normally, characterized primarily by its physical features – topography, plant or animal
physiognomy, soil characteristics, climate, water quality, etc., and secondarily by the species of
plants and animals that live there”. In 2004, EUNIS classified various habitats, such as, marine,
coastal, inland surface water, grasslands, woodlands and forests, along with recognising habitats
created out of human intervention, such as, cultivated agricultural, horticultural and domestic
habitats, and constructed, industrial and other artificial habitats, such as cities.
3.1.1 Megacities
In 2018 “World Urbanisation Prospects” the UN identified very large cities with population of over
10million as ‘Megacities’ and UN further enlisted 33 megacities of which half of these urban
agglomerations are in India and China and 27 are in the developing regions of the world, termed
as the ‘global south’. Globally, this is projected to rise to 43 by 2030, and the number of cities
with 1 to 5 million inhabitants is projected to grow to 597. The characteristics of a Megacity
are; size, rate of growth and complexity in terms of administration and infrastructure (Wenzel et
al., 2007), and are the economic drivers of the country.
The urban population is projected to increase up to 28% worldwide, while rural population is
projected to fall to 40% by 2030 (UN, 2018). Tokyo, Delhi and Shanghai that ranked 1st, 2nd , 3rd
back in 2018 has already been overtaken by Shanghai, Chongqing, Beijing and Guangzhou,
ranking Delhi at 5th today. This trend of fast-growing cities is widely noticeable in Africa as
well, with Lagos in Nigeria being among the fastest growing, and other cities like Kinshasa in
Democratic Republic of Congo and Dar Es Salaam in Tanzania.
Li, et al. (2019) analyses four major problems of Megacities from urban geography and
ecology perspective, as follows;
● Land subsidence due to over exploitation of groundwater.

● Environmental problems such as, pollution, urban heat islands, urban air quality and
haze, carbon emissions and dust storms, etc.
● Traffic congestions, parking difficulty, public transport. This is closely related to the
above problems of pollution, haze, etc.
● Energy consumption and production that is inefficient and unsustainable.
However, there is also the problem of declining of urban population. While large influx of
population into urban boundaries is on rise, most of these cities also face high risk of population
decline and loss of life due to geographical location, mostly coastlines, and consumption
patterns are the vulnerable to at least one of the 6 types of natural disasters – cyclones, floods,
droughts, earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions. Some of the factors that contribute to
the high risks of megacities in developing nations are; high population exposure due to housing
concentration, complex and ageing infrastructure, lack of robustness of critical facilities and
weakness of preparedness for response and relief (Wenzel et al., 2007). In addition, stagnating
population has been associated with low fertility rates, particularly in Europe.
The mass movement of population from rural to urban has led to drastic changes in the
constructed habitats and has put ever increasing demands and stress on infrastructure, limited
resources and inequitable access, and deteriorating living conditions, leading to a large chunk of
the population to be below poverty line and without social welfare. While cities today
approximately occupy only 2% of the total land, it contributes towards 70% of the GDP and is
responsible for 60% global energy consumption, 70% greenhouse gas emissions and 70%
global waster generation. The enormous requirements of natural and human resources for
energy, food, industrial production, services, construction, infrastructure, and maintenance,
causes severe ecological impacts. In turn, development sprawl encroaches ecologically sensitive
areas, such as, estuaries, coasts, riverbeds, which in turn require high developmental costs and
maintenance more expensive. Other anthropogenic hazards, such as terrorism and war are also
largely targeted towards megacities.
Fig. 3.1 : Megacities of the World (source : United Nations)
Krass (2007) noted how megacities affect global changes, enlisted below, and in turn, are
affected by them. These changes maybe,
● Geo-ecological change: pollution, sea level rising, global warming, etc.

● Geo-economic change: globalisation, international labour division, urban markets, etc.
● Geo-social change: urban disease, social justice, migration, human security, etc.
● Geo-cultural change: urban ethnicity, social movements, global media, urban cultural
diversity and hybridity; and
● Geo-political change: resource security, social stability, social justice, welfare, etc.
To combat these challenges, the ‘New Urban Agenda’ was adopted during the UN Conference on
Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III) in 2016, that outlined the
implementation of; Urban rules and regulation, Urban planning and design, and Municipal
finance, with consideration of national urban policies to support sustainable development. In
addition, megacities are greatly leaning on digital Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT), to envision the ever-growing city through 3D modelling and visualisations,
image and data fusion, Big Data, IoT and real-time Earth observations, becoming the backbone
for ‘digital cities of the future’ or ‘Smart cities’. However, while megacities are heavily into
employing ‘Intelligent’ strategies, but it may be argued that without addressing the elements of
sustainability and noted improvement of quality of life, and only through employment of ICTs
is inadequate. Presently, western megacities such as London, Paris and New York, are focusing
on infrastructure for quality of life by ensuring; sustainable utilisation of land resources,
improvement of design quality of buildings and urban spaces, balance between economic
growth and environmental protection, improve air and water quality, climate change, etc. This
gives an insight into what should the priority of developing nations such as India be to achieve
SDG 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities.
3.1.2 Smart Cities
SDG 11 aims for inclusive, safe, resilient, sustainable cities and ‘smart city’ planning is a proponent of
the same, as it strives develop frameworks to technologically support all basic infrastructure and
services required for its inhabitants towards becoming self-sufficient. Megacities and upcoming
cities, with growing issues of sustainability are struggling to preserve natural and economic
resources, lean on ‘smart city’ concepts however, the ground implementation is heavily
dependent on the level of development, willingness to change and availability of resources
(Bordoloi and Acharya, 2023).
‘Smart’ city is a broad concept with various sub-themes; urban and regional planning, economic
development, environment and sustainability, ICT and technology. Integration of digital
technology with improving urban areas and public spaces, reducing environmental impact,
involvement of citizens in policymaking, and utilizing entrepreneurship and human capital for
urban development; thereby making networks and services more efficient, flexible, and
sustainable for the benefit of its residents is the key characteristic of a Smart city.
The dimensions of Smart City are smart - people, smart living, smart government, smart
transportation, smart environment and smart economy. These are further expanded to include
smart technology, smart infrastructure, smart water and waste, smart agriculture and smart
security. In summary, the term ‘smart’ has three conceptual elements: Technology, including
hardware and software infrastructures; People and their associated attributes of creativity,
diversity and education; and Community, referring to institutions, governance and policy. And
the four city technological brands included under ‘Smart City’ are ‘Digital City’, ‘Intelligent
City’, ‘Ubiquitous City’ and ‘Information City’. However, these must not be at the expense of
social and environmental impact as ‘quality of life’ is the eventual goal of smart cities.
Therefore, a term ‘smart sustainability’ is often used to stress on the need to respect local or
planetary limitations and to utilise resources without compromising the needs of future
generation.
Thus, Smart City strategies help to create sustainable cities and communities by addressing
social problems, optimising financial resources, and mitigating environmental consequences
through conservation and controlled use of natural resources. Key features of ‘sustainable
smart cities’ include compactness, population density, sustainable transport, mixed land use,
green areas, passive solar design and diversity. However, there are still gaps between real
world problems and available strategies and solutions.
Fig. 3.2 : Illustrative List of Smart Solution, Mission Statement & Guidelines, MoUD, GoI (Jun 2015)
In June 2015, the Govt. of India launched the ‘Smart Cities Mission’ to develop sustainable and
inclusive cities, keeping in mind that by 2030, 40% of the Indian population will be in urban
areas and will contribute towards 75% of the GDP. The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
(MoHUA) outlined the strategic components of a smart cities as; adequate water supply, assured
electricity supply, sanitation and solid waste management, efficient public transportation and
urban mobility, affordable housing, robust IT and digitalisation, e- governance and citizen
participation, sustainable environment, safety and security of citizens, and health and education.
The mission envisioned 100 cities across the country and strategized
based on area-based development through retrofitting, redevelopment, greenfield development,

and pan-city initiatives. There are several schemes, such as, Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and
Urban Transformation (AMRUT), Swachch Bharat Mission, National Heritage city
Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY), Digital India, Skill Development, Housing
for All, etc., that offer complementarity to the Mission and convergence of these is promoted.
Three tiers of monitoring, at national, state and city level is proposed, and while it is presently
centrally funded, it requires state government and urban local bodies to contribute equal
amounts for implementing the Smart City, approximately 100crore per city per year for 5 years.
The total allocated investment stood at Rs.205,018 crore ($ 27.6 Billion) as of March 2021 and
a recent Rs.16,000 crore has been allocated in Budget 2023. Presently, MoHUA reported that
more than two-thirds of the total 7,804 projects have been completed.
3.1.3 Future vision of Habitats
Future habitats, while predominantly urbane and highly digitalised, will reflect the paradigm of
Industry 5.0, with a shift from economic value to social value. This is exemplified by
automation, robots and smart machines working alongside humans with resilience and
sustainability as priority. The cities of the future, while ‘intelligent’, will lean strongly on tenets
of Sustainability as the backbone for development and aim to create value through harmonising
five types of sustainable capital from where goods and services are derived, namely, Natural
Capital, Human Capital, Social Capital, Manufactured Capital and Financial Capital.
A large number of futuristic city developments underway all over the world are;
Amravati, capital city of Andhra Pradesh, India, designed by Foster + Partners, is under
the Smart City Mission, is aimed to cover 217 sq.km. such that over 60% of the core area
is occupied by greenery or water bodies.
Chengdu Future City, China, designed by OMA, will occupy 4.6sq.km. with focus on
smart mobility network and a car-free masterplan.
New Administrative Capital in Cairo, Egypt, designed by SOM, will cover 700 sq.km.
and will feature one of the world’s largest urban parks.
Smart Forest City, Mexico, designed by Stefano Boeri Architectti, is intended to be a

forested smart city near Cancun with plant covered homes and 7.5 million carbon
absorbing plants and trees across its 557 hectares (5.57 sq. km).
Fig. 3.3: Future Projects - (Top Left) Amaravati, India, by Foster+Partners, (Top Right) Chengdu Future City, China, by
OMA, (Bottom Left) Maldives Floating City, Maldives, by Waterstudio, (Bottom Right) The Line, KSA, by Neom
Several attempts to use advanced building and construction technology is also underway to reclaim or
rebuild presently vulnerable cities, such as;
BiodiverCity, Malaysia, also designed by BIG, is a 1821 hectare (18.21 sq.km)

development of three artificial islands built of the shore of Penang Islands, built using
combination of bamboo, timber and concrete.
Maldives Floating City, Maldives, designed by Waterstudio, as a response to the rising

sea level and the concern of the Maldives becoming uninhabitable by 2050, will be built
on hexagonal structures that rise with the sea.
A prototype climate-resilient floating city is also being designed by BIG and tech
company, Oceanix, off the sea of Busan, South Korea.
Further, state of the art, breakthrough proposals are also underway in unoccupied land
stretches with the intention to design for the future population and a sustainable way of living,
such as;
The Line, Saudi Arabia, which will house a 170km long, 500m tall, but 200m wide,
linear city stretching to touch the sea, and is envisioned as a model for ‘nature
preservation and enhanced liveability’.
Telosa city, USA, designed by Bjarke Ingels and BIG on an unoccupied 150,000-acre
(607.03 sq.km) site in the western desert.
Design of green buildings, use of eco building materials, incorporation of natural environment and
urban open, green spaces, apart from the ‘smart’ services and their allied infrastructure would
be characteristics of cities of the future. In addition, there is a hope that the citizens of the future
will be more conscientious as a society and continue to strive towards the SDGs collectively.
This brings us back full circle to the early ‘social indicator movement’ of the 1960s where the
important linkages between infrastructure and quality of life (Terleckyj, 1975) was captured in
order to systematically assess existing possibilities for social change, by mapping the
infrastructure against attributes of human habitat, i.e., Health, Safety, Recreation and Aesthetics,
Economic opportunity and Leisure. Aschauer (1989) reflects that, the general public desires
cleaner environment, safer urban streets, increased mobility and economic opportunity for the
disadvantaged, and an economy well equipped to compete internationally; and empirically
establishes the importance of infrastructure development and investments towards improved
quality of life and economic performance.
3.2 TRANSPORTATION
The global economy functions through trade and commerce, and transportation service sector is the
most essential aid. It not only supports the supply chain through timely movement of raw
materials and resources, but also enables eventual distribution of finished goods, in turn
assuring economic competitiveness and growth. It is also the mode of travel for people for
employment and education opportunities, healthcare, leisure, or social networking, etc. But
while this was greatly hampered in the pandemic era, with millions with home bound. The
times are also exemplar of the heights of exploitation of transportation infrastructure and
logistics, becoming one of the most critical infrastructure sectors along with Energy, Water and
Telecommunication. And today’s new normal is quick and easy, door-to-door delivery,
demanding development of further land, water, underground, air, as well as futuristic modes of
transport infrastructure.
3.2.1 Land Transport Infrastructure
Land transport can be broadly categorised into roads, railways and metros; a ‘way’ for travel. The
word ‘way’ as per Britannica, stems from the Latin ‘veho’ which means, “I carry”, derived
from the Sanskrit word, ‘vah’ meaning to “carry, go or move”.
Roads
The generic word ‘road’ used to encompass all land vehicular ways is derived from the Old
English word ‘rad’, which means “to ride”. However, the term highway predates it, back to the
elevated Romans roads which created a mound in the centre and ditches on the side, upon
compacted layers of soil and gravel. It is used to refer to major roadways that connect several
rural and urban space and is characterised by various controlled points of entry and exits for
traffic. While ‘streets’ has its origin in Latin ‘strata’ meaning paved, and is till date used to
refer to all small rural scale roads.
Road networks follow a system of hierarchy in their capacity and capabilities. Most roads world
over are conventional, undivided two-way; however, there are divided roads such as;
expressways, having minor at-grade intersections; freeways, having no at-grade intersections,
collectively called motorways in the UK. Functionally roads are classified as: Highways - the
major roads between regions; Arterial roads – that carry through traffic from adjacent areas and
are major roads within a region; Collector, distributor and feeder roads – that carry only through
traffic from a certain area perimeter; and local streets – that do not carry through traffic but only
serve adjacent properties.
The earliest records of animal trodden paths used by man have been dated back to 6000 BCE,
with evidence on first constructed road dating 4000BCE at Ur, present day Iran. Oldest existing
paved road, made of layers of sandstone bound by clay-gypsum mortar with two rows of basalt
slabs in the centre for use by foot, while the dipping edges were for animals, was built by the
Minoans on the island of Crete. It was about 50km long at an elevation of 1300metres, from
Gortyna to Knossos. The earliest long-distance road, traversing 2500 kms, between Susa in the
Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean ports of Smyrna (Izmir) and Ephesus, was first used around
3500 BCE but came into organised use aroud 1200 BCE under the Assyrians. The Egyptians
around 2600 BCE built roads to haul limestone blocks for pyramids and to connect towns and
temples. Routes from Thebes and Coptos on central Nile ran towards the Red Sea and from
Memphis (Cairo) towards Asia Minor. By 1500 BCE, a trading network across eastern and
central Europe called the ‘amber routes’ grew for trading various materials such as, amber
from northern Europe, salt from Austria, freestone from Belgium, lead and tin from England,
flint from Denmark,etc. and connected Hamburg, Cologne, Frankfurt to Passau and Venice. In
334 BCE, Romans championed road making building nearly 85,295 kms, radially connecting
Rome to its several provinces, with 29 great military roads (viae militares). The Appian Way
was the most famous one, constructed in 312 BCE and at a distance of almost 660km from the
capital, along the Mediterranean coast. In addition, the Romans also had two classes of public
transport – the express service and freight service. China too had an extensive road system by
the 7th century CE across 40,000km, development of which began under the Emperor
Shinhuangdiin 220BCE. In India, under the Mauryan Empire around the 4th century BCE, had
quality roads across its empire which stretched from Indus River in the Northwest to the
Bramhaputra in the East, from Himalayas in the North to the Vindhyas in the South. Their
Great Royal Road ran through Taxila or Takshashila, in modern day Afghanistan, across
Punjab and Prayagrai, until the mouth of the Ganga River. The famed ‘Silk route’, the longest
road of the time that linked the Mediterranean with China, is said to have existed partially
around 300 BCE and by 100 BCE it was pivotal to trade. However, the following centuries saw
neglect of road systems without strong dynasties and leaderships, and wasn’t until 8th century
that road revival became a priority. In 9th century that the Moors of Cordoba, Spain developed
an extensive street network. The following 11th and 12th century witnessed revival of cities and
roads, mostly in western Europe, and by 15th century, well maintained infrastructure was
ubiquitous. Meanwhile, in South America, the Inca empire (1000 – 1450 CE) extended the
‘Qhapaq Nan’ or royal road from Ecuador, Peru until Chile, with two parallel systems – one
along the coast and another along the Andes. Eventually, by 18th century, the modern masters of
road building – Treaguest, Telford, Mc Adam, Mitchell, appeared in England and France.
Road design is an exceedingly important aspect of national and regional planning, especially in
the context of urban connectivity and the population, commerce, industry and transportation
needs of the community. Estimating traffic on a route as well as conducting civil surveys to
establish the site conditions are integral to successful road system planning and design. To
design a road, three-dimensional road alignment of the cross-sectional profiles along the terrain
on which it is laid is of utmost importance. For quality and uniformity, standards and codes
are established for different types of roads. It helps with guidelines on, number of traffic lanes
as per traffic volume and speed, width of lanes, carriageways and shoulders, and specifications
on roadside barriers. Other integral elements of road system design include design of pavements
and drainage. Safety and serviceability of the roads are also critical aspects to be considered and
financing and maintenance are key determinants. Jurisdiction of the section of the road and its
onus, also plays an important role in case of any legality and taking responsibility. In India,
roads are under the aegis of Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. Some of the salient
features reported in the review 2022, note the major push in the following areas;
- Highway development
- Connectivity
- Logistics development
- Online citizens service
- Under Bharat series, regularisation of registration mark
- Retro fitment of CNG and LPG kits allowed in BS VI
- Bharat N-CAP safety rating introduced
- Compensation of victims increased
- Green fuel and vehicles
- Construction of ‘amrit sarovar’ along National Highway
- NHAI InvIT bonds enlisted on BSE and NSE, and
- Manthan conference held in Bengaluru to discuss issues in road, transport and logistics.
Railways and Metros
In earlier chapters, we have discussed the oncoming of railways. The role civil engineer is pivotal for
railway transport infrastructure, and encompasses surveying for a new line, construction and
maintenance of the line, ensuring longevity, safety and reliability of the structure. In addition,
the civil engineer also has to design bridges over rivers, station buildings and allied facilities,
such as, office rooms, parcel offices, goods sheds, restrooms, wating lounges, as well as, loco
sheds, pump houses, water and drainage lines, etc.
Railways evolved from ‘tramways’ which were originally of stone slabs, timber and baulks,
laid in flush with the road surface for horse carriages, and later, reinforced with iron straps or
plates. Further on, these were improved, and tracks were designed, having angle irons with a
vertical leg, later replaced by cast iron beams, which further evolved into rail sections on which
the locomotive’s wheels align. The wheels transfer the load of the locomotive on to the two rails
of the track, kept at specific distance, i.e., gauge, and is placed on perpendicular sleepers
equitably distanced on a bed of ballast. There are ballast-less, and continuous longitudinally-
supported tracks as well, the latter being very uneconomical. Earlier, rails were of ‘I’ or dumb-
bell sections; but this further developed into a ‘T’-section, laid inverted and popularly termed as
the ‘Flat-footed’ rails. Other rail profiles are Bullhead rail, Grooved rail, Bridge rail (inverted
U-shape) and Barlow (inverted V-shape) rails. There are two common types of gauge - Broad
gauge (1676 mm) that supports the speed of 100-160 Km/h, and Metre gauge (1000 mm)
having a maximum permitted speed of 75Km/h. Another type is Narrow gauge, such as those of
the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway or the Toy train which has achieved the UNESCO World
Heritage status. Sleepers maybe made of wood, cast iron, steel, concrete. The rails are fastened
on to the sleepers with dog spikes, and the ends are connected by fish plates or fish bolts, and
can be switched to direct the trains. Other types of fastening are - round spikes and screw
spikes, different types of bearing plates, tie bars, etc. The rail line is either placed on an
embankment, or in a cutting where a pit is dug and the centre is raised to house the track, as it
cannot be laid directly on ground. The railway track comprises of rails, sleepers, fastenings and
ballast, and may also be called ‘permanent way’.
The first steam locomotive to carry passengers, designed by engineer, George Stephenson, began
operations between Stockton and Darlington in 1825. The first railway proposal in India under
the British rule was made in 1832, and the first train transport named ‘Red hill’ plied in
1987 carrying freight of granite for road -building. India’s inaugural passenger train operated by
the Great Indian Peninsular Railway, having three steam locomotives named ‘Sahib, Sindh and
Sultan’, ran between Bori Bunder (Bombay) and Thane, for a distance of 34kms, in 1853, and
first passenger train ran between Howrah and Hoogly in West Bengal in 1854. Today, the Indian
Railways is Asia’s largest network and among the world’s largest. It is about 108,706 track Kms
and runs around 11000 trains daily, off which 7000 are passenger trains carrying around 13
million passengers every day.
In 1984, South Asia’s first subway line began operations in Kolkata after 23 years since the
commencement of underground construction. Delhi, too, had a urban rapid transit proposal back
in 1969 but the construction began in October 1998. Today, the Delhi Metro is a benchmark, not
only as the largest and busiest metro system, but also due to its state-of-the-art design and
construction. The network consists of 10 colour coded lines, covering the National Capital
region and its satellite cities of Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Noida and Gurgaon. It is a mix of broad
and standard-gauge and has underground, at-grade (at road level) and elevated sections. DMRC
(Delhi Metro Rail Corporation), a company with equity from Government of India and
Government of Delhi, under leadership of E.Sreedharan, has been certified by U.N. as the first
rail-based system in the world to get carbon credits for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
carbon emissions. Mumbai also boasts of the first of its kind, Mumbai Monorail, that was
completed in 2014 and is presently witnessing the development of the sixth longest operational
metro network in India.
Fig. 3.4 : Delhi Metro Map (source : India Tourism, 2022-23)
Tunnels : Below ground or under water
Tunnels are under ground or under water, enclosed passages constructed by digging through rock, soil
and earth, for movement of vehicles. With the massive excavation needed, the integrity of the
passage is subject to the loading and pressure of the surrounding earth and/or water,
construction of tunnels is highly specialised. There are various methods of tunnel construction
on land, such as, Cut and cover method where a trench is cut and covered by some support;,
Bored method where boring machines are used; Clay kicking method common from the time of
World War I, where clayey soil is literally kicked to create a tunnel; Shaft method is used for
reaching great depths from the ground level and pre-cast shaft structures with concrete walls are
lined and connected; Pipe jacking method where pipes are driven underground using hydraulic
jacks, usually under existing infrastructures like roads, railways, etc.; and Box jacking method
where boxes instead of pipes are driven in. For underwater tunnel construction usually calls for
immersing tubes or boring tunnels through rock.
The world’s longest road tunnel is the Lærdalstunnelen, of 24.5 Km linking Aurland and
Lærdal, and offering a ferry free connection built in 2000, followed by the Yamate tunnel in
Tokyo, Japan measuring 18.2Km built in 2015 and the Zhongnanshan in Shaanxi, China
measuring 18.04Km built in 2017. The Eisenhower Road tunnel in Colarado is one of the
world’s highest tunnels at a height of 3,401m above sea level, on the Rocky Mountains.
The world’s longest and deepest train tunnel is the Gotthard Base Tunnel in Switzerland,
running 57 Km in length and at a depth of 2300m under the Swiss Alps, significantly reduced
train travel time connecting Zurich to Milan. Previously this distinction was held by the Seikan
railway tunnel, spanning the Tsugaru strait connecting Honshu and Hokkaido, running 53 Kms
at 140m depth. Another phenomenal feat is the Channel tunnel across the English Channel
between England and France, spanning 50Km, having two rail and one service tunnel for
passenger and freight.
A piece of modern engineering is the SMART (Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel) Tunnel in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, designed keeping in mind the flash flood situation that the city faces
and operates in three ways : as a road tunnel when there is no flood, the upper level operates for
traffic while the lower channel allows water diversion when there are medium floods; and
closes for traffic but allows floodwater to flow through via a holding pond, bypass tunnels and a
storage reservoir during heavy floods.
3.2.2 Water Transport Infrastructure
Seaports
Ancient Greeks heavily relied on sea travel as land travel was difficult. Greece is a series of
archipelagos and peninsulas, surrounded by the Ionian, Mediterranean, and Aegean Sea, which
they traversed by trireme ships. Beyond travel, they instituted maritime trade and frequented the
ports of Canopus before Alexandria in Egypt and Messina in Sicily from Athens. Ostia Antica
and Portus were later set up in Rome, and Swahili kingdoms of East Africa were described to
have vibrant trade ports. Trade flourished amidst the Arabs, Greeks, Romans, Egyptians,
Africans and Chinese. The south-western coastal ports of Muziris and Calicut, or Kozhikode, in
present day Kerala, are accounted in ancient texts and is to have played a crucial role in the
spice trade. The latter gained prominence after the arrival of Vasco da Gama. The port of
Lothal, the southernmost city of the Indus civilisation, at the edge of the Arabian Sea in present
day Gujrat and is believed to be the world’s oldest dock, dating back to 2200 BCE. Another
important port in Gujrat, at the mouth of the river Narmada is Bharuch. East of the Indian
subcontinent, Chittagong in present day Bangladesh, has been found referred in Ptolemy’s map,
dating back to 2nd century. And the south-eastern ports of Tuticorin (Thoothukudi), Arikemedu
at modern day Pondicherry and Poompuhar, all in Tamil Nadu were bustling ports. In the far
east, ancient seaports were Guangzhou in China during the Qin Dynasty and Osaka in Japan
during the Edo period.
Civil engineering plays a crucial role in the design of water transportation and construction of
ports and harbours. Ports are locations where ships and vessels can dock and allow movement
of people and goods and are either on a coasts or shores, while harbours are constructed for the
safe keeping of the vessels. Other infrastructures that have nuanced variations but support sea
travel are; quay or wharf, pier, jetty , berth and dock, and all together form a network of
waterway infrastructure for overseas transportation.
Inland waterways and canals
The beginning of rails marked the demise of canals and inland waterways, which used to be the
preferred mode of transportation. All ancient civilisations settled around rivers, such as, the
Indus civilisation along Indus River, Mesopotamia between the Tigris-Euphrates, Memphis
(Egypt) along the Nile. Several prominent European capital cities, such as London, Paris and
Amsterdam all are also along rivers. Apart from being a source of water for consumption and
irrigation, riverways and inland waterways became the mode of trade and travel. Several other
cities, such as, Giethoorn in Netherlands, Birmingham in England, Burges in Belgium,
Hamburg in Germany, Stockholm in Sweden, are all traversed with network of canals with most
prominent being Venice, Italy, which has 150 canals including the Grand Canal. These were
built by lining the dugout pits by closely spaced alder wood which is waterproof, to make the
lagoon fit for habitation. While most of these canals are 1.5-2m deep, the Canale della
Giudecca that separates the main part of Venice from the island of Giudecca, is about 12-17m
deep.
Two of the most ambitious canal projects that are engineering feats are; the Suez canal, also
referred to as Qanat al Suway (length of 193Km with branches, depth of 20m and width of
205m) across the Isthumus of Suez in Egypt which connects the Guld of Suez and the
Mediterranean, thereby allowing a quicker path between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the
Panama canal (length of 82Km with branches, depth of 12m and width of 150m) which
connects the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans across the Isthumus of Panama amidst the
Caribbean. These two interventions significantly changed the time required and ease of
transport for trade, becoming pivotal contributors to economic growth.
The world’s oldest and longest man-made canal is the ‘Great Canal’ or the Beijing-
Hangzhou canal that connects the Yangtze and Yellow He rivers, across 1,782 – 2,470 Km with
branches in length and varying width between 40-350m, having a depth of 2-3m. It is adorned
with 21 gates and 60 bridges and has been recognised by UNESCO In 2014.
3.2.3 Air Transport Infrastructure
Aeroplanes, helicopters, light aircrafts, hot air balloons, blimps and gliders, drones or UASs
(unmanned aircraft systems) are all vehicles of air transport and require certain physical
infrastructure to support flight and while not in flight, such as service, maintenance and parking.
Airports are complex transportation hubs and is spatially divided into three: airside, landside
and terminal that connects the two. The civil engineer has the responsibility of structurally
designing and constructing; the airside layout comprising of runways, taxiways, parking aprons,
lighting and signages, navigational and visual aids; the landside facilities, such as parking lots,
fuel tank farms, access roads, technical buildings like control towers for ground aid, etc. and
passenger and cargo terminals.
Helicopters too have designated bases with fixed operations and services like customs, fuel
bunkering and maintenance, called heliports. It is like a small airport specifically for helicopters
and other vertical-lift vehicles. Often high-rise buildings, hospitals and other buildings or
campus of importance have helipads for landing and take-off only. This infrastructure is of
particular importance as helicopters and drones are the preferred mode of transport during
natural disasters for rescues and searches, supply as well as surveillance.
Aviation falls under critical infrastructure in India and has been a hot target for attacks, online
and offline. The regulatory body for India is the Directorate General Civil Aviation (DGCA),
empowered by the Aircraft Act 1934, implements standards and recommended practices of the
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), and later further bolstered by the Aircraft
Rules 1937, is authorised to specify requirements and compliance procedures through Civil Air
Regulations (CAR). It outlines the operations and planning of infrastructure as well. The DGCA
also regulates the airspace and in turn, monitors and supports the use and manufacture of UAS,
as well as authorises remote pilot training and certifications, to overall ensure National security.
3.2.4 Futuristic Transport Infrastructure systems
‘Smart’ transportation is the vision of the future, with driverless cars, flying taxis, delivery drones and
levitating trains being already on the horizon. Novel concepts of futuristic transportation,
impose the need for reimagining the infrastructure, such as;
Self-drive Cars or autonomous vehicles (AV), a technology that is seemingly possible in the
near future, require physical and technological framework to support and enable the operation
of autonomous vehicles. The most important element is the need for communication network
with real-time data exchange through vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) systems, such as sensors in
roads or street signs that send signals to AVs, helping them navigate city streets. There are also
alternatives like, dedicated short-range communications (DSRC) and cellular vehicle-to-
everything (C-V2X) systems. Physical infrastructure is also crucial, such as, parking facilities
equipped with autonomous parking capabilities, maintenance stations specifically designed for
self-driving cars, and a comprehensive network of charging stations as many self-driving cars
operate on electric power, to support uninterrupted operation.
Maglev, a technology where magnetic levitation actuated by two sets of opposing

electromagnets along the tracks, allows trains to travel at high speeds. Shanghai Transrapid is
the presently the world’s fastest commercial electric train and goes up to 431 Km/h. Japan
began development and construction of SCMaglev under the Central Japanese Railway
Company in 1969, and the HSST (Linimo) in 1974. A new maglev line, named the Chuo
Shinkansen started in 2014. In 2016, South Korea inaugurated the Incheon Airport Maglev.
Currently, all maglev trains are in use in Asia.
Hyperloop, “an ultra-high-speed transportation system in which passengers travel in

autonomous electric pods” futuristic transportation concept. It was first conceptualised by Elon
Musk in a white paper in 2013 for intra-city mass transit and envisioned “a tube, over or under
the ground, that contains a special environment”. It consists of low-pressure tube with capsules
that are transported at both low and high speeds throughout the length of the tube, such that the
capsules are supported on a cushion of air and are accelerated by a magnetic linear accelerator
affixed at various stations.
Fig. 3.5 : Hyperloop Alpha concept sketch (source: www.tesla.com)

Underground tunnel roads are another vision of Musk for futuristic transportation where he
conceptualises a network of underground tunnels equipped with trolley like platforms to lower
the cars from the surface and speedily transport them to their destinations, alleviating
congestion. This is much in line with the idea of autonomous vehicles, driverless cars, and
flying taxis, which are all well underway in prototyping phase.
The motivations of these proposed futuristics concepts are; reduction of congestion and greenhouse
gas emission, reduce fatalities and prioritise safety, provide access to disadvantaged and to improve
on time. ‘Quality of life’ and low environmental impact are key and in turn, requires to re-imagine the
supporting infrastructure for energy, telecom, etc.
3.3 ENERGY
Global energy infrastructure includes delivery systems of oil and natural gas pipelines, power
generation facilities and transmission lines, storage facilities, etc. Inclusive economic growth,
clean air, climate has necessitated innovations in efficiency gains, new production flows,
digitalization, smart grids, etc., requiring infrastructure to become sustainable, resilient, and
secure (International Energy Forum). Geopolitical and natural events and accidents may lead to
disruption of energy markets, and hence, policy cohesion and regional market integration
through cross-border networks are essential to meet SDG, i.e., Ensuring access to clean and
affordable energy.
“Energy generation depends on a country’s natural resource endowments and technology to

harness them” as per Government of India Budget report 2012-13. India is the world’s third
largest producer, as well as, consumer of electricity, but this is predicted to increase by 4.5%
annually to 2035. Presently, India’s energy consumption is 1010kWh per capita against a world
average of 3200kWh. Gujrat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Karnataka, and Uttar
Pradesh are the top power producing states of the country. However, the key issues are poor
transmission and distribution grids. India has both non-renewable reserves, of coal, lignite,
petroleum, and natural gas, as well as renewable energy resources of hydro, wind solar,
biomass, and cogeneration bagasse. But while the non-renewable resources are poor, India is
richly endowed with renewable resources, and several policies and initiatives are presently in
place to leverage that.
3.3.1 Renewable Sources
Renewable energy, popularly referred to as ‘clean’ energy, comes from natural sources or processes
that have a higher rate of replenishment than its consumption. Their sources are sunlight, wind,
water, geothermal and biomass. While large hydroelectricity projects and biomass levy a trade-
off on wildlife, biodiversity and climate change, other sources have very little negative impact
on the environment and in turn, generate lower emissions.
Solar technologies can also provide heating and cooling solutions, natural lighting, and fuel for
cooking. Solar power can be harnessed through mirrors and photovoltaic (PV) panels, that
concentrate the solar radiation and converts it into usable fuel or electricity. PV cells are made
of silicon and present technology has not only significantly reduced its prices, but extended its
life to up to 30 years. Solar farms are fast becoming a large initiative where PV cells are
splayed, often aided by mirrors to concentrate the sun light, and in some cases, wastelands,
water bodies and wastewater facilities are employed.
Wind energy exploits the kinetic energy of moving air by using large wind turbines situated at
on-shore or off-shore locations, as per the average wind speed of the location.
Geothermal energy is garnered through the heat extracted from the earth’s interior reservoirs
using wells and ducts. Hot fluid of varying temperature is pumped through turbines to generate
electricity, and recycling of the used water and steam ensures low emissions.
Hydropower harnesses the energy of falling water from higher to lower elevations and can be
generated from reservoirs or flowing rivers. Beyond providing electricity, these sources also
provide water for irrigation and drinking, as well as help in flood and drought control, and
navigation services. However, rate of precipitation and annual rainfall impacts the functioning
of hydropower.
Tidal and wave energy of the ocean is also a potential source of clean energy and is generated
through tidal barrages which are dam-like structures located in ocean bays and lagoons, or via
devices which are ocean floor-anchored or placed just below the wave surfaces. These
interventions may cause adverse effects on the life under water.
Bioenergy is produced from biomass which is the organic remains of various sources, such as,
wood, charcoal, dung, manures, reside from agriculture and forestry, and other organic wastes.
It is used mostly in rural areas for cooking, lighting, heating. However, in spite of its natural
origin, it has detrimental environmental impact as it produces emissions and bioenergy
plantations may lead to deforestation and land-use change, making it arguably not a ‘clean’
energy source.
India is the third largest producer of renewable energy and is rich in clean energy sources, such as,
solar, wind, and small hydro, with high potential for energy generation. India globally ranked 4th
in solar power capacity, wind power capacity and overall renewable power installed capacity as
of 2021 and ranked 6th for hydropower generation in 2019. Today, as of January 2023, India’s
installed renewable energy capacity, is at 40.9% of the total installed power capacity. Solar
(63.3 GW), hydropower (46.85 GW) and wind (41.9 GW) are the largest contributors followed
by biomass (10.2 GW), small hydro (4.92 GW) and ‘waste to energy’ (0.52 GW) as
contributors towards the renewable energy capacity.
The past year has been pivotal for development of renewable energy. The union cabinet
approved 2,614 Crore investment in the 382 MW Sunni Dam Hydroproject by SJVN (Satluj Jal
Vidyut Nigam). SVJN also signed an agreement with the Utter Pradesh government to
implement 3 solar power project and commissioned a Solar power project (75MW) at Parasan
Solar Park near Kanpur, U.P. They further signed up with Tata Power Solar systems to build a
1000MW solar project near Bikaner and announced collaboration with Govt. of Assam for
development of hydro and renewable energy projects. National Hydroelectric Power
Corporation (NHPC) and Govt. of Himachal Pradesh intend to implement a 500 MW
hydroelectricity project in Chamba District, H.P., as well as two project in Nepal. Tata Power
Green Energy Limited (TPGEL) commissioned a hybrid power project in Rajasthan and was
awarded a solar project in Solapur, Maharashtra. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC)
announced partial power generation from the floating solar energy plant in Kayamkulam,
Kerala, and Jetsar, Rajasthan. Adani Solar and Smart Power India (SPI) signed an MoU to
promote usage of solar rooftop panels in rural India. To further promote this the Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy has developed a national portal for citizens to directly apply.
Several policies and programs, such as, ‘National programme on High Efficiency Solar PV
Modules’, ‘smart metre deployment’ for National Smart Grid Mission, several electrification
schemes and issues of sovereign green bonds and conferring infrastructure status to energy
storage systems, are underway to improve India’s power sector.
Fig. 3.6 : Power Generation from Renewable Energy Sources (source: Press Information Bureau, GoI)
3.3.2 Non-renewable Sources
Non-renewable energy resources are coal, oil or petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear energy, and are
those resources that cannot be replenished easily in consideration of the rate of consumption of
the same. Fossil fuels are the largest contributors towards global greenhouse gas and CO2
emissions, and accounts for over 80% of the world’s global energy production. These fossil
fuels were formed over millions of years due to the immense heat and pressure within the
earth’s crust that converted plant and animal matter into coal, oil, and natural gas. The
radioactive elements required to generate nuclear energy, usually uranium, comes from mined
ore. However, beyond the issue of limited supply, it is the release of high amounts of CO2 that
makes non-renewables an undesired source of energy.
Over 80% of India’s requirement is met by coal, oil and biomass, and in spite of having low per
capita energy consumption, India is the 3rd largest global emitter of CO2. While the largest
domestic source of energy is coal, about 70%, the cumulative domestic fossil fuel production is
the lowest among the emerging economies. India relies on crude oil imports as it has only 0.6%
and 0.4% of the world’s gas and oil reserves respectively. Interestingly however, it is a large net
exporter of refined products, amounting to $1.1billion worth to Australia in 2016-17, and has
experienced overcapacity in thermal energy. 58.6% of this thermal energy is produced from
coal, while the other sources are lignite, diesel, and gas.
3.3.3 New sources and technologies
A promising alternative to traditional fossil fuels is Hydrogen as a new source of energy. Hydrogen
fuel cells are devices that generate electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce
water and heat as by-products, and can be powered by hydrogen produced from renewable
energy sources. They are highly efficient, with an energy conversion rate of up to 60%,
compared to around 30% for traditional internal combustion engines. They also produce zero
greenhouse gas emissions, which can help to mitigate climate change. However, there are
several challenges associated with the adoption of hydrogen fuel cells, such as, the
infrastructure required for producing, storing, and distributing hydrogen, and the development
of a sustainable and scalable hydrogen production system as the production of hydrogen is
currently reliant on fossil fuels. The cost is also a barrier to widespread adoption, although
research and development are helping to reduce costs.
Another potent technology for energy generation is nuclear fusion, which involves combining of light
atomic nuclei to form heavier ones and in the process, releasing vast amounts of potential
energy. Unlike nuclear fission, which is currently used in nuclear power plants, nuclear fusion
does not produce long-lived radioactive waste and has the potential to provide a virtually
unlimited source of clean energy. However, there are several challenges associated with
developing nuclear fusion as a practical energy source. Firstly, the high temperature and
pressure required to initiate and sustain the fusion reaction are difficult to achieve and maintain
for extended periods of time, and the magnetic fields required to contain and control the fusion
reaction are complex and difficult to engineer. Secondly, since most nuclear fusion research
focuses on using deuterium and tritium - two isotopes of hydrogen, as fuel, the development of
a sustainable fuel source is a challenge as tritium is radioactive and must be produced
artificially. This requires a supply chain that is currently not fully developed and is also
expensive. Furthermore, the development and construction of a commercial-scale fusion reactor
would require significant investment and infrastructure.
3.4 WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Water resource management is a critical to ensure sustainable and equitable access to water resources
for human and ecological needs. In recent years, the issue of water scarcity and the need for
effective water resource management has become more pressing due to factors such as
population growth, climate change, and increasing water demand from various sectors. The
World Bank defines Water Resource Management (WRM) as, “the process of planning,
developing, and managing water resources, in terms of both water quantity and quality, across
all water uses. It includes the institutions, infrastructure, incentives, and information systems
that support and guide water management.”
The main challenge in water resource management is the need to mitigate the competing
demands of various stakeholders, such as, domestic, industrial, agricultural, and environmental.
The traditional approach to water resource management has been to focus on supply-side
solutions, such as building dams and reservoirs, to increase the availability of water. However,
this approach has been criticized for its negative social and environmental impacts, as well as its
limited effectiveness in addressing water scarcity in the long term. Recent approaches
emphasize the importance of demand-side management strategies, which aim to reduce water
consumption and increase efficiency through measures, such as, water conservation, water
pricing, and water reuse, which can be effective in reducing water demand, while also providing
economic and environmental benefits. Integration of hydrological modelling and remote
sensing technologies is also being employed to improve water management decision-making, as
these tools provide valuable information on water availability and usage, as well as help to
identify areas of water stress and potential risks to water security. However, the role of
institutional and governance arrangements in water resource management is pivotal, as effective
governance structures and policies are essential for ensuring equitable access to water
resources, as well as promoting sustainable and efficient use of water. Participatory and
inclusive decision-making processes, as well as the need for greater collaboration and
coordination between different stakeholders are much needed to ensure a holistic solution.
3.4.1 Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH)
Ensuring access to water and sanitation is one of the critical SDG (goal 6) as safe water, sanitation and
hygiene (WASH) is a basic human need. However, contamination and reclaiming of natural
water bodies, overuse of ground water and hindering its replenishment, overall poor
management and low investments in water infrastructure are some of the key causes of scarce
and unsafe water, and inadequate sanitation.
WASH is a collective term that refers to a set of interventions aimed at improving access to safe
water, adequate sanitation, and proper hygiene practices, and is essential for promoting public
health, preventing the spread of disease, and reducing poverty. ‘Water’ stands for access to
clean drinking water for household and community use, as well as for agriculture, industry, and
other economic activities, ‘Sanitation’ implies access to safe and hygienic toilet facilities, as
well as the safe disposal of human waste, and ‘Hygiene’ refers to practices that promote good
health, such as handwashing with soap, safe food handling, and proper menstrual hygiene
management. WASH interventions can have significant health and social benefits, particularly
for vulnerable populations, especially, women and children. For example, access to safe water
and sanitation can reduce the incidence of waterborne diseases, such as, diarrhoea, cholera, and
typhoid fever. Improved hygiene practices can also reduce the risk of infectious diseases,
improve nutritional outcomes, and promote overall well-being. In turn, it is crucial for
achieving several other SDGs , particularly those related to health, gender equality, education
and economic growth.
Fig. 3.7 : Systemic support required for successful WASH initiatives (source : www.sdgs.un.org)
WASH implementation in India has been a major focus area for the government, NGOs, and
international organizations for many years. Some of the initiatives taken by the Indian
government to improve WASH include:
1. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign) is a nationwide campaign launched in 2014
to eliminate open defecation, improve solid waste management, and promote hygiene and
cleanliness. The campaign has been successful in increasing access to toilets and reducing
open defecation.
2. Jal Jeevan Mission, a flagship program launched in 2019 with the aim of providing tap water
connections to every rural household by 2024. The program aims to provide safe and
adequate drinking water to all households in rural areas.
3. National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDW) launched in 2009 with the aim of
providing safe and adequate drinking water to rural areas. The program focuses on creating
sustainable drinking water sources, promoting water conservation, and improving water
quality.
4. National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP) launched in 2008 with the aim of promoting
sanitation and hygiene in urban areas. The policy focuses on creating sustainable sanitation
infrastructure, promoting behaviour change, and improving waste management.
3.4.2 Strategies for water provisioning and management
Water provisioning and management are undertaken through a combination of policies, regulations,
and practices that aim to ensure the sustainable use and distribution of water resources.
Some of the key strategies employed are as follows:
1. Water conservation and efficiency measures: These include promoting water-efficient

technologies and practices, such as low-flow fixtures, drought-resistant landscaping, and
water reuse.
2. Water pricing and incentives: Pricing mechanisms and incentives can help to encourage
more sustainable water use and conservation practices.
3. Investments in water infrastructure: Investment in water infrastructure such as dams,
reservoirs, and treatment plants can improve access to water and sanitation services.
4. Integrated water resources management: This approach aims to manage water resources in a
holistic and integrated manner, taking into account the needs of all stakeholders and balancing
social, economic, and environmental considerations.
5. Water governance and institutional arrangements: Effective water governance and
institutional arrangements are critical for ensuring the equitable distribution and sustainable
management of water resources.
6. International cooperation: Global collaboration is critical for addressing transboundary
water issues and promoting sustainable water management practices worldwide.
3.5 TELECOMMUNICATION
Telecommunication is defined as the transmission of information – voice, data and multimedia, over
electronic media across large distances. It uses various types of transmission technologies, such
as, over wire, electromagnetic, radio and optical, and requires infrastructure for radio and
television broadcasting, wired and wireless devices, fibre optic cables, satellites, and networks
etc. Telecommunication infrastructure is a key driver of economic development, enabling
access to information, markets, and resources that can help to spur innovation and growth. The
importance of telecommunication infrastructure can be seen in several domains, such as :
1. Business and commerce: Telecommunication infrastructure is essential for conducting

business and commerce across distances, facilitating transactions, and enabling access to
markets and customers around the world.
2. Education and research: Telecommunication infrastructure is increasingly important in
education and research, enabling distance learning, remote collaboration, and access to online
resources.
3. Public safety and emergency response: Telecommunication infrastructure is critical for
public safety and emergency response, enabling communication between emergency
responders and the public during times of crisis.
4. Social connectivity and cultural exchange: Telecommunication infrastructure provides a
means for people to connect with each other, regardless of their location, enabling social
connectivity and cultural exchange.
3.5.1 Telecom infrastructure
Telecommunication infrastructure refers to the physical networks, equipment, and facilities used to
transmit voice, data, and multimedia communication over long distances. There are several
types of telecommunication infrastructure, broadly for wired and wireless communication.
Wired networks use physical cables, such as copper or fibre optic cables, to transmit data over
long distances, as in, traditional landline telephone networks, cable television networks, and
high-speed internet networks. Whereas Wireless networks use radio waves to transmit data over
the air, without the need for physical cables, such as, cellular networks, satellite networks, and
Wi-Fi networks.
However, both require physical facilities and equipment, such as;
● Telecom towers or cell towers are structures used to facilitate wireless communication
between mobile devices and the telecommunications network. These towers are typically
tall structures, ranging from 30 meters to over 100 meters in height, and are equipped
with antennas, transmitters, and receivers that enable wireless communication. They are
typically located in urban and rural areas, along highways and major roads, and in remote
areas where coverage is limited, and maybe freestanding or mounted on existing
structures, such as buildings or utility poles. They can also be designed to accommodate
multiple carriers, allowing different providers to share the same tower and reduce costs.
However, the concern of exposure to electromagnetic radiation and its impact on human
health is much debated.
● Cables can be installed over ground, underground or under seas. Overground cables are
typically strung between poles, buildings, or other structures, and are commonly used in
urban and suburban areas, where the cost and complexity of underground installation can
be prohibitive. Overground cables are typically made of copper or fibre optic materials,
and are designed to withstand weather and environmental conditions. Underground
cables are buried beneath the ground either direct-buried or installed in conduits or ducts,
and are commonly used in urban areas. While these are more expensive and difficult to
install, underground cables are more reliable and secure, however other activities such as
road construction or excavations and servicing sewers, etc can lead to damaging of
underground cables. Undersea cables are physical cables laid on the ocean floor to
connect different continents and regions, in line with underground but the environmental
conditions and installation is extremely challenging.
● Other Transmission equipment and devices, i.e., the equipment used to transmit and
receive signals, such as, antennas, modems, routers, and switches.
● Internet exchange points (IXPs) are physical locations where different internet service
providers (ISPs) connect their networks to exchange data. IXPs are essential for enabling
the flow of data across different networks and supporting the growth of the internet.
● Data centers are facilities used to store, manage, and process large amounts of data,
particularly in the areas of cloud computing and internet-based services.
3.5.2 Present and future Challenges in Telecom
Telecommunication infrastructure faces a range of challenges that can impact its effectiveness and ability
to support modern communication needs, some of which are as follows:
1. Access and Connectivity gaps: Despite significant progress in expanding telecommunication

infrastructure, there are still areas around the world that lack access to reliable and high-speed
internet connectivity, particularly in rural and remote areas. Addressing these gaps in
connectivity requires significant investment and infrastructure development.
2. Cybersecurity threats: Telecommunication infrastructure is vulnerable to a range of
cybersecurity threats, including hacking, data breaches, and cyber-attacks. Ensuring the
security of telecommunication networks and devices is critical to protecting sensitive
information and maintaining public safety.
3. Cost and affordability: Telecommunication infrastructure can be expensive to build and
maintain, which can impact its availability and affordability, particularly in developing
countries. Ensuring that telecommunication services are accessible and affordable to all is
essential for supporting economic development and social connectivity.
4. Regulation and policy: Telecommunication infrastructure is subject to a range of regulatory
and policy frameworks that can impact its development and implementation. Ensuring that
policies and regulations support the growth and effectiveness of telecommunication
infrastructure can be challenging, particularly in rapidly changing technology environments.
5. Integrating Emerging technologies: The telecommunication industry is constantly evolving,
with new technologies and integrating these emerging technologies into existing infrastructure
can be challenging, requiring significant investment and expertise.
The India Story
India is the second-largest telecommunications market globally, with a consistently growing

subscriber base and broadband subscriptions. As of December 2022, the tele-density reached
84.56%, while broadband subscriptions reached 832.2 million. The total subscriber base stood
at 1170.38 million. In the first quarter of FY23, the telecom sector's gross revenue was Rs.
76,408 Crores, i.e., US$ 9.3 billion (IBEF).
In June-September 2022, the total number of internet subscribers reached 850.95 million, with
the wireless segment contributing 95.4% of the total telephone subscriptions. Among the
different data technologies, 2G accounted for 0.16%, 3G for 1.02%, and 4G for 98.81% of the
total wireless data usage. The rise in mobile-phone penetration and declining data costs are
expected to bring 500 million new internet users to India in the next five years, creating
opportunities for new businesses. Government initiatives such as the BharatNet Project Scheme,
Telecom Development Plan, Aspirational District Scheme, and Comprehensive Telecom
Development Plan (CTDP) in the North-Eastern Region have led to a significant growth of
200% in rural internet subscriptions from 2015 to 2021. The integration of payments on unified
payments interface (UPI) enabled higher and easier usage. Department of Telecommunication
(DoT) launched ‘Tarang Sanchar’ - a web portal sharing information on mobile towers and
EMF Emission Compliances.
In the past four years, there has been over 75% increase in internet coverage, from 251 million users
to 446 million, and it is estimated that by 2025, India will require approximately 22 million
skilled workers in 5G-centric technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial
Intelligence (AI), robotics, and cloud computing.
Fig. 3.8: National Infrastructure Pipeline, 2022-25, Sector-wise Fund allocation in % (source : DoEA, MoF, 2019)
3.6 INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT STANDARDS & CODES
The World Standards cooperation (WSC), a collaboration between; International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), sets the global framework for standards for many sectors
including infrastructure and forms the backbone for the national standards in India. In the recent
Global Quality Infrastructure Index (GQII) 2021, which ranks 184 economies in the world on
the basis of the quality infrastructure (QI), India’s national accreditation system under the
Quality Council of India (QCI) has ranked 5th in the world, and our overall QI system ranked at
the 10th position, with the standardization system (under BIS) at 9th and the metrology system
(under NPL-CSIR) at 21st position in the world. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), a
statutory body established through legislation through The Bureau of Indian Standards Act
1986, adopts from ISO and IEC standards while the Ministry of Communication and
Information Technology have ITU membership. The other standards making bodies of India,
apart from BIS are; Telecom Engineering Centre (TEC), Telecommunications Standards
Development Society of India (TSDSI), Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI),
and Research Designs and Standards organization (RDSO).
In India, the roles and responsibilities for development of infrastructure is defined by the
Constitution of India. While the centre is responsible for the critical national-level
infrastructures, such as, National highways, Railways, Major ports, Airports and Telecom, the
State together with the Municipality and Panchayats are responsible for regulating building
construction, water management and supply, urban town planning, other roads and bridges,
rural housing and rural electricity. To aid in Public-Private Partnership to see through
infrastructural development, in 2007 the Centre set up the India Infrastructure Project
Development Fund (IIPDF) Scheme aimed at creating appropriate mechanisms, guidelines,
advisories, and funding support.
3.6.1 International and National Codes for Civil Engineering and Construction
There are a large number of Indian Standard (IS) codes that support the practice of civil
engineering and architecture for safe and durable infrastructure construction. These offer
guidelines, specifications, and safety prerequisites for construction materials, design
parameters, testing techniques, and construction practices, and serve as a reference to guarantee
consistency, safety, and excellence in civil engineering projects throughout the country.
Civil engineers refer to these codes for design and analysis of structures, as well as for
specifications, methods and code of practice, for e.g., IS : 456; 10262; Sp 23 provides ‘codes
for designing concrete mixes’, while IS : 2386 provides ‘methods for tests for aggregate for
concrete’ and IS : 4925 provides ‘specifications for concrete batching plant’. Dedicated list of
standards is available for materials and elements, such as, Cement & Concrete, which in turn
has codes on cement (IS 269, IS 8041, IS 650), coarse / fine Aggregate (IS 383, IS 2386),
Masonry Mortar, Cement Concrete, Curing Compound, etc. Other codes cover Lime and
Gypsum, and Doors, Windows and Shutters.
Nationally recognised, some of the IS codes on civil engineering are;

Internationally recognised, the ISO ICS 93 codes are on civil engineering, and covers information on
the following;
ISO Code No. Description

Civil engineering in general
93.010
Construction drawings, see 01.100.30
Earthworks. Excavations. Foundation construction. Underground works
93.020 Including geotechnics.
Earth-moving machinery, see 53.100
External water conveyance systems
Including buried and above ground installations
93.025
Pipelines and its parts for external water conveyance systems, see 23.040.03
Internal water supply systems, see 91.140.60
External sewage systems
Sewage water disposal and treatment, see 13.060.30
93.030
Pipelines and its parts for external sewage systems, see 23.040.05
Internal drainage systems, see 91.140.80
93.040 Bridge construction
93.060 Tunnel construction
93.080 Road engineering
Construction of railways
Including the construction of tramways, funicular railways, cableways, rail
93.100 traffic control equipment and installations, etc.
Rails and railway components, including track, see 45.080
Equipment for railway/cableway construction and maintenance, see 45.120
Construction of ropeways
93.110 Ropeway equipment, see 45.100
Equipment for ropeway construction and maintenance, see 45.120
Construction of airports
93.120
Including air transport control equipment and installations
Construction of waterways, ports and dykes

93.140 Including river embankments, water transport control equipment and
installations, etc.
Hydraulic construction
93.160
Hydraulic energy equipment, see 27.140
In addition, the National Building Code (NBC), discussed in detail in Unit 5, a model code for
adoption of across the nation and contains administrative regulations, development control rules
and general building requirements; fire safety requirements; stipulations regarding materials,
structural design and construction (including safety); construction management practices and
safety, building and plumbing services; approach to sustainability; and asset and facility
management is referred to during design and detailing construction working drawings .
Eventually the quality of design and execution is the onus of the Civil engineer and Architect.
Thus, to aid in other complimentary areas, Niti Ayog has compiled the ‘Indian Infrastructure Body
of Knowledge – A technical Baseline to the Practice of Program and Project Management in India’
under the National Program and Project Management Policy Framework with the intention of “laying
down a plan of action and advocating short-term and long-term strategies for improving Program and
Project Management practices in India, as well as align with the global best practices” (CEO, Niti
Ayog)
3.7 INNOVATIONS AND METHODOLOGIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainable Infrastructure, be it built, natural or hybrid, are systems that are “planned, designed,
constructed, operated and decommissioned in a manner that ensures economic and financial,
social, environmental, including climate resilience, and institutional sustainability over the
entire infrastructure life cycle” (UNEP). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) estimates that an annual investment of USD 6.9 trillion is needed for
infrastructure to meet development goals and create a low carbon, climate resilient future by
2050. OECD’s Strategic Policies for Sustainable Infrastructure identifies various themes that
require attention, such as, Low-carbon transition, Technology and Innovation, Inclusiveness and
Accessibility, etc.
Presently the OECD is developing a toolkit on quality infrastructure investment for

policymakers and practitioners, based on the G20 Principles for Quality Infrastructure
Investment (QII), developed under the Japanese G20 Presidency, that stated, “quality
infrastructure investment contributes to maximizing the positive impact of infrastructure to
achieve sustainable growth and development, raising economic efficiency in view of life cycle
costs, integrating environmental and social considerations in infrastructure, building resilience
against natural disasters, and strengthening infrastructure governance.”
The UN Environment Assembly (UNEA) Members States in March 2023 adopted a resolution on
‘Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructure’ encouraging them to;
● provide opportunities for engaging relevant stakeholders,

● promote investment in sustainable and resilient infrastructure, natural infrastructure and
nature-based solutions,
● cooperate internationally to strengthen frameworks, including for financing, and
● implement the ‘International Good Practice Principles for Sustainable Infrastructure’,

which in turn has the following guiding principles ;
1. Strategic Planning
2. Responsive, Resilient, And Flexible Service Provision
3. Comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment of Sustainability
4. Avoiding Environmental Impacts and Investing In Nature
5. Resource Efficiency and Circularity
6. Equity, Inclusiveness, And Empowerment
7. Enhancing Economic Benefits
8. Fiscal Sustainability and Innovative Financing
9. Transparent, Inclusive, And Participatory Decision-Making
10. Evidence-Based Decision-Making
There are several innovations and methodologies that can be employed to ensure the sustainability of
infrastructure development, such as :
1. Green infrastructure is a concept of incorporating the importance of Environment and

considering the impact of decisions on it while developing infrastructure strategies. It
involves the use of natural systems and materials to provide sustainable solutions, for e.g.,
green roofs, permeable pavements, and rain gardens, which can help to reduce stormwater
runoff and mitigate the urban heat island effect.
2. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a process that promotes the
“coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to
maximise economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the
sustainability of vital ecosystems” (UNEP).
3. Circular Economy or circularity is an economic model of production and consumption that
seeks to eliminate waste and promote the sustainable use of resources. In the context of
infrastructure development, it can be used to design infrastructure projects that prioritize the
use of renewable materials, reduce waste, and promote the reuse and recycling of materials.
4. Tool and methods for reducing Environmental Impact, such as, Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) is a methodology used “to identify the environmental, social and economic
impacts of a project prior to decision-making, Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool used to
“evaluate the environmental impact of infrastructure projects throughout their entire life
cycle, from raw material extraction to disposal”, and Building Information Modelling (BIM)
is a digital modelling technology that enables the creation of detailed 3D models of
infrastructure projects, to help improve project efficiency, reduce waste, and optimize the use
of materials and resources.
Infrastructure design and development is crucial for a Nation’s growth and civil engineers play
the most pivotal role in ensuring quality, safety, innovation, and sustainability of the same,
bearing great societal and global impact.
UNIT SUMMARY
This unit focusses on present and future projection of various facets of Infrastructure development by
discussing concepts such as ‘Smart City’ and further delves into understanding critical infrastructure,
such as, Transportation, Energy, Water resources management and Telecommunication. It also offers
an overview on the Standards and Codes relevant for infrastructure and construction industry, and
culminates with a discussion on present day initiatives, innovations and methodologies employed in
this sector to ensure sustainability.
EXERCISES
Q. 3.1 Which of the following are ‘critical infrastructure’ as per India ?

(a) Disaster Management
(b) Aviation
(c) Cyber security
(d) all of the above
Q. 3.2 What is the population of a ‘Megacity’ ?

(a) 1 to 5 million
(b) over 10 million
(c) less than 10 million
(d) 1 million
Q. 3.3 Which ancient Indian University town, now in present day Afghanistan, was connected to
Prayagraj by the Great Road built by Mauryan Empire?
(a) Bhagalpur
(b) Gandhar
(c) Takshashila
(d) Benaras
Q. 3.4 What is the world’s longest road tunnel?

(a) the Lærdalstunnelen
(b) Channel Tunnel
(c) Yamate Tunnel
(d) Gotthard Base Tunnel
Q. 3.5 Which of the following renewable energy source may be argued to not be a ‘clean
energy’ source?
(a) Solar
(b) Biomass
(c) Geothermal
(d) Wind
Answers of Multiple Choice Questions: 3.1 (d) , 3.2 (b) , 3.3 (c), 3.4 (a), 3.5 (b
Q. 3.6 What is a ‘Smart City’? Briefly explains the characteristics of a Smart City.
Q. 3.7 What are some of the potential new sources of energy? What are the associated
challenges and impacts?
Q. 3.8 Define WASH? What are the various initiatives by Govt. of India to promote WASH?
Q. 3.9 What are the various types of physical facilities and equipment required as part of
Telecommunication infrastructure? Discuss the challenges that impact Telecommunication
infrastructure?
Q. 3.10 What is the importance of Infrastructure development standards and codes?
Illustrate with examples how this supports the profession of civil engineering.
KNOW MORE
About Futuristic Cities
https://www.dezeen.com/2022/08/01/futuristic-cities-planned-architecture-masterplanning-urban-design/#
About Top 15 navigable canals
https://marine-digital.com/article_top_15_canals
About Hyperloop concept
https://www.tesla.com/sites/default/files/blog_images/hyperloop-alpha.pdf
About standards
https://sesei.eu/indian-standardization/national-standardization-bodies/
Civil Engineering Codes
http://www.civilology.com/is-codes-list-in-civil-engineering/
InBoK , Niti Ayog
https://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2020-11/The-Indian-Infrastructure-Body-of-Knowledge-Rev-C.pdf
India Infrastructure Project Development Fund
https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Guideline_Scheme_IIPDF.pdf
International Good practice Principles for Sustainable Infrastructure
https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/39811/infrastructure_practices2.pdf?sequence
=1&isAllowed=y
● [Book] Airport system development. (1984). United States: DIANE Publishing.

● Aschauer, D. A. (1990). Why is infrastructure. Industry Week, 21-50.
● Bordoloi, T., and Acharya, S. (2023). A systematic literature review on Sustainable Smart City
Planning to strategize design for North-east India. In Proceedings of International Conference
on Research into Design. Springer, Singapore.
● Li, D., Ma, J., Cheng, T., van Genderen, J. L., & Shao, Z. (2018). Challenges and
opportunities for the development of MEGACITIES. International Journal of Digital Earth.
● Prud'homme, R. (2004). Infrastructure and development (pp. 3-5). Washington, DC: World Bank.
● Sapatnekar,S., Patnaik,I., and Kishore,K. (2018) Regulating Infrastructure Development in
India, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, Working Paper No. 230. <
https://macrofinance.nipfp.org.in/PDF/PatnaikSapatnekarKishore-
regulating_infrastructure_development_in_india.pdf >
● Wenzel, F., Bendimerad, F., & Sinha, R. (2007). Megacities–megarisks. Natural Hazards, 42,
481- 491.
Web sources
● https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/an-introduction-to-habitats
● https://habitat3.org/documents-and-archive/new-urban-agenda/
● https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_world
s_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdf
● https://www.ibef.org/government-schemes/smart-cities-mission
● https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1888480
● https://irtpms.in/site/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/civil-engg.pdf
● https://www.ief.org/programs/infrastructure https://digitalsky.dgca.gov.in/home
● https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/what-is-renewable-energy
UNIT SPECIFICS
● Environment, Global Warming and Climate Change

o Global warming phenomena and GHG emissions,
o Pollution Mitigation – Measures and Approaches,
o Non-stationarity
● Environmental Metrics and Monitoring
o Environmental Monitoring
o Global Climate Indicators and Essential Climate Variable (ECV)
o Environmental Performance Index Indicators
o Other Sustainability measures
● Innovations and methodologies for ensuring Sustainability
o Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
o Life cycle Assessment (LCA)
o Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)
practice.
RATIONALE
This foundational unit on environment and the impact associated with it, offers understanding of
the various views on the state of the environment at present; and provides knowledge on
mitigation strategies and policies, metrices and indicators, and most importantly, methodologies
and tools that are applied to assess environmental impact, to empower the civil engineer in
practice.
UNIT OUTCOMES
U4-O1: Understanding of Global warming phenomena, Climate

change and Pollution Mitigation
U4-O2: Knowledge of Environmental Monitoring & Metrics
U4-O3: Knowledge on innovations and methodologies for

ensuring Environmental Sustainability

Unit-4
U4-O1 2 2 3 1 2 3 2
U4-O2 3 3 3 1 3 3 2
U4-O3 3 3 3 1 3 3 2
MA
Unit 4 – Environment
“A clean, healthy and sustainable environment is a human right” – was

adopted as a landmark resolution by The United Nations Human Rights Council in October
2021. India’s Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, Section 2, defines Environment as follows;
“environment includes water, air and land and the inter-relationship which exists among and
between water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism
and property”. This Act was instituted by the Govt. of India following the nation’s participation
in the UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm in June 1972, to prioritise the
protection and improvement of environment, and prevent hazards to human beings, other living
creatures, plants and property. Climate change and Global warming are commonly used today,
almost interchangeably, to imply hazardous impacts on all life and argue the need for
Environmental consideration and sustainable consumption.
4.1 ENVIRONMENT, GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE
The term ‘global warming’ refers to the long-term heating of the Earth’s surface observed since the
beginning of the Industrial Era due to ‘greenhouse effect’ caused by human activities, primarily
attributed to burning of fossil fuels and industrial processes, and deforestation which leads to
significant greenhouse gas emissions. This term should not be used interchangeably with
Climate change, as the latter refers to the long-term change in the average weather patterns –
temperature, precipitation, wind and tidal patterns, and is not limited to the adverse effects of
human activities alone. Natural causes such as, volcanic activity, cyclical ocean patterns, orbital
changes, may also contribute to climate change. Climate change has far-reaching consequences
beyond temperature increase, as it affects ecosystems, agriculture, water availability, human
health, and socio-economic systems. Key indicators of Climate change are; frequency and
severity changes in extreme weather such as hurricanes, heatwaves, wildfires, droughts, floods,
and precipitation; ice loss at Earth’s poles and in mountain glaciers; rising sea levels; cloud and
vegetation cover changes, as well as the global land and ocean temperature increases. It maybe
oversimplified to state that global warming leads to climate change.
4.1.1 Global warming phenomena and GHG emissions
The phenomenon of global warming occurs when greenhouse gases or GHG, such as, carbon-dioxide
(CO2), chlorofluorocarbons, water vapour, methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), which are
heat-trapping pollutants create a layer in the Earth’s atmosphere which disallows the solar
radiation emitted by the earth’s surface to escape and instead absorbs the heat, thereby
increasing the surface temperature. This greenhouse effect is a natural process that is essential
for maintaining Earth's habitable temperature. However, human activities, especially the
burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), deforestation, and industrial processes, have
significantly increased greenhouse gas emissions over the past century. The burning of fossil
fuels for electricity generation, transportation, and industrial processes is the primary source of
CO2 emissions. Agricultural practices, such as livestock production and rice cultivation,
contribute to CH4 and N2O emissions. As the concentration of greenhouse gases increases, more
heat is trapped within the Earth's atmosphere, causing a rise in average global temperatures, in
turn, leading to the melting of polar ice caps and rising sea-level. Increased CO2 absorption by
the oceans can lead to ocean acidification, which have detrimental effects on marine life,
including coral reefs and shell-forming organisms. The changing temperatures can intensify
extreme weather events, such as, hurricanes, heatwaves, droughts, and alter precipitation, which
disrupts the ecosystem and affects plant and animal species' distribution and migration patterns.
Fig. 4.1: Global GHG Emissions, 2019, by Country and Sector (source:www.climatewatchdata.org)
The biggest GHG emitting nations are China, USA, Russia, and India. The top 10 emitters
(country-wise) account for over two-thirds of annual GHG emissions, together accounting for
over 50% of the global population and 75% of the world’s GDP. GHG emissions are usually
measured in CO2 equivalent, as CO2 alone accounts to almost 76-78% of global GHG
emissions, however the jury is still out on the strength of CO2 to cause warming and its factual
effects directly on global temperature rise, as a certain amount is essential in the atmosphere to
support all life on this planet, as it is an important nutrient for trees, plants and crops. Other
gases need to be converted to this unified unit by multiplying its emission to its Global
Warming Potential (GWP), which is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a
gas will absorb over a given period of time, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide
(CO2). GWP acknowledges the fact that many gases are more impactful at warming Earth than
CO2, per unit mass.
The UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) forewarns that to limit global warming
to 1.5°C, GHG emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43% by 2030, as they
indicate that crossing the 1.5°C threshold risks unleashing severe climate change impacts,
including more frequent and severe droughts, heatwaves and rainfall. A landmark, multilateral
climate change process – the Paris Agreement, binds 196 parties (nations) together to combat
climate change and adapt to its effects, was adopted at the UN Climate Change Conference
(COP21) in December 2015. Each Party has set 2030 targets in their Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) to align with the Paris Agreement temperature goal and has formulated
‘long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies’ (LT-LEDS) that provides
long-term horizon to the NDCs. Under an ‘enhanced transparency framework’ (ETF), due to
start in 2024, countries will be able to report transparently on actions taken and progress in
climate change mitigation, adaptation measures and support provided or received, and feed the
information into the Global stocktake which will assess the collective progress towards the
long-term climate goals. Presently, this is undertaken by various organisations, such as, US
Environment Protection Agency, European Environment Agency, International Energy Agency,
or World Data Lab, who launched the World Emissions Clock at COP27.
The EPA tracks the total emissions in the United States by publishing the Inventory of U.S.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, and their 2021 report notes that the primary sources of
GHG emissions by economic sector are ; Transportation (28%), Power/electricity generation
(25%), Industry (23%), Commercial and Residential (13%), Agriculture (10%) and Land use
and Forestry (12%). Globally, Power and Energy sector is the largest contributor towards GHG
emissions, and transportation and buildings have the major most activities that include both
direct emissions from fossil fuel combustion, as well as indirect emissions such as use of
electricity. The three sectors that stand out as the fastest-growing sources of GHG emissions
since 1990 are - Industrial processes (grew by 203%); Electricity and heating, a subsector of
energy (by 84%); and Transportation, also a subsector of energy (by 78%) as noted by EPA
(Climate watch, 2021).
4.1.2 Pollution Mitigation
Mitigating global warming requires collective efforts and a comprehensive approach involving various
sectors and stakeholders, by leveraging and building on existing mitigation measures and by
incorporating sustainable approaches to ensure long-term resolution.
Emission and Pollution Mitigation Measures
Some key strategies for mitigating GHG emissions and pollution are as follows:
1. Transitioning to Renewable Energy: Renewable sources, such as, solar, wind, hydro, and
geothermal power from fossil fuels reduces greenhouse gas emissions associated with
electricity generation and decreases reliance on carbon-intensive energy sources. Another
potential source for generating electricity is from nuclear energy rather than the combustion
of fossil fuels.
2. Energy Efficiency: Largely, it can be achieved by; “increasing the efficiency of existing fossil
fuel-fired power plants by using advanced technologies, substituting less carbon- intensive
fuels, and shifting generation from higher-emitting to lower-emitting power plants” and by
“reducing electricity use and peak demand by increasing energy efficiency and conservation
in homes, businesses, and industry.” (Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, chapter 6, 2021).
Improving energy efficiency in transportation, buildings, and industrial processes can
significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This can be achieved through measures, like;
switching to alternate fuels like biofuels, hydrogen, and electricity from renewable sources, or
fossil fuels that are less CO2-intensive; improving fuel efficiency and employing operating
practices that minimize fuel use across all sectors. Encouraging the use of active
transportation modes, like, walking and cycling, alongside improving public transportation
systems and promoting it, reducing travel demand, especially office commute, through policy
and urban planning to address long daily commutes will help reduce emissions from the
transportation sector. In the building and allied services sectors, measure such as, improving
insulation and building envelope design; incorporating efficiency strategies in heating,
cooling, ventilation, and refrigeration systems; using LED lighting and passive heating and
lighting to take advantage of natural sunlight; using energy-efficient appliances and
electronics; incorporating energy efficiency practices into water and wastewater plants, solid
waste management, and urban processes, etc. have great potential to curb emissions.
3. Forest Conservation and Reforestation: Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 from the
atmosphere, therefore, protecting existing forests, preventing deforestation, and implementing
reforestation and afforestation projects can help sequester carbon and mitigate global
warming. Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) where CO2 is captured as a by-product of
fossil fuel combustion, before it enters the atmosphere, and transporting to inject it deep
underground at carefully selected and suitable subsurface geologic formation to be securely
stored is also a potent mitigation strategy.
4. Sustainable Agriculture and Land Use: Implementing sustainable agricultural practices that
reduce emissions from farming activities by emulating natural processes, promoting
agroforestry, and minimizing land-use change and deforestation in favour of carbon-rich

ecosystems can contribute to global warming mitigation. “It uses up to 56 per cent less energy
per unit of crops produced, creates 64 per cent fewer greenhouse gas emissions per hectare
and supports greater levels of biodiversity than conventional farming.” (UNEP, Trade and
Environment Briefings: Sustainable Agriculture, 2012).
Circular Economy Approach to mitigate
The EPA endorses the “Circular economy for all” approach (Circular Economy systems
diagram, 2019, Ellen MacArthur Foundation) to reduce waste and hazardous materials, and
reuse critical minerals in manufacturing, as natural resource extraction and processing
contributes to about half of all global GHG emissions (United Nations’ International Resource
Panel). The UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) elaborates that circular
economy is an economy where, “all forms of waste, such as clothes, scrap metal and obsolete
electronics, are returned to the economy or used more efficiently” and “entails markets that give
incentives to reusing products, rather than scrapping them and then extracting new resources”.
Fig. 4.2: Circular Economy, UNCTAD

The policies and strategies developed in line with this approach for mitigating global warming are :
1. Waste management and Industrial Best Practices: Emphasizing the principles of 4R

synonymous to the concept of circular economy, i.e., reduce, reuse, recycle and
remanufacture, can help reduce emissions associated with, raw material extraction through
conservation, across the entire life of the product from production till disposal. Encouraging
industries to adopt cleaner production techniques, such as using less toxic materials,
implementing energy-efficient processes, and optimizing resource usage, can help reduce
pollution emissions and minimize environmental impacts.
2. Sustainable consumption and production: Individuals can contribute to global warming
mitigation by making sustainable choices in their daily lives, which includes conserving
energy, reducing food waste, supporting eco-friendly products, and advocating for sustainable
practices. SDG 12 is about ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns, as
present unsustainable behaviour is the root cause of pollution, biodiversity loss and climate
change. This is also key to sustain the livelihoods of current and future generations. The UN
further adds that “Governments and all citizens should work together to improve resource
efficiency, reduce waste and pollution, and shape a new circular economy.” Moreover, raising
awareness about pollution-related issues, educating the public on the importance of pollution
prevention, and promoting environmentally friendly behaviours can lead to positive changes
in individual and collective actions. “Around 90 per cent of countries report that education
for sustainable development and global citizenship education are at least partially
mainstreamed in national education laws and policies, curricula, teacher education or
student assessments in primary and secondary school.” (SDG Report 2022). The UNCTAD is
also working on research into ‘incorporating sustainability into consumer protection policy
aims to make a contribution to the UNCTAD RPP Research and Policy Analysis Area: The
role of competition law and policy and consumer protection in economic and social
development and poverty reduction, and more specifically the Sub-Element: The role of
consumer protection in social development and poverty reduction.’ The UN also organizes
the Climate Action Summit, a high-level event that brings together global leaders, businesses,
and civil society to enhance climate ambition and accelerate action, and has UN
Environment's vision for Environmental Education & Training for Sustainable Development
(EETSD).
3. International Cooperation, Environmental Rights and Rule of Law: Governments play a
crucial role in implementing and enforcing environmental regulations and policies that set
pollution control standards and promote sustainable practices, which may include emission
limits, waste disposal guidelines, pollution prevention requirements, and ensuring
environmental justice. International agreements, such as the Paris Agreement for climate
change mitigation, facilitate collaboration among nations to address pollution issues on a
larger scale, supported by bodies of UN such as the UN Environment Program (UNEP).
The core objectives of the UNEP are to serve as an authoritative advocate for the global
environment, to support governments in setting the global environmental agenda, and to
promote the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable
development within the UN system, at the global and regional levels. One such means is to
promote and support development and implementation of international environmental law. In
2013, UNEP’s Governing Body adopted Decision 27/9, on Advancing Justice, Governance
and Law for Environmental Sustainability, to establish the term ‘Environmental rule of
law’. The Environmental rule of law is defined as “the rule of law as a principle of
governance in which all persons, institutions and entities, public and private, including the
State itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and
independently adjudicated, and which are consistent with international human rights norms
and standards.” (Report on the Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and
Post-Conflict Societies). International environmental law is “a branch of public international
law - a body of law created by States for States to govern problems that arise between States.
It is concerned with the attempt to control pollution and the depletion of natural resources
within a framework of sustainable development.” (UNEP, 2017).
The UNEP also hosts the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN), the
implementation arm of the Technology Mechanism of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change. The Centre promotes “the accelerated transfer of
environmentally sound technologies for low carbon and climate resilient development at the
request of developing countries. The CTC provides technology solutions, capacity building
and advice on policy, legal and regulatory frameworks tailored to the needs of individual
countries by harnessing the expertise of a global network of technology companies and
institutions”. Addressing global warming requires international cooperation and the
implementation of effective policies at the national and international levels. This includes
setting ambitious emission reduction targets, implementing carbon pricing mechanisms, and
fostering collaborations to support technology transfer and capacity building in developing
countries.
4.1.3 Non-stationarity
Statistical analysis of the difference between mean CO2 concentration (ppm) in the 1980s and mean
CO2 concentration in the 2000s, captured by Mauna Loa, Hawaii, which has the longest
continuous record of direct atmospheric CO2 measurements, showed that there has been a
significant change in mean maximum temperature from decade to decade, mean maximum
temperature from decade to decade for spring, mean maximum temperature from season to
season, and further established that there is statistical evidence to claim that climate variables
are changing over time (causeweb.org). The climate system is constantly changing across time,
and these changes are usually associated with the temporal (time related) variation of the
statistical properties of climatic variables, such as temperature, precipitation, wind speed,
relative humidity, volcanic activity, seasonal change, and solar radiation levels. Thus,
statistically it poses non-stationarity, i.e., the status of a time series whose statistical properties
are changing through time, and is opposite of a stationary time series which has statistical
properties or moments (e.g., mean and variance) that do not vary in time. Beuno de Mesquita, et
al. (2020) define non-stationarity as “a change in the relationship, either in direction or
magnitude (from a significant relationship to no relationship and vice versa) between variables
over time”. They further add that “such non-stationarity is often combined with the additional
hurdle of needing multivariate statistics” as the changes in climate have become exceedingly
erratic such that previous thought to be coupled climatic characteristics, such as, temperature
and drought, are no longer behaving in tandem but now need to be considered as potentially
independent.
4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING & METRICS
Environmental impact is succinctly described as “changes in the natural or built environment,

resulting directly from an activity, that can have adverse effects on the air, land, water, fish, and
wildlife or the inhabitants of the ecosystem. Pollution, contamination, or destruction that occurs
as a consequence of an action, that can have short-term or long-term ramifications is
considered an environmental impact.” (Abdallah, 2017). These impacts require a system or
standard of measurement, i.e., metric, that indicates the state of a system and measures the its
behaviour. Therefore, the term ‘indicator’ is commonly used to refer to these metrics for
ascertaining the content and performance of a system, corresponding to any of the three
dimensions of sustainability - ecological metrics, economic metrics, and sociological metrics
(Sikdar,2003). However, holistic understanding, measuring and monitoring can only be
achieved at the intersection of these three dimensions, as most systems are complex and are
inadequately represented. Therefore, ‘true sustainability metrics’ are 3-Dimensional and are
classified as follows;
Group 1 (1-D): economic, ecological, and sociological indicators

Group 2 (2-D): socio-economic, eco-efficiency, and socio-ecological indicators
Group 3 (3-D): sustainability indicators
4.2.1 Environmental Monitoring
A large number of sustainability indictors have been thematically classified with respect to the 17
SDGs and discussed in earlier Unit, and there are various means for each to be measured and
monitored. The systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data on various aspects of
the environment, involving measuring, observing, and assessing environmental indicators to
understand the current state, changes, and trends in natural systems and human-induced
activities is referred to as Environmental monitoring. The data collected through
environmental monitoring helps in assessing the effectiveness of environmental policies,
identifying potential risks and hazards, and informing decision-making processes related to
resource management, conservation, and pollution control. It encompasses a wide range of
parameters, including air quality, water quality, soil health, biodiversity, climate variables, noise
levels, and pollution levels, and involves the use of various monitoring techniques, such as
sampling, remote sensing, sensor networks, and data analysis tools, to gather accurate and
reliable information for environmental assessment and management.
Below enlisted are some common types of environmental monitoring and the tools/methods
used for each:
1. Air Quality Monitoring:

● Tools: Air quality monitors (with CO2 and O2 sensors), air sampling equipment,
Temperature and Humidity monitors, particulate matter (PM) samplers, gas
analysers.
● Methods: Continuous monitoring stations, passive samplers, mobile monitoring,

remote sensing, and modelling techniques.
2. Water Quality Monitoring:
● Tools: Water quality sensors, water samplers, pH meters, turbidity meters,
dissolved oxygen meters, Conductivity probes.
● Methods: Grab sampling, automated water quality monitoring stations, remote
sensing, and satellite imagery.
3. Soil Monitoring:
● Tools: Soil sampling equipment, soil moisture sensors, pH and nutrient analysers.
● Methods: Soil sampling and analysis, soil moisture monitoring, soil fertility
testing, spectrometry (to measure contamination in soils), remote sensing (to
monitor salinity in soils).
4. Biodiversity Monitoring:
● Tools: Camera traps, acoustic sensors, GPS devices, binoculars, species
identification guides.
● Methods: Field surveys, transect sampling, mark and recapture techniques, bio-
acoustic monitoring, remote sensing.
5. Noise Monitoring:
● Tools: Sound level meters, noise dosimeters, acoustic monitoring systems.
● Methods: Point measurements, continuous monitoring stations, noise mapping,
community noise surveys.
6. Pollution & Waste Monitoring:
● Tools: Gas analysers, spectrometers, emission measurement devices, pollutant-
specific sensors.
● Methods: Source emission sampling, ambient air monitoring, industrial effluent
monitoring, pollution source tracking, production and consumption patterns.
7. Radiation Monitoring:
● Tools: Radiation detectors, dosimeters, Geiger-Muller counters.
● Methods: Radiation monitoring stations, personal monitoring, environmental
sampling, remote sensing.
8. Climate Monitoring:
● Tools: Weather stations, temperature loggers, rainfall gauges, anemometers,
radiometers.
● Methods: Meteorological observations, climate stations, satellite-based
measurements, climate modelling.
4.2.2 Global Climate Indicators and Essential Climate Variable (ECV)
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) State of the Global Climate uses seven
Global Climate Indicators - Surface Temperature and Ocean Heat (Temperature and Energy);
Atmospheric CO2 (Atmospheric composition); Ocean Acidification and Sea-level (Ocean and
Water); Glaciers and Arctic and Antarctic Sea Ice Extent (Cryosphere) —to monitor the
domains most relevant to climate change, “without reducing climate change to only
temperature”. In addition to the seven headline indicators, a supplementary set of subsidiary
indicators is complimentarily available to offer information and contribute to a more

comprehensive and detailed depiction of the evolving trends in their respective areas. These
indicators are derived from analysis and interpretation of fundamental measurements or
parameters for characterizing and understanding the Earth's climate system.
An Essential Climate Variables (ECV) is defined by WMO as “a physical,

chemical or biological variable or a group of linked variables that critically contributes to the
characterization of Earth’ s climate”. These are compiled into datasets to, provide empirical
evidence that helps understand and predict the evolution of climate, and assess risks and enable
attribution of climate events to underlying causes. EVC datasets (refer Fig. 3) further guide
mitigation and adaptation measures, and supports the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) efforts
for assessment and creating climate services. Assessments provide policymakers and the public
with synthesized information on the state of the climate system, projected future changes, and
associated impacts, by quantifying the observed changes and attributing them to human
activities. Climate services provide tailored climate information and predictions to various
sectors, such as, agriculture, water resources, energy, and disaster management, and helps
develop climate models, downscaling techniques, and decision support tools.
Fig. 4.3 : Essential Climate Variables, WMO (source : https://gcos.wmo.int/en/essential-climate-variables)

The National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) of the U.S. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. GCOS Program at NCEI, maintains the
Global Observing Systems Information Center (GOSIC) which provides further background,
definitions, requirements, network information and data sources for ECVs. These variables are
monitored as per the GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles (agreed by the Committee on Earth
Observation Satellites (CEOS) and adopted by the Congress of the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and Conference of the Parties (COP-9, 2003) to the UNFCCC), which
provide a standardized framework for monitoring and measuring key climate parameters
consistently across different regions and over extended periods. The ECVs also help in
validating and calibrating climate models, ensuring they accurately represent the observed
climate variability and trends.
Fig. 4.4 : 2022 EPI Framework (source : https://epi.yale.edu)

4.2.3 Environmental Performance Index
The Environmental Performance Index (EPI) is a comprehensive assessment that utilizes

data-driven analysis to present an overview of sustainability worldwide, by employing 40
performance indicators across 11 issue categories, grouped under three key themes – Climate
Change, Environmental Health and Ecosystem Vitality; and ranks 180 countries based on their
performance in these three themes. The 40 indicators serve as a national-scale measure of a
country's progress towards established environmental policy targets, and offer a valuable means
to identify challenges, establish goals, monitor trends, comprehend outcomes, and recognize
effective policy practices. By utilizing accurate data and evidence-based analysis, government
officials can refine their policy agendas, engage in meaningful dialogues with stakeholders, and
maximize the impact of environmental investments. The EPI contributes to the pursuit of the
SDGs as a policy tool and showcases successful initiatives and practices that countries can
adopt from their top-performing counterparts.
The EPI scores as a whole to help to highlight countries excelling in sustainability and draw
attention to those lagging, while the detailed disaggregated data that accompanies it provides a
more nuanced tool for pinpointing policy deficiencies and anomalies. It is correlated with
country wealth, although some countries outperform their economic peers while others lag.
However, there are several criticisms to this Index as it relies on a limited set of indicators and
metrics to assess a country's environmental performance. This tends to oversimplify complex
environmental issues and fails to capture the full scope of a country's sustainability efforts,
particularly at the interplay between social, economic, and environmental dimensions of
sustainability.
4.2.4 Other Sustainability Measures
There are other foci to sustainability measurement beyond environment and some of these are;
Social Impact Assessment: Evaluates the social and cultural effects of a project or initiative,
including factors like employment, community well-being, human rights, and stakeholder
engagement.
Economic Indicators: Assess the economic sustainability of a system or project, including

metrics such as cost-benefit analysis, return on investment (ROI), and economic value added
(EVA).
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Reporting: Measures and reports on an

organization's social, environmental, and economic performance, often using globally
recognized frameworks like the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) standards.
Sustainable Procurement: Evaluates the sustainability performance of suppliers and ensures

that products and services are procured from environmentally and socially responsible
sources.
Sound methodologies, and decision-making or implementation tools, such as, EIA , SEA, LCA, are of
great importance for ensuring overall environmental sustainability.
EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment), Life cycle Assessment (LCA) and SEA (Strategic
Environmental Assessment) are systematic approaches and tools used to gather and evaluate
environmental information before making decisions in the development process. These
approaches involve making predictions about how the environment will be affected by various
alternative actions and providing guidance on managing those changes if a particular alternative
is chosen and implemented. EIA primarily focuses on evaluating the potential environmental
impacts of specific physical developments like highways, power stations, water resource
projects, and large-scale industrial facilities. LCA provides a framework for measuring the
environmental impact of a product across its life and has several tools such as, GaBi, openLCA,
SimaPro and Ecochain Mobius. On the other hand, SEA concentrates on assessing proposed
actions at a broader level, such as new or modified laws, policies, programs, and plans. It is
common for physical developments and projects to be outcomes of the implementation of
policies or plans. Thus, an integrated approach is recommended (UNEP).
4.3.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
The goal of an EIA is to identify and assess the potential positive and negative impacts on the
environment, as well as the social and economic aspects associated with the project. The EIA
Methodology is as follows:
1. Screening: The project plan is screened for scale of investment, location and type of
development and if the project needs statutory clearance.
2. Scoping: Then the EIA process begins with scoping, where the project's objectives, potential
impacts, zone of impacts or boundaries, mitigation possibilities and need for monitoring are
identified. This step involves consultations with stakeholders, including government agencies,
local communities, and experts, to determine the key issues that should be considered during
the assessment.
3. Baseline Study and Data collection: A thorough analysis of the existing environmental
conditions and socio-economic aspects is conducted, to collect data on air and water quality,
biodiversity, land use, cultural heritage, and other relevant parameters, at baseline. The
baseline study establishes a benchmark against which potential impacts will be compared.
4. Impact Prediction (Identification and Assessment): Potential environmental impacts
associated with the project are identified based on the project's characteristics, such as
location, size, and technology used. This step involves analysing the project's activities,
processes, and interactions with the environment to determine the potential effects. The
identified impacts - Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible, and temporary and
permanent impacts - are assessed in terms of their magnitude, duration, and significance. This
includes evaluating both the direct and indirect impacts on various environmental
components, such as air, water, soil, biodiversity, and human health. Mitigation measures and
alternatives may also be considered at this stage.
5. Mitigation measures and EIA Report: Based on the impact assessment, potential mitigation
measures are identified to avoid, minimize, or compensate for adverse environmental effects.
Alternative options, including project design modifications or alternative locations, are also
explored to mitigate potential impacts. An Environmental Management Plan (EMP) is
developed and reported to guide the implementation, monitoring, and management of the
project, which outlines the specific measures and actions to be taken to minimize or mitigate
environmental impacts, or the level of compensation for probable environmental damage or
loss in adverse situations, throughout the project's lifecycle.
6. Public Hearing and Consultation: Throughout the EIA process, public participation and
consultation are crucial. Stakeholders, including local communities, NGOs, and interested
parties, are given the opportunity to provide input, express concerns, and raise questions
related to the project and its potential impacts.
7. Decision-Making and Approval: The final EIA report, which includes the findings of the
assessment, proposed mitigation measures, and alternatives, is submitted to the relevant
regulatory authorities, such as, the Impact Assessment Authority along with the experts,
consultants and the project-in-charge, for decision-making. The decision may involve
approving the project with conditions, rejecting it, or requesting further information or
modifications.
8. Monitoring and Implementation of EMP: Once the project is approved and implemented,
ongoing monitoring and evaluation are conducted to ensure compliance with the proposed
mitigation measures and environmental commitments outlined in the EMP. This step helps to
assess the effectiveness of the EIA process and enables adaptive management to address any
unforeseen impacts.
9. Assessment of Alternatives, Delineation of Mitigation Measures and EIA Report: Each
project should consider and compare various potential alternatives in terms of their
environmental characteristics, which should encompass both the location of the project and
the technologies employed in its processes. After a thorough review of the alternatives, a
mitigation plan should be developed for the chosen option. This plan should be
accompanied by an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) that provides guidance to the
project proponent on implementing environmental enhancements.
10. Risk assessment: The EIA process also includes conducting an inventory analysis and
assessing the hazard probability and index as part of EIA procedures.
The EIA process may vary in detail and requirements depending on the country, jurisdiction,
and specific project characteristics, however, the core objective remains the same.
4.3.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
LCA is a methodology used to evaluate the environmental impacts associated with a product, process,
or system throughout its entire life cycle. There are two different approaches to conducting
LCA - the ‘SETAC/EPA Framework for Life Cycle Assessment’, jointly developed by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Society of Environmental Toxicology
and Chemistry (SETAC); and ISO 14040, which is an international standard developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The choice between the two may depend
on factors such as regional applicability, regulatory requirements, and the specific needs of the
LCA study.
Fig. 4.5 : Lifecycle of a Building

(source : The Use of LCA for Environmental Building Assessment : A Vision of the Future –
White Paper, 2017, EURIMA)
While they share common principles and goals, there are few differences, such as;
- Coverage and Scope:
● The SETAC/EPA framework emphasizes the need to consider the full life cycle of a
product or system, from cradle to grave, including raw material extraction,
manufacturing, use, and end-of-life.
● ISO 14040 also advocates for a comprehensive life cycle perspective but allows
flexibility in defining the scope of the study based on the intended application and
goals.
- Methodology:
● The SETAC/EPA framework provides more specific guidance on conducting impact
assessment, including midpoint and endpoint approaches.
● ISO 14040 provides general principles and guidelines but does not prescribe specific
impact assessment methodologies, allowing flexibility in selecting appropriate
methods.
- Application:
● The SETAC/EPA framework is commonly used in North America and may be more
aligned with regulatory requirements in that region.
● ISO 14040 is an international standard and is widely adopted globally,
accommodating different regional contexts and requirements.
The ISO 14040 outlines a four-step process for conducting an LCA, as elaborated below;
1. Goal and Scope Definition

● Define the purpose and boundaries of the LCA study, including the product or system
to be assessed and the specific environmental impacts of interest.
● Identify the functional unit, which quantifies the performance of the product or
system being evaluated.
● Determine the system boundaries, considering all relevant life cycle stages (from raw
material extraction to end-of-life disposal).
2. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
● Compile a comprehensive inventory of all inputs (energy, materials, water, etc.) and
outputs (emissions, waste, etc.) associated with each life cycle stage.
● Collect data on resource consumption, emissions, and waste generation from primary
and secondary sources, such as databases, literature, and industry-specific data, and
model it into input-output flows.
3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
● Evaluate the potential environmental impacts based on the inventory data collected,
upon Selection of indicators and models, Classification of Life Cycle Inventory and
assigning it to our defined impact categories, and then, calculate all our equivalents,
for example, Global Warming Potential (CO₂-equivalent in kg).
● Use impact assessment methods, such as midpoint or endpoint approaches, to
quantify the environmental effects in categories like climate change, resource
depletion, human health, ecosystem quality, etc. and sum up in overall impact
category totals.
4. Interpretation
● Analyse and interpret the results to understand the implications and draw
conclusions.
● Identify opportunities for improvement and suggest strategies for reducing
environmental impacts.
● Consider the limitations and uncertainties of the study and communicate the findings
accurately and transparently.
Additional considerations;
● Sensitivity analysis to assess the influence of different parameters or assumptions

on the results.
● Reporting through a comprehensive report summarizing the study methodology,
results, and conclusions, and Communicating the findings to stakeholders and
facilitate informed decision-making.
4.3.3 Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)
SEA helps incorporate environmental considerations into strategic planning and policy-making
processes, and ensures that environmental and social impacts are systematically assessed and
integrated into decision-making, promoting sustainable development, through the following
steps;
1. Initiation and Scoping

● Determine the need for SEA and establish the objectives and scope of the assessment.
● Identify the key decision-makers and stakeholders who should be involved in the
SEA process.
● Define the legal and institutional framework for conducting the SEA.
2. Baseline Assessment
● Collect and analyse information about the existing environmental, social, and
economic conditions.
● Identify the potential environmental effects associated with the plan, policy, program,
or strategy under consideration.
● Consider relevant environmental policies, legislation, and
international commitments.
3. Setting Objectives and Developing Alternatives

● Establish environmental objectives and targets that align with sustainable
development goals.
● Generate a range of alternative options or scenarios that could achieve the

objectives.
● Assess the potential environmental and social impacts associated with each
alternative.
4. Impact Assessment
● Evaluate the potential effects of each alternative on the environment, including direct
and indirect impacts.
● Analyse the cumulative effects of multiple projects or activities when appropriate.
● Identify the key environmental and social issues that need to be addressed during
implementation.
5. Mitigation and Enhancement Measures
● Develop measures to avoid, minimize, or mitigate adverse environmental and social
impacts.
● Explore opportunities to enhance positive environmental and social outcomes.
● Consider alternative approaches, technologies, or management strategies that
promote sustainable development.
6. Integration and Decision-Making
● Integrate the findings of the SEA into the decision-making process for the plan,
policy, program, or strategy.
● Communicate the results of the assessment to decision-makers, stakeholders, and the
public.
● Consider the SEA recommendations and findings alongside other relevant factors in
the decision-making process.
7. Monitoring, Review, and Adaptation
● Establish a monitoring and review mechanism to track the implementation of the
plan, policy, program, or strategy.
● Evaluate the effectiveness of the SEA recommendations and measures over time.
● Incorporate adaptive management practices to ensure continuous improvement and
responsiveness to changing circumstances.
Overall, these methodologies and tools are critical in ensuring that environmental considerations are
integrated into decision-making processes at different levels, from strategic planning to project
implementation, by promoting sustainable development through stakeholder engagement.
UNIT SUMMARY
This unit on environmental (impact) discusses the nuances between the observable phenomena of
global warming and its potential connection to overall climate change. Firstly, it elucidates the
foreboding impact of pollution and the various strategies and policies for mitigation. Secondly, it
explains the challenges and uncertainties in monitoring and predicting such changes due to the
non-stationary nature of the variables. It further elaborates on environmental monitoring,
metrics, indicators, etc to better define the state of the environment and its performance. Finally,
the unit explicates the various methodologies and tools innovated to quantify environmental
impact, in order to achieve sustainable development goals and instil urgency and understanding
in stakeholders for immediate action.
EXERCISES
Q. 4.1 Which of the following are greenhouse gases (GHG)?

(a) all of the below
(b) Methane (CH4)
(c) Nitrous oxide (N2O)
(d) Carbon di oxide (CO2)
Q. 4.2 What is the percentage of CO2 in the global GHG emissions?

(a) more than 60%
(b) 76-78%
(c) less than 40%
(d) 50%
Q. 4.3 Which of the following sectors is the fastest growing source of GHG emissions
(since 1990) ?
(a) Industrial processes
(b) Transportation
(c) Electricity and heating
(d) Agriculture and Land Use
Q. 4.4 What is the most important indicator with respect to climate change?
(a) Surface Temperature and Ocean Heat (Temperature and Energy)
(b) Ocean Acidification and Sea-level
(c) Glaciers and Arctic and Antarctic Sea Ice Extent (Cryosphere)
Q. 4.5 Which of the following are referred as ‘true sustainability metrics’?

(a) Economic, ecological, and sociological indicators
(b) Sustainability indicators
(c) Socio-economic, eco-efficiency, and socio-ecological indicators
(d) Environmental Performance Index
Answers of Multiple Choice Questions: 4.1 (a) , 4.2 (b) , 4.3 (a), 4.4 (d), 4.5 (b)
Q. 4.6 What is Global Warming? Briefly explain the phenomena and its impact on
environment.
Q. 4.7 What are some of the potential GHG emissions and pollution mitigation measures
presently being employed?
Q. 4.8 Discuss the various types of environmental monitoring and tools/methods used
for each.
Q. 4.9 What are the various types of ‘metrics and indicators’ for denoting the state of the
environment? How are these helpful in predicting environmental performance and
impact, elucidate with examples.
Q. 4.10 What are some of the innovative methodologies and tools for assessing
environmental impact? Illustrate anyone that will be most useful to the profession of civil
engineering.
KNOW MORE
About World Greenhouse Gas emission & World Emissions Clock
https://www.wri.org/insights/4-charts-explain-greenhouse-gas-emissions-countries-and-sectors
https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions
https://www.iea.org/reports/co2-emissions-in-2022#
Climate.nasa.gov
https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2022/11/29/tracking-emissions-by-country-and-sector/
About Sustainable agriculture
https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25950/sustainable_agriculture.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
About Circular Economy
https://buildingcircularity.org
The Paris Agreement
https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement
International Environmental Law
https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/21491/MEA-handbook-
Vietnam.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
● [Book] Fischer, T. B. (2010). The theory and practice of strategic environmental assessment:
towards a more systematic approach. Routledge
● [Book] Glasson, J., & Therivel, R. (2013). Introduction to environmental impact
assessment.Routledge.
● [UN Report] Sachs, J., Kroll, C., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G., & Woelm, F. (2022). Sustainable
development report 2022. Cambridge University Press
● Bueno de Mesquita, C. P., White, C. T., Farrer, E. C., Hallett, L. M., & Suding, K. N.
(2021). Taking climate change into account: Non‐stationarity in climate drivers of
ecological response. Journal of Ecology, 109(3), 1491-1500.
● Sikdar, S. K. (2003). Sustainable development and sustainability metrics. AIChE journal,
49(8), 1928-1932
● UNEP (2012) Trade and Environment Briefings: Sustainable Agriculture, 2012
● UN (2017) Report on the Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-Conflict
Societies
Web sources
● https://www.eea.europa.eu/policy-documents/com-2015-0614-final
● https://www.causeweb.org/usproc/sites/default/files/usclap/20181/Statistical_Analysis_of_C
limate_Change_Variables.pdf
● https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement
● https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/25950/sustainable_agriculture.pdf?s
eque nce=1&isAllowed=y
● https://public.wmo.int/en/programmes/global-climate-observing-system/essential-clim
ate- variables
UNIT SPECIFICS
● The Built Environment and Its Impact

o Facilities management & Sustainable Facility management strategies
o Building Control systems - Climate control systems, Security systems
o Energy efficient built environments & Recycling
o LEED Rating & other Indian rating systems
o Intelligent/ Smart Buildings
● Aesthetics of built environment
o Role of Urban Arts Commissions
o Heritage Conservation, Structural Repair and Rehabilitation, Retrofitting
● Innovations and methodologies for ensuring Sustainability
practice.
Unit 5 – Built Environment
RATIONALE
This elementary unit on the built environment and its role to mitigate environmental impact,
discusses the various practicalities, such as, Facility management, Building control systems,
Building Rating, and Codes and Standards, to impart state-of-the-art knowledge to improve the
civil engineers’ technical know-how, and perhaps open up possibilities of pursuing future
expertise in one of the several areas discussed.
UNIT OUTCOMES
U5-O1: Knowledge on the various aspects of Built Environment and its impact
U5-O2: Understanding of Aesthetics and its importance for cultural heritage
U5-O3: Knowledge on innovations and methodologies for ensuring environmental
Sustainability (Codes and Standards)

Unit-5
U5-O1 3 3 2 2 3 3 2
U5-O2 2 2 3 2 2 3 3
U5-O3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3
Our engineered, built-environment sits nestled in the natural environment, which is

presently undergoing several climatic changes leading to rising concerns and potential risks to human
life. The built-environment is defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2021) as
“human-made or modified surroundings in which people live, work, and recreate”, to which the
National Academies (2017) adds, “surroundings that provide the setting for human activity, ranging
in scale from buildings and parks or green space to neighbourhoods and cities that can often include
their supporting infrastructure, such as water supply or energy networks”.
5.1 THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT AND ITS IMPACT
The major burden of societal and global impact is created and experienced at the
intersection of "buildings, cities, and urban spaces, and the ways people use them" (WHO, 2016), i.e.,
intersection of ‘Spaces and Infrastructure’, comprising of design, construction, occupancy
management, building operations, maintenance, furniture and equipment, etc.; and ‘People and
Organisation’, consisting of health services, catering, event management, hospitality, security, safety,
human resources, logistics, document management, and accounting. The concept of "sustainable
construction" integrates environmental criteria into the entire lifecycle of a project, including
building, maintenance, and eventual demolition, suggests various factors to be emphasized during the
construction phase, beyond material choices, such as techniques to minimize dust, noise, and soil and
water contamination, waste management measures throughout the construction, use, and demolition
phases, and efforts to enhance material reuse and recycling.
Buildings alone contribute to approximately 40% of energy and process-related

CO2 emissions, 50% of all extracted materials, 33% of water consumption, and 35% of generated
waste, and additionally, contribute towards resource depletion, pollution of air, water, and land, as
well as loss of biodiversity. Of which, the use/operational phase leads to the highest environmental
impact across the entire life of the building and is known to be caused by the users and the physical
characteristics of the building, i.e., energy and water use and waste generation. Therefore, it is
important to employ systems thinking and the lifecycle view to address impending issues of
environmental impact mitigation through incorporating sustainability strategies, beyond design and
construction, into facility management.
5.1.1 Facilities Management
Facilities management is a vital aspect of managing construction businesses, as it involves strategic

planning and thoughtful consideration of daily operations. British architect and Editor of
Architectural Association Journal (1965-67) and Facilities (1982-90), Francis Duffy explored
the relationship between organisational structure and office layouts in his doctoral work during
the 1960s, and later, pioneered ‘Space Planning and Facility management’ in Europe. At the
time, the term was propounded by Ross Perot, founder of Electronic Data Systems, USA, when
the introduction of computers and IT infrastructure demanded design changes in the 1970s.
Facility management entails the effective management of physical workspaces - buildings,

infrastructure, and other physical assets, to support the delivery of services and achieve
organizational objectives. Civil engineers are ideal for this role due to their technical skills and
good communication, and develop leadership in the upcoming area of facility management.
Facility Management integrates the principles of business administration, architecture, and the
behavioural and engineering sciences; and involves a wide range of activities, including
maintenance and operations, space planning, asset management, health and safety, energy
management, and sustainability.
The key activities involved are:
● Asset Management
● Master Planning
● Space Management
● Estates Strategies
● Maintenance, cleaning, testing, and inspection
● Refurbishment, retrofitting, and renovation
● Acquisitions and sales
● Procurement and project management
● MEP (Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing) and Technical services
● Contract Management
● Sustainability
● Budget Management
● Brand Management
● Quality Assessment
● Regulatory Compliance
● Asset exploitation and income generation
● Ensuring the continuity of the business
● Delivery of new technologies
● Bringing change and efficiency in work practices
● Safety and security
● Traffic, transport, and parking
Role of Facility manager responsibility towards sustainability
In the field of facilities management, the focus has shifted to the impacts of climate change,
encompassing not only the environmental effects of buildings but also their resilience and
capacity to address associated issues. The primary challenge lies in the increasingly severe
weather conditions and unpredictable shifts in weather patterns, such as tides, cold spells,
floods, storms and droughts, and prolonged seasons, making it necessary for facilities managers
to transition from preventive measures to predictive strategies, like enhanced service level
requirements and disaster recovery plans for ensuring business continuity. Facility managers have
three significant responsibilities in addressing climate change:
● Conduct assessments to evaluate the vulnerability of current facilities and their ability to
adapt to climate change. This involves creating plans and procedures to address climate-
related challenges and ensure effective responses.
● Assist in the development of new structures and buildings that align with the changing
environmental landscape. This includes reviewing designs and incorporating sustainable
building materials to promote environmentally friendly practices.
● Develop a forward-looking strategy to manage the evolving dynamics of the built
environment due to shifts in climate change regulations and compliance requirements. This
involves anticipating future changes and implementing measures to ensure ongoing
environmental sustainability.
Fig. 5.1 : 11 Core competencies of Facility Management (source : www.ifma.org)
Sustainability Facility management strategies
Sustainable facility management (SFM) is “a unique process that offers a facility manager the
authority to make structural, architectural, and operational changes to reduce the negative
impact of buildings on their occupants and the environment” (Fennimore, 2014). Implementing
sustainable practices in facility management to mitigate climate change risks requires a
comprehensive approach that considers various aspects of operations. Adopting a lifecycle
approach in decision-making processes, taking into account the environmental impacts of
products and systems from extraction to disposal, and considering factors such as, durability,
recyclability, and end-of-life management are essential towards enabling sustainable facility
management.
The following are some practical strategies for implementing sustainable practices in facility
management:
1. Energy Efficiency: Implement energy-saving measures, such as, installing energy-efficient

lighting, utilizing programmable thermostats, optimizing HVAC systems, and conducting
energy audits to identify areas for improvement.
2. Renewable Energy Integration: Explore opportunities to incorporate renewable energy
sources, such as solar panels or wind turbines to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and decrease
carbon emissions.
3. Waste Management: Develop a waste management plan that includes recycling programs,
waste reduction initiatives, proper disposal methods, and encourage all stakeholders to
reduce, reuse, and recycle materials.
4. Water Conservation: Implement water-saving measures, such as, installing low-flow fixtures,
conducting regular maintenance to prevent leaks, and promoting water-efficient practices
among all stakeholders.
5. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ): Implement measures to improve indoor air quality, such as, regular
maintenance of HVAC systems, proper ventilation, and use of low VOC (volatile organic
compound) materials in building interiors.
6. Green Building Certification: Consider pursuing green building certifications, like LEED
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), to guide sustainable building practices and
ensure compliance with established standards.
7. Performance Monitoring: Establish performance metrics, and regularly monitor and track
energy consumption, water usage, waste generation, and other sustainability indicators, and in
turn, use this data to identify areas for improvement and set targets for continuous
enhancement.
8. Sustainable Procurement: Source environmentally friendly products and materials that are
made from recycled content, are energy-efficient, and have a reduced environmental impact.
Consider the lifecycle of products and choose those with minimal environmental footprints.
9. Stakeholder Engagement: Engage employees, tenants, and other stakeholders in
sustainability initiatives by promoting awareness, providing training on sustainable practices,
and encouraging their active participation.
5.1.2 Building Control system
A building control system is a centralized system that monitors and controls various building systems
and equipment to ensure efficient operation, occupant comfort, and safety. These systems are
commonly referred as; Energy Management Systems (EMS), which is responsible for managing
environmental functions within a building; Building Automation Systems (BAS), which focuses on
controlling technical automation processes; and Building Management Systems (BMS), which
encompasses a broader range of functions, including providing status reports on environmental
conditions, monitoring elevator operations, and tracking the location of individuals for security purposes.
Fig. 5.2: Elements of a Building Control System (source : www.truviconline.com)
The major functions are, as follows;
● Data Analysis and Reporting: Building control systems provide data analysis and reporting
capabilities, enabling facility managers to assess building performance, identify trends, and
make informed decisions for improving energy efficiency and operational effectiveness.
● Monitoring and Control: Monitoring systems collect data on various parameters such as
temperature, humidity, occupancy, and energy consumption to monitor the building's
performance and ensure it operates within predefined limits. Based on the collected data, the
system can automatically adjust and control the building systems to maintain optimal
conditions. For example, it can regulate HVAC systems to provide comfortable temperatures
or adjust lighting levels based on occupancy.
● Management and Decision-aid: Building control systems help optimize energy usage by
tracking energy consumption, identifying inefficiencies, and implementing strategies for
energy conservation, such as scheduling equipment operation and implementing demand
response programs. The system also generates alerts and notifications in case of equipment
malfunctions, abnormal conditions, or security breaches, allowing facility managers to take
prompt action.
EMS, BAS, and BMS consists of a network of sensors, controllers, and software that
communicate and coordinate the functioning of different building systems. EMS collects data
from sensors throughout the building and uses the information to make adjustments and optimize
the performance of these systems. While BMS/BAS typically integrates and controls systems
such as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), lighting, access control, fire alarms,
security systems, and energy management. The key difference is, while an EMS is primarily a
monitoring tool at a micro-level, gathering detailed device-level telemetry data from the
deployed sensors and analysing it, the BMS/BAS, often used synonymously, works at a macro-
level by providing high-level, real-time control, such as, regulate the temperature, humidity or
pressure, or prevent smoke from spreading throughout a building.
Building Climate Control System
A building and its indoor spaces are constantly influenced by both internal and external factors
that can disrupt the indoor climate, such as heat, air emissions, and changes in humidity levels.
Climate control in buildings refers to the adjustment of indoor climate conditions according to the
preferences of the occupants, while ensuring that external weather conditions, such as extreme
heat or harsh environmental factors, do not impact the indoor environment. Indoor Environment
Quality (IEQ) refers to “the quality of a building’s environment in relation to the health and
wellbeing of those who occupy space within it”, as per the National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH). IEQ is of great importance, as the four primary parameters - thermal,
visual, and acoustic comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ), have direct impact on various aspects of
human well- being, such as, occupant comfort, productivity, mental health, satisfaction, as well as
study and work performance (Ali and Acharya, 2023) and hence, there is a need for climate
control considering the drastic change in temperatures, high levels of noise and particulate
pollutants in the surrounding and excess use of artificial lighting that may cause visual
discomfort.
Architectural design, engineering and construction is of utmost importance to

ensure climate control and comfortable IEQ as several factors such as, temperature, humidity,
rainfall, direction of wind and sunlight, etc. plays a crucial role in material selection, orientation
and structural design. Air temperature affects the exterior of the building while the soil
temperature affects the foundation. Humidity is a very important consideration for the structural
integrity of the materials, and anti-corrosive and water-resistant materials are preferred in areas
with higher levels of humidity. In areas with heavy rainfall, sloping roofs are preferred as opposed
to flat roofs, so that the integrity of the structure is not compromised. Sunlight is also an important
consideration, as the wall to window ratio increases or decreases according to need of the climate.
Wind load is also considered while designing, since it has the capability to damage the building
structurally. Active and Passive design strategies are employed to improve IEQ and liveability
of a building. ‘Active’ implies the use of mechanical and electrical systems, such as,
air-conditioning, heat pumps, radiant heating, heat recovery ventilators, and electric lighting
which uses purchased energy, while ‘Passive’ refers to harnessing available ambient energy
through techniques such as, maximizing natural light (daylighting), utilizing natural airflow for
ventilation, and garnering solar energy. Some passive design strategies are;
● Seeking inspiration from Vernacular architecture. It is the ancient traditional architectural

design and construction method of a civilisation, and usually it is incorporated with unique
elements and techniques that controls the natural climate of that region and suitable of the
life of the indigenous people. Introduction of verandahs and courtyards are one such design
element borrowed from vernacular architecture that has the ability to reduce heat and allow
cross-ventilation.
● Incorporating Bioclimatic design, which aims to maximize the utilization of local climate
data and leverages local environmental resources like sunlight, wind, air, vegetation, soil,
and sky to minimize energy consumption. Proper thermal insulation of the external
envelope of the building and air-tight structures; use of solar energy for heating in winter
time, achieved by a proper passive solar heating system; removal of the heat from the
building by passive cooling systems and natural ventilation; Protection of the building from
overheating by proper shading solutions and vegetation in summer time; and the use of
solar energy for day-lighting all year round, are some of the recommendations by EU. It
may be argued that this is also seen in vernacular architecture.
● Employing shading devices, such as, fin walls, vertical or horizontal shading overhang
devices, and extended roof overhangs, which are integrated into the building structure, and
external shading devices, such as, eaves, awnings, screens and shutters, louvres, verandahs,
pergolas, and shading with foliage, trees, and shrubs.
● Introducing rigid air barrier, thermal insulation and sound attenuating interior lining to
brick or concrete masonry or to high-density sheet cladding for exterior walls and building
envelope, using concrete or tiled roofing, and affixing sound-attenuating external windows
and doors, to reduce external noise and overall, acoustic discomfort.
‘Active’ control systems leverage technologies, such as, ICT, cloud computing, wireless sensors,
and tools, such as, BMS and BAS to help improve climate control efficiency.
Building Security System
The building security system is specifically developed to oversee and regulate mechanical and
electrical installations, fire protection and escape mechanisms, as well as address issues related to
burglary, assault, and emergency communication.
Fig. 5.3 : Features of a Building Security System (source:www.truviconline.com)
In high-rise buildings and large complexes which are densely occupied, ensuring effective fire safety
measures is of utmost importance. To ensure fire safety as it is necessary to monitor and
manage the following:
● Detection and suppression of fires,

● Ensuring the movement and safety of individuals,
● Controlling smoke through pressurization and barriers,
● Establishing safe places of refuge, and
● Facilitating emergency arrangements and communication.
An effective security system has the following components:
Video surveillance systems comprises of the placement of multiple cameras in strategic

locations both inside and outside a building, to serve as a deterrent to potential criminals, and to
provide valuable evidence for police investigations and insurance claims. Furthermore, modern
video surveillance systems can be integrated with other security technologies. For instance, you
can have a surveillance camera positioned to monitor a keypad entry system at the front door,
which can enable detection of any tampering or misuse of the entry device.
Access control encompasses the procedures and mechanisms that regulate entry and restrict
unauthorized access to buildings, rooms, or specific areas, and is a fundamental aspect of
maintaining security in any location. To ensure optimal security, it is essential to have a
cohesive access control system in place, as it is inconvenient for occupants to use different
Access control technologies, such as, separate key fobs, PIN codes, or key cards, to access
different areas within the building. Therefore, it is recommended to synchronize the access
control system throughout the building, preferably by using a unified system provided by the
same security system company.
Alarm systems are installed at doors and windows, including emergency-only exits, and are
designed to emit a loud noise when triggered, alerting building staff to the specific location. If
empowered with smart technology it can notify occupants about the occurrence and precise
location of the triggered alarm, enhancing response effectiveness.
Intercom systems provide a means for visitors to request entry into the building, while allowing
tenants to remotely grant access, and facilitates verification of the identity of individuals
seeking entry.
Computer systems are essential to cohesively tie up the surveillance, access control, alarm and
intercom systems in the backend and enable the user to control, communicate and interact
remotely with assets and people. Currently, smartphones are integrated to allow the same, on
the move.
5.1.3 Energy Efficient Built Environment
An energy efficient building “offers an appropriate environment for habitation with minimal energy
consumption and wastage of energy, thereby maximizing energy conservation” and “balances
all aspects of energy use in a building by providing an optimized mix of passive solar–design
strategies, energy-efficient equipment, and renewable sources of energy” (Sustainable Fuel
Technologies Handbook, 2021).
Life Cycle Assessment for Building and its materials
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) based on ISO14040 (2006) is being increasingly adopted in
architectural design and construction, as it CA enables decision-making processes, such as,
evaluating and selecting environmentally-friendly products and optimizing construction
processes. In addition to assessing environmental impacts, LCA also facilitates estimating life
cycle costs (LCC) and conducting life cycle energy analysis (LCEA). The incorporation of LCA
into the building sector supports sustainable decision-making and promotes the evaluation of
environmental, economic, and energy-related aspects throughout the life cycle of buildings. It is
noteworthy that energy efficiency has been a primary focus in the environmental design of
buildings, with the use/operational phase playing a dominant role in the LCA of buildings, due
to the high energy demand associated with building operation. Operating energy, which
includes energy for HVAC, domestic hot water, lighting, appliances, and building maintenance,
is easily quantifiable and can account for up to 85% of total energy consumption and 70-90% of
the environmental impact. However, many of these factors are beyond the control of designers,
particularly during the conceptual stage, as they are spread over the decades-long lifespan of a
building.
Fig. 5.4 : Key Environmental Impacts during Life Cycle of Building Materials (Huang, et al., 2020)
Therefore, the selection of appropriate materials, which is often emphasized as a directive for energy-
efficient design, becomes a critical decision factor in the design process. It is recommended to
consider material selection as early as possible, as it not only impacts the operational energy
performance of the building but also influences the total embodied energy and potential
environmental impact.
Embodied Energy and Embodied Carbon
From a life cycle perspective, the environmental impact and energy consumption of buildings are
closely linked to the choice of materials. However, there is often a lack of alignment between
the service life of materials (which determines the intervals for material renewal) and the
service life of buildings (the duration of the operational phase). This can result in a trade-off
between material selection and building energy demand and so, requires a holistic approach
(Heeren et al., 2015) that considers the effects and trade-offs. For example, in a residential
building, since the ‘wood variant’ is susceptible to solar and internal gains, and the ‘concrete
variant’ isn’t, the energy spent on demand for space cooling of wood is higher than concrete in
spite of wood having lower environmental impact than concrete. However, for cool climates, a
wooden structure and this very same property will be beneficial and energy-saving.
Every building material possesses an ‘Embodied Energy’ or Embodied Carbon,

which refers to the sum impact of all greenhouse gas emissions attributed to that material during
its life cycle from extraction, till disposal. The after-use life cycle phase plays a significant role
in determining the overall embodied energy of a building. LCA for the "end of life" (EOL)
evaluates the environmental impact, including the energy required for demolition, at the end of
a building's service life, as this is vital for decision-making since it has the potential to
substantially reduce the environmental impact of the building through effective after-use
strategies, such as, disassembly, remanufacturing, biodegrade-ability and the 3R principles of
reduce, reuse, and recycle .
Lupíšek, et al. (2015) innumerate the Design strategies for reduction of embodied energy and embodied
carbon (Subtask 4 of Annex 57) in three steps:
1. Reduction of amount of needed materials throughout entire life cycle
1.1. Optimization of layout plan
1.2. Optimization of structural system
1.3. Low-maintenance design
1.4. Flexible and adaptable design
1.5. Components’ service life optimization
2. Substitution of traditional materials for alternatives with lower environmental impacts

2.1. Reuse of building parts and elements
2.2. Utilization of recycled materials
2.3. Substitution for bio-based and raw materials
2.4. Use of innovative materials with lower environmental impacts
2.5. Design for deconstruction

2.6. Use of recyclable materials
3. Reduction of construction stage impact
Fig. 5.5: Recycling of Building Materials (Huang, et al., 2020)
Building Materials and Recycling
A large number of building materials are reusable and recyclable (Kralj & MariČ, 2008) , such as,
Wood and untreated timber, and Earthen Materials (reusable/recyclable/biodegradable); Metals,
mainly Steel, Aluminium, Iron, Copper, Masonry and Bricks, and Glass and ceramic
(reusable/recyclable); Asphalt and Concrete (may be crushed and recycled); and
Gypsum/Drywall (recyclable, sometimes biodegradable). Some innovative, modern recycled
building materials are ; Plant-Based Polyurethane Foam Boards, possessing good heat
transfer resistance, quality sound insulation, and mould and insect resistance; Hempcrete, a
sustainable, carbon negative alternative to concrete bound with hemp fibres; Ecobrick, a plastic
bottle filled with small plastic waste; Rammed Earth, made of compacted, excavated earth
from the construction site, mixed with concrete; Chip[s] board, is a fibre-reinforced bioplastic
made from potato waste.
Recycling materials can contribute greatly towards reducing impact and can be achieved by;
● Identifying materials in existing buildings that can be salvaged and reused in new
construction projects may include, structural elements, fixtures, flooring, doors, and
windows.
● Establishing on-site recycling programs to process and reuse construction and demolition
waste, and setting up in dedicated areas for sorting and separating different materials such
as concrete, metal, wood, and plastics.
● Implementing comprehensive waste management plans for construction sites, with clear
guidelines for sorting, separating, and recycling different types of waste generated during
the construction process.
● Participating in material exchange networks or online platforms where builders,
contractors, and suppliers can connect to exchange surplus materials.
● Collaborating with local recycling centers, waste management facilities, and other
stakeholders to establish efficient recycling systems for construction materials.
Incorporating design principles of ‘Design for Disassembly’ make it easier to disassemble and
separate materials during the end-of-life phase, by using modular construction techniques and
joinery systems, for easy dismantling without damaging the materials, is a potential approach to
carefully deconstruct buildings to preserve reusable materials.
5.1.4 LEED Rating
LEED, which stand for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, is a green building rating
system developed by the US Green Building Council (USGBC). In India, Confederation of
Indian Industry (CII) formed the Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) in year 2001 and has
licensed the LEED Green Building Standard from the USGBC.
Policymakers, planners, and builders can adopt LEED and sustainable building practices as
effective strategies to progress towards the UN SDGs. LEED categories contribute to the
achievement of the SDGs in the following ways - conserving water, improving energy
efficiency, reducing carbon emissions (GHGs), and minimizing harmful air pollutants to
enhance environmental sustainability. LEED also supports education, job creation, improved
health and well-being, strengthened community resilience, and more. It takes a holistic
approach by considering all essential aspects that contribute to the overall quality of a building,
rather than solely focusing on individual elements like energy, water, or health, and embraces a
comprehensive perspective, recognizing the interplay and synergy among various factors to
achieve optimal building performance.
The primary objective of LEED is to facilitate the design of good buildings that exude the
following characteristics, as outlined by USGBC;
● Reduce contribution to global climate change.
● Enhance individual human health.

● Protect and restore water resources.
● Protect and enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services.
● Promote sustainable and regenerative material cycles.
● Enhance community quality of life.
Certification types and Credit scoring

There are various kinds of LEED certifications depending on the types and the phase of the building
of projects, as follows;
● LEED Building Design and Construction (BD+C) For new construction or major
renovations, and also includes applications for Schools, Retail, Hospitality, Data Centers,
Warehouses & Distribution Centers, and Healthcare.
● LEED Interior Design and Construction (ID+C) for complete interior fit-out projects,
Includes Commercial Interiors, and also includes applications for Retail and Hospitality.
● LEED Building Operations and Maintenance (O+M) for existing buildings that are
undergoing improvement work or little to no construction. Includes Existing Buildings,
and also includes applications for Schools, Retail, Hospitality, Data Centers, and
Warehouses & Distribution Centers.
● LEED Neighbourhood Development (ND) for new land development projects or
redevelopment projects containing residential uses, non-residential uses, or a mix.
Projects can be at any stage of the development process, from conceptual planning to
construction. Includes Plan and Built Project.
● LEED Homes for single family homes, low-rise multi-family (one to three stories) or
mid-rise multi-family (four or more). Includes Homes, Multifamily Low-rise,
Multifamily Midrise.
● LEED Cities for entire cities and sub-sections of a city. LEED for Cities projects can
measure and manage their city’s water consumption, energy use, waste, transportation
and human experience.
To obtain LEED certification, a project accumulates points by adhering to prerequisites and

fulfilling criteria related to carbon emissions, energy efficiency, water conservation, waste
management, transportation, materials usage, and indoor environmental quality. The
certification process involves a thorough examination and assessment by GBCI (Green
Business Certification Inc.), which assigns points based on the project's adherence to LEED
standards. The total number of points determines the level of LEED certification: Certified
(40-49 points), Silver (50-59 points), Gold (60-79 points), or Platinum (80+ points). Notably,
climate change accounts for 35% relate to climate change, 20% directly impact human health,
15% impact water resources, 10% affect biodiversity, 10% relate to the green economy, and
5% impact community and natural resources. In LEED v4.1, operational and embodied
carbon have the most LEED credits associated to them.
LEED Credits and categories

The major categories and their respective credits are;
o Energy and Atmosphere (33 credits)
■ Fundamental Commissioning and Verification [prerequisite]
■ Minimum Energy Performance [prerequisite]
■ Building-Level Energy Metering [prerequisite]
■ Fundamental Refrigerant Management [prerequisite]
■ Optimize Energy Performance [18]
■ Enhanced Commissioning [6]
■ Advanced Energy Metering [1]
■ Renewable Energy [5]
■ Enhanced Refrigerant Management [1]
■ Grid Harmonization [2]
o Location and Transportation (16 credits)
■ Sensitive Land Protection [1]
■ High Priority Site and Equitable Development [2]
■ Surrounding Density and Diverse Uses [5]
■ Access to Quality Transit [5]
■ Bicycle Facilities [1]
■ Reduced Parking Footprint [1]
■ Electric Vehicles [1]
o Materials and Resources (13 credits)
■ Storage and Collection of Recyclables [prerequisite]
■ Building Life-Cycle Impact Reduction [5]
■ Environmental Product Declarations [2]
■ Sourcing of Raw Materials [2]
■ Material Ingredients [2]
■ Construction and Demolition Waste Management [2]
o Sustainable Sites (10 credits)
■ Construction activity pollution prevention [1]
■ Site Assessment [1]
■ Protect or Restore Habitat [2]
■ Open Spaces [1]
■ Rainwater Management [3]
■ Heat Island Reduction [2]
■ Light Pollution Reduction [1]
o Water efficiency (10 credits)
■ Outdoor Water Use Reduction [prerequisite]
■ Indoor Water Use Reduction [prerequisite]

■ Building-Level Water Metering [prerequisite]
■ Outdoor Water Use Reduction [2]
■ Indoor Water Use Reduction [6]
■ Optimize Process Water Use [2]
■ Water Metering [1]
o Innovation (6 credits)
■ Innovation in design [5]
■ LEED Accredited Professional [1]
o Regional Priority Credits (4 credits)
o Integrative Process (1 credit)
In the US Green Building (USGBC) annual list for 2021, India achieved the remarkable position of
third in the world for LEED Green buildings, with a total of 146 certified buildings and spaces,
covering an impressive 2.8 million gross area square meters.
Other Green Building Certifications in India
Apart from LEED, the other 2 main green building certification systems in India, are; GRIHA (Green
Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment), India’s own rating system jointly developed by
TERI and the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India, and BEE (Bureau
of Energy Efficiency) developed its own rating system for the buildings and the Energy
Performance Index (EPI).
GRIHA introduces a comprehensive approach of assessing 11 Parameters with 30 criteria

accumulating to 100+5 maximum points (refer Fig. 6), across three stages:
1. Pre-construction stage: This stage addresses both on-site and off-site factors, such as the
proximity to public transportation, soil type, land characteristics, location, existing flora and
fauna, and natural landscape features before construction begins.
2. Building planning and construction stages: This stage focuses on resource conservation,
reducing resource demand, optimizing resource utilization efficiency, promoting resource
recovery and reuse, and ensuring occupant health and well-being.
3. Building operation and maintenance stage: This stage encompasses the operation and
maintenance, monitoring and recording energy consumption, ensuring occupant health and
well-being, and addressing factors that impact the local and global environment.
Fig. 5.6 : Performance criteria comparison of LEED and GRIHA Rating (Phadtare and Sande, 2015)
Ji et al., 2017, conducted a comparative analysis of GRIHA v2015 and LEED v4 for BD + C: New
Construction and Major Renovation with respect to the three pillars of Sustainability and reported;
GRIHA v2015 LEED v4 BD+C

Strong focus on Environmental and Has more balanced focus on all the three
Economic aspects, less Social pillars
Has a dedicated section for assessment of Has a section dedicated to Regional
socio-economic aspects of the laborers and Priority: Specific Credit, and has social
service professionals, creating awareness on aspects like, open space access, bicycle
environment and design for accessibility, facilities, diversity in use and quality views
missing from LEED. included in its assessment. Can be an
addition to GRIHA.
GRIHA
v.2019
Sectio Criterion Criterion Name Maximum
n No. Points
1. Sustainable Site Planning 1 Green Infrastructure 5
2 Low Impact Design 5
3 Design to Mitigate UHIE 2
2. Construction Management 4 Air and Soil Pollution Control 1
5 Top Soil Preservation 1
6 Construction Management Practices 2
3. Energy E!ciency 7 Energy Optimization 12
8 Renewable Energy Utilization 5
9 Low ODP and GWP Materials 1
4. Occupant Comfort 10 Visual Comfort 4
11 Thermal and Acoustic Comfort 2
12 Maintaining Good 6
IAQ
5. Water Management 13 Water Demand Reduction 3
14 Wastewater Treatment 3
15 Rainwater Management 5
16 Water Quality and Self-Su!ciency 5
6. Solid Waste Management 17 Waste Management-Post Occupancy 4
18 Organic Waste Treatment On-Site 2
7. Sustainable Building Materials 19 Utilization of Alternative Materials in Building 5
20 Reduction in GWP through Life Cycle Assessment 5
21 Alternative Materials for External Site Development 2
8. Life Cycle Costing 22 Life Cycle Cost Analysis 5
9. Socio-Economic Strategies 23 Safety and Sanitation for Construction Workers 1
24 Universal Accessibility 2
25 Dedicated Facilities for Service Sta" 2
26 Positive Social 3
Impact
10. Performance Metering and Monitoring 27 Commissioning for Final Rating 7
28 Smart Metering and Monitoring 0
29 Operation and Maintenance Protocol 0
Total Points 100
11. Innovation 30 Innovation 5

Grand Total Points 100 + 5
Fig. 5.7 : GRIHA v2019 Criteria and Points (source : www.grihaindigo.org)

5.1.5 Intelligent to Smart Buildings
Fig. 5.8 : Smart Building technologies and features
The term, ‘Intelligent building’, is often used commonly to imply and ‘Smart building’, but their
definitions have been evolving with time, since the 1980s when the term was first used to mean
“a building which totally controls its own environment” (Stubbings, 1988). This equated the
building to its BMS and other smart systems, with the intent to reduce human interaction.
However, the two terms are complementary, as it may be argued that Smart Buildings are
Intelligent Buildings but with additional, integrated aspects of ‘adaptable control,
enterprise and materials and construction’, and addresses both ‘intelligence and sustainability
issues’ to achieve the optimal energy consumption and overall comfort.
Smart Buildings are viewed as a ‘subset of smart environments’, where smart environments are
“able to acquire and apply knowledge about the environment and its inhabitants in order to
improve their experience in that environment”. In a smart environment, such as ‘Smart City’,
various elements, i.e., Smart Homes, Smart Buildings, Smart Grids, Smart Meters, Smart
Transportation, etc. collaborate synergistically. Smart Buildings prioritize the occupants and
encourage their active participation by incorporating feedback mechanisms, for both receiving
and providing information about building usage. These buildings leverage integrated enterprise
and intelligent systems to enable inherent control, by empowering occupants to make decisions
regarding their comfort, while still maintaining regulated control. Smart buildings promote a
personalized and interactive building experience.
Literature states that Smart Buildings have the five fundamental features;
● Automation: the ability to accommodate automatic devices or perform automatic functions.

● Multi-functionality: the ability to allow the performance of more than one function in a
building.
● Adaptability: the ability to learn, predict and satisfy the needs of users and the stress from
the external environment.
● Interactivity: the ability to allow the interaction among users.
● Efficiency: the ability to provide energy efficiency and save time and costs.
Dakheel, et al. (2020) analysed the above and extended it with four ‘Smartness basic features’,
categorised with respect to four key functions - Climate response, Grid response, User
response and Monitoring and Supervision - to include;
● Nearly zero energy buildings target (Climate response, Grid response)

● Flexibility (Climate response, Grid response, User response)
● Real-time monitoring (Monitoring and Supervision)
● Real-time Interaction (User response)
However, every building has a capacity to adapt their operation to the needs of the grid and the
occupants, and this is measured by Smart-readiness indicator (SRI), developed by EPBD. The
SRI in buildings (Verbeke et al., 2017) are particularly important for India as we have stark
socio-economic diversity, and introducing the right amount of ‘smartness’ holds immense
potential for transformative advancements in efficiency, sustainability, occupant comfort, and
overall building performance.
5.2 AESTHETICS OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Aesthetics, a field within philosophy, is the study of the nature, expression and principles of beauty
and artistic taste. The term originates from the Greek word "aisthetikos", which refers to sensory
perception and understanding, or knowledge acquired through the senses, and hence, varies across
people, places and time. There is no one style for aesthetics, but a constant evolution of elements as
per the socio-cultural need of that time, or as discussed in earlier Units, as a response to an existing
style. It is a deeper, more profound expression of human creativity, meant to be evocative, thought
provoking or awe-striking. The Vitruvian triad – firmitas (durability), utilitas (usefulness), and
venustas (beauty), deemed essential for a good building, captured the significance of aesthetics as
visual appeal encompasses various design elements and principles, such as, its form, size, texture,
colour, balance, unity, movement, emphasis, contrast, symmetry, proportion, space, alignment, pattern,
as well as cultural relevance and contextual integration.
However, aesthetics must not always be understood as ornamentation or decoration, but can be
grounded in structural integrity and material honesty, as seen in the works of architects like, Frank
Lloyd Wright’s integration of nature and the use of organic materials in design of Fallingwater,
Pennsylvania; or Tadao Ando’s Church of the Light in Osaka, Japan, a notable example of honest
architecture, where he used concrete as the primary material.
The role of technology - new building materials and construction techniques, also plays an exciting
role in developing new aesthetics as a synthesis of technology and art. Italian architect, Pier Luigi
Nervi stated, “the aesthetic sensibility of the designer, who understands their (technology and
statistics’) intrinsic beauty and validity, welcomes the suggestion and models it, emphasizes it,
proportions it in a manner which constitutes the artistic element in architecture”. Parametricism or the
parametric design paradigm leverages software like, Rhino with Grasshopper, Fusion 360,
Solidworks, etc. to design built forms of unique visual appeal, as championed by architect Zaha
Hadid. Therefore, it is crucial to consider not only functionality, safety, serviceability, and durability
but also aesthetics, ensuring proper structural performance throughout the entire lifespan.
5.2.1 Role of Urban Arts Commissions
The Delhi Urban Art Commission (DUAC) was established through a parliamentary act in 1973 with
the purpose of advising the Government of India on matters related to preserving, developing,
and enhancing the aesthetic aspects of urban and environmental design in Delhi. The
commission also provides guidance and recommendations to local bodies regarding
construction projects, engineering operations, and development proposals that may impact the
skyline, aesthetic quality of the surroundings, or public amenities.
The DUAC plays a crucial role in approving, supervising and recommending projects for
development and beautification of urban spaces, conservation and beautification of monuments
and green landscaped public areas, preservation and maintenance of heritage monuments and
buildings, restoration and redevelopment.
It operates in three capacities: as a policy advisor to the government, a regulatory body, and a think
tank. In addition, the following duties are assigned to the DUAC as per the Act, 1974;
a) Development of district centres, civic centres, areas earmarked for Government

administrative buildings and for residential complexes, public parks and public gardens.
b) Re-development of the area within the jurisdiction of New Delhi Municipal Committee
including Connaught Place Complex and its environs, Central Vista, the entire bungalow area
of Lutyen's New Delhi, and such other areas as the Central Government may, by notification
in the Official Gazette, specify.
c) Plans, architectural expressions, and visual appearance of new buildings in the centres, areas,
parks and gardens specified in clauses (a) and (b) including selections of models or statues
and fountains therein.
d) Re-development of areas in the vicinity of Jama Masjid, Red Fort, Qutab, Humayun's Tomb,
Old Fort, Tuglakabad and of such other places of historical importance as the Central
Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, specify.
e) Conservation, preservation and beautification of monumental buildings, public parks and
public gardens including location or installation of statues or fountains therein.
f) Under-passes, over-passes and regulations of street furniture and hoardings.
g) Location and plans of power houses, water towers, television and other communication
towers and other allied structures.
h) any other project or lay-out which is calculated to beautify Delhi or to add to its cultural
vitality or to enhance the quality of the surroundings thereof.
i) such other matters as may be prescribed by rules.
5.2.2 Heritage Conservation and Structural Repair and Rehabilitation
Structures, be it built recently or of heritage value, deteriorate due to natural weathering or get
damaged due to calamities, historic events, etc. and require design and construction
interventions. There are various types of interventions, such as, historic preservation, heritage
conservation, restoration, rebuilding, rehabilitation, retro-fitting etc. and each in turn employs
different methods to achieve the desired outcome of reviving the original or intended look and
feel of the structure.
Heritage Conservation, objectives and guidelines
Architectural conservation, as a discipline is concerned with the “integrated informed

understanding, sustainable care and appropriate renewal and development of the historic
environment”. The aim is to examine the connections between the indoor environment, which is
shaped by the interactions among building architecture, materials, structures, services, contents,
decorations, and occupants, and the surrounding external environments. It is also the “process
through which the material, historical, and design integrity of any built heritage are prolonged
through carefully planned interventions” (American Conservation Experience). The primary
goal is to preserve the original material in its most unchanged state possible, which implies that
any repairs or additions made to the built object should not remove, alter, or permanently attach
to the original material. It is crucial that all interventions are reversible and removable without
causing any damage to the original material, both presently and in the future, and does not
involve making artistic choices or experimenting with different materials, i.e., the process of
conservation strictly adheres to the object's requirements and specifications, with the sole focus
on safeguarding and maintaining the object's authenticity and condition. MoHUA, GoI states
that “Conservation of heritage sites shall include buildings, artifacts, structures, areas and
precincts of historic, aesthetic, architectural, cultural or environmentally significant nature
(heritage buildings and heritage precincts), natural feature areas of environmental significance
or sites of scenic beauty”.
Fig. 5.9 : UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India (2017)
INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage) further states, “Conservation of
architectural heritage and sites must retain meaning for the society in which it exists. This meaning
may change over time, but taking it into consideration ensures that conservation will, at all times,
have a contemporary logic underpinning its practice. This necessitates viewing conservation as a
multi-disciplinary activity”.
The conservation objectives relevant for India, compiled by INTACH, are as below;
● Retain Visual Identity: Preserving the distinct visual identity of a place, created by its
architectural heritage and sites, is crucial amidst global homogenization. This preservation
should not mimic legally protected monuments but rather adapt to contemporary society
while maintaining heritage relevance. Balancing the needs of heritage and societal changes
ensures integration into daily life, while controlling visual clutter like advertisements, cables,
and antennas enhances the architectural heritage. Additions, such as, street furniture and
signage contribute to appreciating the heritage.
● Adaptive Reuse: Reusing historic buildings and neighbourhoods is economically viable and
conserving architectural heritage by involving traditional craftspeople is effective. Prioritizing
continuity of original functions, any new use should consider its impact on the local context,
adhering to the capacity and vulnerability of the heritage. Comprehensive documentation
should accompany any changes to the original fabric, ensuring coherence and engagement
with traditional materials and skills. When altering internal functions, the external Fig. should
be retained, involving the local community and communicating the benefits of the changes.
● Restoration/ Replication/ Rebuilding: Restoration reinstates the integrity or completeness of

architectural heritage/site, aiming to effectively convey its meaning, and may involve
reassembly or replacement of missing or deteriorated parts, preceded and followed by
documentation. Replication can be appropriate to conserve historic buildings and encourage
traditional building methods. Rebuilding at the urban level enhances the visual and
experiential quality of the built environment, countering global homogeneity. Reconstruction
should be based on minimal physical evidence supported by local crafts people’s knowledge
and folklore, reinforcing the heritage's bond with society.
Other sources (URA, Singapore) state that the core principle of conservation that applies to
all preserved buildings, regardless of their size or complexity, is based on the concept of
maximum retention, sensitive restoration, and careful repair, often referred to as the "3R"s.
Replacement of original elements should only be considered when absolutely necessary,
while complete reconstruction contradicts established international conservation practices.
When upgrading and adapting a building for new purposes, the existing structure should be
preserved by strengthening and repairing its structural elements. Any alterations or
reinforcements to these elements should be carried out in a manner that is sympathetic and
unobtrusive, utilizing original methods and materials whenever feasible.
● Employment Generation: Conservation strategies should focus on employing local

craftsmen, labour, and materials to sustain traditional building practices economically.
Utilizing architectural heritage as an alternate strategy meets contemporary needs and
supports traditional ways of building.
● Local Material and Traditional Technology: Preference should be given to local materials
and traditional technologies, based on available traditional knowledge systems. Modern
substitutes should be considered only if proven efficient and judicious, without compromising
the integrity of local building traditions. However, caution must be exercised in using certain
materials that may damage ecological systems, such as shell lime in coastal areas or wood in
general, which may require appropriate substitutions.
● Integrated Conservation: Architectural heritage conservation should be integrated with social

and economic aspirations of the community. Conservation-oriented development should be
prioritized, necessitating multi-disciplinary teams that include social workers to facilitate
dialogue and decision-making, considering diverse social aspirations.
● Sustainability: Conservation should aim to sustain the buildings and/or the traditional skills
and knowledge systems for building, positively contributing to the quality of life for the local
community over time.
Several Conservation guidelines are available from INTACH, ICOMOS (international council on
monuments and sites), and International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration
of Cultural Property (ICCROM), UNESCO.
Repair and Rehabilitation of Structure
Rehabilitation is the process of restoring the structure to service level, once it had and now lost,
strengthening consists in endowing the structure with a service level, higher than that initially
planned by modifying the structure not necessarily damaged structure. Repair is the process of
restoring something that is damaged or deteriorated or broken, to good condition, and is a
means to perform rehabilitation through the improvement or modification of a structure, partly
or wholly, which is damaged in appearance or serviceability. The primary objective of Repair
and Rehabilitation is to restore the structure, maximizing its functional usefulness. It also serves
the purpose of adapting the structure to fulfil new functional and other requirements. Repair and
Rehabilitation techniques are employed for various reasons in structures, including but not
limited to the following: damage due to accidents, deterioration due to Environment effects
(Fire, Natural calamities like earthquake, Flood, Tsunami, cyclones, Soil and structure
interaction, such as, settlement of soil or soil failure), and new functional or loading
requirements requiring modifications to structure.
The general approach followed in the Repair and Rehabilitation process involves;
● Identifying the building in need of rehabilitation by performing a Structural Audit of the

building.
● Gathering information about its history, conducting a preliminary survey that includes
necessary tests to evaluate various retrofitting options, materials, feasibility and economy.
● Identifying the problems by performing structural calculations and capacity demand ratio
for structural members.
● Conceptualising appropriate and feasible solutions, such as, retrofitting/construction,
that aligns with the building's topographical conditions.
● Execution of the solution by getting the rehabilitation of the building done.
● Post repair/retrofitting tests.
Retrofitting
Retrofitting refers to the engineering process of modifying existing buildings to improve their
structural behaviour while preserving their fundamental intended use. It is important to consider
the following aspects for retrofitting, as recommended by (Chandar, 2014);
● Functionality aspect: The basic function/ operation of the structure should not be
hampered.
● Structural safety Aspect: The susceptibility of the structure to an earthquake event has to
be within acceptable standards.
● Importance Level Aspect: Historic buildings with immense archaeological importance
are sometimes beyond the cost factor for retrofitting. Such structures have to be
rehabilitated without changing its elegance.
● Construction Methodology Aspect: The retrofitting has to be performed using latest
construction techniques that have the minimal impact on usual functioning of the
buildings.
● Economy Aspect: The entire cost of construction has to be practical and logical towards
extended life of the structure.
● Skilled labour availability: The retrofitting practices need unusual construction method
and is highly technical job and calls for utmost care to implement it. A very skilled
workmanship must be provided to instrument the suggested measures.
Below are the commonly used techniques for retrofitting a building:
1. Installation of additional Shear Walls is usually in the exterior of non-ductile

reinforced concrete buildings. The wall maybe cast-in-place or pre-cast.
2. Addition of Steel Bracing is done for higher strength and stiffness when large
openings are required, usually for natural lighting.
3. Application of Wall Thickening Technique to existing walls of a building is done by
adding bricks, concrete and steel reinforcement, and is designed special conditions.
4. Implementation of Base Isolation Technique of the superstructure from the
foundation is done as a passive structural vibration control technique. It buffers
seismic loads and protect the building from damage, however, it is inefficient in
high-rises.
5. Adoption of Mass Reduction Technique, such as removal of a storey, is done to
decrease the loading.
6. Utilization of Jacketing Method to strengthen columns and beams by adding a jacket
of longitudinal and traverse reinforcement, along with cement, around the structural
element.
7. Incorporation of Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) to axially strengthen columns and
enhance its ductility, and in turn, increase load carrying capacity and improve shear
capacity of the member.
8. Application of Epoxy Injection Method to non-moving cracks in concrete walls,

slabs, columns, and piers, thereby restoring the strength of the concrete.
9. Implementation of External Plate Bonding for increasing the shear strength of
reinforced concrete beams by completely or partially wrapping steel plates at the
joint of a column and beam with external plates or strips, improves the shear strength.
10. Section-enlarging Reinforcing Method is used to increase the bearing capacity and
cross-section stiffness, widely used for RCC beam, slabs, columns.
Fig. 10: Retrofitting Solutions (Top Left to Right) Shear Wall, Steel Bracing, Section Enlarging reinforcement,
(Middle Left to Right) FRP Reinforced, (Bottom Left to Right) Epoxy Injection Method, External plate Bonding
Various national and international codes and standards are being developed and updated, grounded on
methodologies for optimisation, efficiency and further, integrated with sustainability considerations.
These entail for specific civil engineering tasks, design requirements and specifications, construction
techniques, environmental management and overall, sustainable infrastructure development.
5.3.1 Building Codes
The International Building Code (IBC), developed by the International Code Council (ICC), is widely
used and adopted across the United States and the continent of North America. It also serves as
the basis for the legislative building codes for several countries, like Mexico and Abu Dhabi. It
focuses on adequate light and ventilation, energy conservation, means of egress facilities, and
safety to life and property from fire, explosion, and other hazards; etc. India’s indigenous
building code, the National Building Code is developed by BIS.
The NBC 2016, has incorporated a lot of new and salient features (Annexure 2) in keeping with
the current automation trends and sustainability goals, a few of which are as follows ;
● Detailed provisions relating to requirements for accessibility in buildings and built

environment for persons with disabilities and the elderly.
● Norms for solar energy utilization.
● Fire and life safety in modern complex buildings including the high rises, glazed
buildings, atria, commercial kitchen and car parking facilities.
● Updated structural design provisions for wind and seismic loads, imposed load due to
helipad, and blast loads, for safe design and construction of buildings with due focus on
ductile detailing.
● Latest research and development inputs and provisions on concrete, steel and masonry
buildings with a view to ensuring disaster resilient buildings.
● Updated provisions on engineered use of bamboo in housing and other building
construction.
● Promotion of use of agricultural and industrial wastes including construction and
demolition wastes in building construction without compromising the quality and safety.
● New and alternative building materials, and technologies for building construction such
as, reinforced masonry, confined masonry building construction and masonry wall
construction using rat-trap bond.
● Inclusion of modern lighting techniques such as LED and induction light and their energy
consumption.
● Provisions on aviation obstacle lights; electric vehicle charging and car park management.
● Use of refrigerants for air conditioning addressing zero ozone depletion potential
(ODP) and ultra-low global warming potential (GWP).
● Inclusion of new and energy efficient options of air conditioning, heating and mechanical
ventilation, such as variable refrigerant flow system, inverter technology, district cooling
system, hybrid central plant using chilled beams, radiant floor components, and geothermal
cooling and heating.
● Thrust on envelope optimization using energy modelling, day lighting simulation, solar
shade analysis and wind modelling software to optimize the air conditioning load.
● Air conditioning, heating, and ventilation (HVAC) provisions considering adaptive
thermal comfort conditions for energy efficiency.
● Updated provisions on building automation system to include the latest practices for web-
based monitoring and control of performance parameters.
● New chapter on information and communication enabled installations in buildings.
● Updated provisions on rainwater harvesting.
● New chapter on solid waste management covering various solid waste management
systems within the building and building complexes.
● Promoting quality of outdoor built environment through updated provisions on landscape
planning, design and development.
● Promoting sustainability in buildings and built environment in tandem with relevant
sustainable development goals.
● New chapter on asset and facility management to cover provisions relating to
management of building assets and associated services, also covering responsibilities of
occupants for maintenance of facilities, such as structures, equipment and exterior property.
Another complimentary body is the Indian Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ISHRAE), which is the only national body in India which has
developed code for IEQ of buildings, as stated in their 2015 position paper, and has further
emphasized on the need for an integrated design approach that blends IEQ and Energy
efficiency.
5.3.2 Building Information Modeling Standards
ISO 19650 standard is an internationally recognized guideline for effectively managing information
throughout the entire lifecycle of a built asset using building information modeling (BIM). It
encompasses the same principles and high-level requirements as the UK BIM Framework and
aligns closely with the existing UK 1192 standards.
It is a series of international standards that provide guidelines and requirements for the
organization and management of information within the construction industry, including civil
engineering projects, by promoting the use of Building Information Modeling (BIM) and
standardized processes for information management. It covers various aspects of information
management, such as the creation, exchange, and management of digital information throughout
the lifecycle of a construction project, with the aim to improve collaboration, efficiency, and
interoperability among project stakeholders via BIM. ISO 19650 also addresses topics such as
data classification, information security, and documentation requirements. The ISO 19650
standard series includes ;
● BS EN ISO 19650-1: This part focuses on the organization and digitalization of

information related to buildings and civil engineering works, including building
information modelling. It outlines the concepts and principles of information
management using BIM.
● BS EN ISO 19650-2: This part deals with the organization and digitalization of
information during the delivery phase of assets in buildings and civil engineering works.
It provides guidance on information management using BIM during this stage.
● BS EN ISO 19650-3:2020: This part addresses the organization and digitalization of
information in the operational phase of assets in buildings and civil engineering works. It
covers information management using BIM during this period.
● BS EN ISO 19650-5:2020: This part focuses on the organization and digitalization of
information, including building information modelling, with a security-minded approach
to information management.
These standards are founded on the UK’s standards for information management using building
information modelling, namely BS 1192:2007 + A2:2016 and PAS 1192-2:2013. PD 19650-0 -
UK Transition Guidance, which will along with the UK National Forewords and National
Annex aid implementation of the ISO standards in the UK
5.3.3 Environment Management System Standards
An Environmental Management System is “a framework that helps an

organization achieve its environmental goals through consistent review, evaluation, and
improvement of its environmental performance” (EPA). It enables organizations to address their
regulatory obligations in a systematic and cost-effective manner, proactively reduces
environmental risks and enhances health and safety practices for both, occupants, and the
public. Additionally, an EMS can tackle non-regulated concerns like, energy conservation,
while promoting better operational control and encouraging stakeholder stewardship.
The fundamental components of an Environmental Management System encompass;
1. Assessing the organization's environmental objectives.

2. Analysing environmental impacts and compliance obligations, including legal and other
requirements.
3. Establishing environmental objectives and targets aimed at reducing environmental
impacts and meeting compliance obligations.
4. Implementing programs to achieve these objectives and targets.
5. Monitoring and measuring progress towards the established objectives.
6. Ensuring employees are well-informed and possess the necessary environmental
awareness and competence.
7. Conducting regular reviews to track progress and identify opportunities for improvement.
The ISO 14001:2015 is a standard that establishes the requirements for an Environment
Management System to enable organizations to improve their environmental performance,
fulfilment of compliance obligations and achievement of environmental objectives. ISO
14001:2015 is applicable to organizations of all sizes, types, and industries, and covers the
environmental aspects of an organization's activities, products, and services that the
organization can control or influence taking a life cycle perspective into account. It can be
utilised either in its entirety or partially, to systematically enhance their environmental
management practices, however, it does not establish specific environmental performance
criteria.
5.3.4 ISO TC268 ‘Sustainable Cities and Communities’
TC 268 in the area of Sustainable Cities and Communities focuses on standardization efforts that
involve developing requirements, frameworks, guidance, and tools to promote sustainable
development, with considerations for smartness and resilience. The aim is to support all cities,
communities, and stakeholders in rural and urban areas in their journey towards increased
sustainability, in line with the SDGs. It has several working groups in the areas of infrastructure
metrics, Integration and interaction framework for smart community infrastructures, Data
exchange and sharing for smart community infrastructures, Power plant, Disaster risk reduction
and Utility tunnel.
ISO/TC268, is responsible for the ISO 37100: 2016 series of standards that assists cities in
defining their sustainability objectives and implementing strategies to achieve them. ISO/TR
37150 introduced indicators like Global City Indicators, Green City Index, and Smart City
concepts driven by ICT. Efforts are underway to enhance existing indicators, such as, ISO/NP
37122, which focuses on "Sustainable Development in Communities - Indicators for Smart
Cities" through legislations (currently in the proposal phase, and soon to be replaced by the
ISO/AWI 37100)
The world is constantly developing new knowledge, methodologies, and innovative tools to
strategically address improvements in the built environment and strive towards sustainability, due
to its profound impact – at the societal and global level. It is imperative that the civil engineer of
the future is much more than a master builder, but must gain competence in several other areas of
leadership to ensure that the aim of sustainable development is achieved.
UNIT SUMMARY
This elementary unit presents the three pronged story of a good built-environment, as
described by Vitruvius – utility, durability and beauty (aesthetics), from the lens of
sustainable development. The unit elaborates the various sustainability practices and
applications within the domain, such as, Facility management and sustainability
strategies, Building control systems, Building certification and rating, and Smartness
readiness Index, to enable the civil engineer for sound environmental decision-making.
Additionally, the unit further introduces the importance and relevance of ‘aesthetics’ and
its need to preserve the culture inherent in built-environment through practices of
heritage conservation, and repair and rehabilitation. Lastly, the knowledge of the various
national and international codes and standards for ensuring prioritisation and
incorporation of environmental sustainability in practice is propounded.
EXERCISES
Q. 5.1 Which of the following are not key activities of Facility Management?
(a) Maintenance, cleaning, testing, and inspection
(b) Regulatory Compliance
(c) Heritage Conservation
(d) Safety and Security
Q. 5.2 What are practical strategies of sustainable facility management?

(a) Waste management
(b) Green Building Certification
(c) Performance Monitoring
Q. 5.3 Which is not a design strategy for reduction of embodied energy?

(a) Use of recyclable materials
(b) Parametricism
(c) Design for deconstruction
(d) Low maintenance design
Q. 5.4 Which LEED category has the highest associated credit points (33 credits)?
(a) Location and Transportation
(b) Materials and Resources
(c) Energy and Atmosphere
(d) Water efficiency
Q. 5.5 Name India’s national body responsible for developing contextually appropriate
Heritage Conservation guidelines and objectives?
(a) INTACH
(b) ICOMOS
(c) ICCROM
(d) UNESCO
Answers of Multiple Choice Questions: 5.1 (c) , 5.2 (d) , 5.3 (b), 5.4 (c), 5.5 (a)
Q. 5.6 What is Aesthetics? Why is it an important consideration in built-environment.
Q. 5.7 What is a Building Control System? Illustrate the different types of sub-systems that it
may have and their functionalities.
Q. 5.8 Discuss the various Green Building Certification/Rating systems used in India. Discuss
one in detail.
Q. 5.9 What is embodied energy and embodied carbon? What are some of the design
strategies for reduction of embodied energy and embodied carbon, elucidate with examples.
Q. 5.10 What are some of the new and innovative additions to the NBC 2016? Explain any
two that will have profound impact on environmental sustainability.
KNOW MORE
History of Facility Management
https://www.rentokil-pestcontrolindia.com/facilities-management/history/
About Embodied Carbon
https://worldgbc.org/advancing-net-zero/embodied-carbon/
Environmental Management System
https://www.epa.gov/ems/learn-about-environmental-management-systems#costs
About Smart Growth: What is Built Environment?
https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/about-smart-growth#what-is-the-built-environment
[Book] Fennimore, J. P. (2014). Sustainable Facility Management: Operational Strategies for Today.
Boston, MA, USA: Pearson.
[Book] Roper, K., & Payant, R. (2014). The facility management handbook. Amacom
[Book] Nervi, P. (2018). Aesthetics and Technology in Building: The Twenty-First-Century Edition.
University of Illinois Press.
[Book] Quereshi, S., Jadhao, P. R., Pandey, A., Ahmad, E., & Pant, K. K. (2021). Sustainable Fuel
Technologies Handbook.
Al Dakheel, J., Del Pero, C., Aste, N., & Leonforte, F. (2020). Smart buildings features and key
performance indicators: A review. Sustainable Cities and Society, 61, 102328.
Ali, A.M., and Acharya, S. (2023). Understanding Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
of Naturally Ventilated Educational Buildings – A systematic literature review. In Proceedings of
International Conference on Research into Design. Springer, Singapore.
Buckman, A. H., Mayfield, M., & Beck, S. B. (2014). What is a smart building? Smart and
Sustainable Built Environment, 3(2), 92-109.
Chandar, S. S. (2014). Rehabilitation of buildings. International Journal of Civil Engineering
Research, 5(4), 333-338.
Gupta, J., & Chakraborty, M. (2021). Energy efficiency in buildings. In Sustainable Fuel Technologies
Handbook (pp. 457-480). Academic Press.
Heeren, N., Mutel, C.L., Steubing, B., Ostermeyer, Y., Wallbaum, H. and Hellweg, S., 2015.
Environmental Impact of Buildings. What Matters? Environmental science & technology,
49(16), pp.9832-9841.
Huang, B., Gao, X., Xu, X., Song, J., Geng, Y., Sarkis, J., ... & Nakatani, J. (2020). A life cycle
thinking framework to mitigate the environmental impact of building materials. One Earth, 3(5),
564-573.
Ji, S., Banerjee, S., & Punekar, R. M. (2017). Assessment of GRIHA and LEED on the Parameters of
Sustainable Design and Development of Buildings. In Research into Design for Communities,
Volume 2: Proceedings of ICoRD 2017 (pp. 179-188). Springer Singapore.
Kralj, D., & MariČ, M. (2008). Building materials reuse and recycle. WSEAS transactions on
environment and development, 4(5).
Lupíšek, A., Vaculíková, M., Manľík, Š., Hodková, J., & Růžiľka, J. (2015). Design strategies for low
embodied carbon and low embodied energy buildings: principles and examples. Energy
Procedia, 83, 147-156.
Sande, I. I., & Phadtare, N. S. (2015). Comparative study of LEED and GRIHA rating system. Journal
Of Information, Knowledge And Research, 3(2), 168-174.
World Health Organization (WHO). (2016). Urban Green Spaces and Health: A Review of Evidence.
Geneva: World Health Organization.
Web sources
https://www.epa.gov/ems
https://www.iso.org/standard/60857.html
https://smart-cities-
marketplace.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/pimes_guide_for_bioclimatic_design.pd
f https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/duaca_act(1).pdf
https://www.duac.org.in/u/Default
https://www.bis.gov.in/standards/technical-department/national-building-code/
https://www.ashrae.org/file%20library/about/position%20documents/pd_indoor-air-quality-2020-07-
01.pdf
https://ishrae.in/Content/Download/ISHRAE_IEQ_Feb_26_2019_public_draft.pdf
UNIT SPECIFICS
● Civil Engineering projects and its impact

o Environmental Impact Analysis procedures
o Sustainable Construction - Waste avoidance/ Efficiency increase
Advanced construction techniques for better sustainability
Techniques for reduction of Green House Gas emissions in various aspects of Civil
Engineering Projects
● Project Management and Contributions of Civil Engineers
o Paradigms & Systems - Waterfall / Traditional Project Management, Agile
Construction Management, and Lean Construction Management
o Quality of products, Health & Safety aspects for stakeholders
o Demand and Contribution of Civil Engineers
● Innovations and methodologies for ensuring Sustainability in Projects
Besides giving a large number of multiple-choice questions as well as questions of short and
practice.
Unit 6 – Civil Engineering Projects
RATIONALE
This concluding unit on civil engineering projects, offers the civil engineer a pragmatic view of
the tasks and responsibilities to be shouldered during professional practice, be it with respect to
environmental sustainability assessment and mitigation on site, or project management aspects.
UNIT OUTCOMES

U6-O1: Knowledge on Civil Engineering projects and its impact
U6-O2: Knowledge on Project Management and Contribution of Civil Engineering
U6-O3: Knowledge on Innovations and methodologies for ensuring Sustainability during Project
development.

Unit-6
U6-O1 3 3 3 2 3 3 2
U6-O2 2 1 2 3 3 3 3
U6-O3 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
Civil Engineering projects are multi-faceted and to address its impact on the
environment, various procedures, activities, and strategies are employed by large, multidisciplinary
teams, sometimes across geographies. By embracing sustainable practices and technologies, civil
engineering projects can minimize their ecological footprint and contribute to a more sustainable
future.
6.1 CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS AND ITS IMPACT

A construction project is a collaborative effort with “a group of interrelated work activities
constrained by a specific scope, budget, and schedule to deliver capital assets needed to achieve the
strategic goals of an Agency” (Shadan and Fleming, 2012), where the agency or client, maybe an
individual, a private or public enterprise.
A construction project typically has the following phases (refer Fig. 1);
● Project initiation which entails, defining the project requirements, scoping the project,
develop a project delivery strategy and contract management planning.
● Planning/Environmental Clearance and Real Estate Acquisition which entails, planning
various site studies, checking compliance and applying for Environmental clearance,
acquiring or relocating and taking possession of the land.
● Design entails designing the built environment as per stakeholder requirements and site
conditions, design management, design reviews, feasibility/constructability reviews, risk
assessment, Quality assurance and Quality control, incorporating Sustainability (Green
building) standards and codes, and Certification.
● Construction entails construction management, third-party coordination, Quality
management, Safety management during construction.
● Commissioning entails validating the building equipment and systems with operations
personnel and third parties.
● Project Close-out / Operations is when the project begins to function as intended and all
hand-over is done to the Agency/client.
The success of a project requires; Collaborating with architects, engineers and contractors to develop
plans and establish timelines, Estimating and negotiating project costs, Creating and monitoring
project budgets, Securing permits and design evaluations, Making schedules and work
timetables, Determining what methods and strategies are appropriate for a project,
Communicating with clients, contractors and other stakeholders, Assembling and leading
construction teams, Working with building, construction and regulatory specialists, and
Managing the day-to-day workflow of a project. The environmental impact of the project has to
be systematically addressed and mitigated at each phase through procedure and a sustainable
construction commitment.
Fig. 6.1 : (Top) Typical Project Life Cycle - Traditional Design/Bid/Build, (Bottom) Project Resources
(Shadan and Fleming, 2012)
6.1.1 EIA Procedures : Environmental Clearance for Project
During project planning and pre-design, a critical step is acquiring the Environmental Clearance.
The EIA Notification of 2006 mandated Prior Environmental Clearance, which involves four
stages namely, screening; scoping; public consultation; and appraisal, for certain category
of projects. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF), GoI, manages
and publishes EIA Notifications and develops Sector specific Standard Terms of References
(ToR) and manuals for the different sectors. The MoEF categorises all projects under ten
sectors, i.e., (1) Mining, (2) Mineral Beneficiation, (3) Ports and Harbours, (4) Airports, (5-A)
Building Construction, (5-B) Townships, (6) Asbestos, (7) Highways, (8) Coal Washery, (9)
Aerial Ropeways, and (10) Nuclear power plants, Nuclear fuel processing plants and Nuclear
waste management plants, and states that certain type (B) do not require to submit an EIA
report for the clearance. EIA methodology, as explained in earlier Unit, has various steps,
namely: Screening, Scoping, Impact Analysis, Mitigation, Reporting, Review of EIA,
Decision-Making, and Post Monitoring, to develop a report on the state of affairs of the
proposed project and its possible impact on the environment.
To begin an Environmental Clearance for Project, following are the steps

outlined by the Centre for Science and Environment, India;
Step 1: Project proponent identifies the location of proposed plant after ensuring compliance
with existing siting guidelines.
Step 2: The project proponent then assesses if the proposed activity/project falls under the
purview of environmental clearance. If it is mentioned in schedule of the notification, the
proponent conducts an EIA study either directly or through a consultant, however, B2 projects
do not require preparation of EIA reports.
Step 3: After the EIA report is ready, the investor approaches the concerned State Pollution
Control Board (SPCB) and the State Forest Department (if the location involves use of
forestland). The SPCB evaluates and assesses the quantity and quality of effluents likely to be
generated by the proposed unit as well as the efficacy of the control measures proposed by the
investor to meet the prescribed standards. If the SPCB is satisfied that the proposed unit will
meet all the prescribed effluent and emissions standards, it issues consent to establish (popularly
known as NOC), which is valid for 15 years.
Step 4: The process of public hearing is conducted prior to the issue of NOC from SPCB. The
District Collector is the chairperson of the public hearing committee. Other members of the
committee include the official from the district development body, SPCB, Department of
Environment and Forest, Taluka and Gram Panchayat representative, and senior citizen of the
district, etc. The hearing committee hears the objections/suggestions from the public and after
inserting certain clauses it is passed on to the next stage of approval (Ministry of Forest and
Environment).
Step 5: The project proponent submits an application for environmental clearance with the
MoEF if it falls under Project A category or the state government if it falls under project B
category. The application form (1 and 1A, details given below in next Section) is submitted with
EIA report, EMP, details of public hearing and NOC granted by the state regulators.
Step 6: Environmental appraisal: The documents submitted by an investor are first scrutinised
by a multi-disciplinary staff functioning in the Ministry of Environment and Forests who may
also undertake site-visits wherever required, interact with the investors and hold consultations
with experts on specific issues as and when necessary. After this preliminary scrutiny, the
proposals are placed before specially constituted committees of experts whose composition is
specified in the EIA Notification.
Step 7: Issues of clearance or rejection letter: When a project requires both environmental
clearance as well as approval under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980. The clearance granted
shall be valid for a period of five years for commencements of the construction or operation of
the project.
Application Forms for Environmental Clearance
Details of Form1 is to be filled, which comprises of general project information and a checklist
for confirmation on the Activity and Environmental Sensitivity of the proposed site is to be
filled out, as below;
1. Basic Information, on
1.1. Name of project, Proposed capacity/area, Type of Project (New, Modernisation,
Expansion), Existing capacity/area, Category of project, Location, etc.
1.2. Whether the proposal involves approval/clearance under: if, yes details of the same
and their status to be given a) The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980? (b) The wildlife
(protection) Act, 1972? (c) The CRZ Notification, 1991?
1.3. Whether there is any Government Order/policy relevant/relating to the site?
1.4. Forest land involved (hectares)

1.5. Whether there is any litigation pending against the project and/or land in which the
project is proposed to be set up?
2. Activity (Each sub-section has several Information/Checklist confirmation)
2.1. Construction, operation or decommissioning of the Project involving actions,
which will cause physical changes in the locality (topography, land use, changes in
water bodies, etc.)
2.2. Use of Natural resources for construction or operation of the Project (such as land,
water, materials or energy, especially any resources which are non-renewable or in
short supply):
2.3. Use, storage, transport, handling or production of substances or materials, which could
be harmful to human health or the environment or raise concerns about actual or
perceived risks to human health.
2.4. Production of solid wastes during construction or operation or
decommissioning (MT/month)
2.5. Release of pollutants or any hazardous, toxic or noxious substances to air (Kg/hr)
2.6. Generation of Noise and Vibration, and Emissions of Light and Heat:
2.7. Risks of contamination of land or water from releases of pollutants into the ground
or into sewers, surface waters, groundwater, coastal waters or the sea:
2.8. Risk of accidents during construction or operation of the Project, which could affect
human health or the environment.
2.9. Factors which should be considered (such as consequential development) which
could lead to environmental effects or the potential for cumulative impacts with other
existing or planned activities in the locality.
3. Environmental Sensitivity
3.1. Areas protected under international conventions, national or local legislation for
their ecological, landscape, cultural or other related value
3.2. Areas which are important or sensitive for ecological reasons - Wetlands,
watercourses or other water bodies, coastal zone, biospheres, mountains, forests
3.3. Areas used by protected, important or sensitive flora or breeding, foraging, resting,
over wintering, migration.
3.4. Inland, coastal, marine or underground waters
3.5. State, National boundaries
3.6. Routes or facilities used by the public for access to recreation or another tourist,
pilgrim areas
3.7. Defence installations
3.8. Densely populated or built-up area
3.9. Areas occupied by sensitive man-made land uses (hospitals, schools, places of
worship, community facilities)
3.10. Areas containing important, high quality or scarce resources (ground water
resources, surface resources, forestry, agriculture, fisheries, tourism, minerals)
3.11. Areas already subjected to pollution or environmental damage. (Those where
existing legal environmental standards are exceeded)
3.12. Areas susceptible to natural hazard which could cause the project to present
environmental problems (earthquakes, subsidence, landslides, erosion, flooding
or extreme or adverse climatic conditions)
Then, Proposed Terms of Reference (TOR) for EIA studies applicable, is to be agreed by
the proposer.
Details of Form 1A, which is a check list of environmental impacts is to be filled out,
which is a table of 9 sections across the different environmental categories, which are;
1. Land Environment (1.1-1.9 questions)
2. Water environment (2.1-2.14 questions)
3. Vegetation (3.1- 3.3 questions)
4. Fauna (4.1- 4.3 questions)
5. Air environment (5.1- 5.6 questions)
6. Aesthetics (6.1- 6.4 questions)
7. Socio-economic aspects (7.1- 7.3 questions)
8. Building materials (8.1- 8.4 questions)
9. Energy conservation (9.1- 9.13 questions)
10. Environment management plan (for Construction phase and Functional /Use
phase) across 5 subheadings; i.e., Environmental Components (Ambient Air,
noise, water, Land Aesthetics), Predicted Impact, Probable source of Impact,
Mitigation Measures and Remarks.
Fig. 6.1: Elements of a Sustainable Project

6.1.2 Sustainable Construction

Sustainable construction is defined as “how the construction industry together with its product the
‘built environment’, among many sectors of the economy and human activity, can contribute to
the sustainability of the earth including its human and non-human inhabitants” (Kibert, 2007).
The goal of sustainable construction is to minimize the environmental impact caused by the
construction industry, through the following objectives:
1. Utilise renewable and recyclable materials.
2. Decrease the embodied energy within building materials.
3. Reduce the energy consumption of the completed building.
4. Minimize on-site waste generation.
5. Safeguard natural habitats.
Sustainable construction encompasses various activities, ranging from extracting materials and
manufacturing products, to assembling them into buildings, maintaining and replacing systems,
and ultimately disposing of waste, building systems, and the building structure, whilst
considering the above mentioned objectives throughout the entire lifecycle of the construction
process and the resulting built environment. Additionally, the physical distribution and
relationships between buildings and infrastructure play a role in determining consumption
patterns, which are influenced by planning decisions. The implementation of sustainable
construction is further complicated by the involvement of public policy in the form of
regulations, incentives, and disincentives. It also involves the participation of industries such as
real estate, finance, and insurance, as well as institutions like higher education, design firms,
and construction companies.
Waste Avoidance/ Efficiency Increase

Overall efficiency increases, in terms of material usage, manpower and equipment
utilisation, energy and other resource consumption, and its associated economic costs, by
waste avoidance. Reducing disposal of waste construction and demolition materials, reduces
the environmental impact caused by the extraction and consumption of virgin resources and
the production of new materials is offset. It brings about cost reductions in overall building
projects by avoiding purchase costs through the reuse of materials and by donating recovered
materials to qualified charities, which can provide tax benefits. Furthermore, the use of onsite
material reuse helps lower transportation costs. Employing deconstruction and selective
demolition methods leads to the creation of jobs, stimulates economic activities in recycling
industries, and generates increased business opportunities within local communities. Last but
not the least, implementing sustainable construction practices reduces the need for disposal
facilities, thereby mitigating associated environmental issues, which in turn, contributes to the
conservation of landfill space by diverting materials from disposal.
Techniques for reduction of Green House Gas emissions

The construction industry has several activities which result in direct or indirect Greenhouse gas
emissions. The buildings and construction sector were responsible for 36% of total energy
consumption and 39% of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions related to energy use and industrial
processes. Out of these emissions, approximately 11% can be attributed to the manufacturing of
building materials and products, including steel, cement, and glass, as per IEA (2018). Thus, the
concept of embodied carbon captures the implied CO2 equivalent/GHG emission, as discussed
earlier, and is the critical decider when it comes to strategizing techniques to reduce GHG
emission.
Techniques recommended by AIA are;
● Limit carbon-intensive materials, like aluminium, plastics, and foam insulation, and
use judiciously.
● Choose lower carbon alternatives, such as, wood structure instead of steel
and concrete, or wood siding instead of vinyl, and review Environmental
Product Declarations for selecting alternatives.
● Choose carbon sequestering materials, like wood, straw or hemp insulation and bring
down the embodied carbon in a project.
● Reuse materials, like brick, metals, broken concrete, or wood, as salvaged
materials typically have a much lower embodied carbon footprint than those newly
manufactured.
● Use high-recycled content materials, particularly for metals as they are carbon-
intensive but can be recycled, which brings down its embodied carbon value.
● Use fewer finish materials, such as, polished concrete slabs in place of tiled, carpet or
vinyl finished flooring saves the embodied carbon.
● Minimize waste, as discussed above. Modularity and standard sizes for common
materials like plywood, gypsum boards, wood framing, and pre-cut structural
members can be factored in during design and wastage can be minimised.
● Maximize structural efficiency, as it is the highest contributor to the embodied carbon
of the project, and using optimum value engineering wood framing methods, efficient
structural sections, and slabs are all effective methods to maximize efficiency and
minimize material use.
● Reuse buildings instead of constructing new ones, as renovation and reuse projects
typically save between 50 and 75 percent of the embodied carbon emissions compared
to constructing a new building.
Advanced Construction Techniques For Better Sustainability

Following are the technologies in construction have potential to significantly enhance sustainability;
1. Prefabrication involves the manufacturing of building elements/components or modules off-
site and their assembly on-site, allowing for better quality control, reduced material waste,
and faster construction timelines. This technique improves construction efficiency, reduces
waste, enhances quality control, and minimizes disruption to the surrounding environment. It
also enables easier deconstruction and material reuse at the end of a building's life cycle. In
addition, employing a controlled environment in which to construct and pre-fabricate, results
in improved quality of building components and less waste, as external conditions can no
longer hinder its properties.
Fig. 6.2: Prefabricated building elements
2. Modular construction takes this a step further by assembling pre-made modules to create
complete structures, offering flexibility, reduced on-site disruptions, and potential for
deconstruction and reuse.
3. Mass Timber Construction refers to the use of large, prefabricated timber panels or
components for structural elements, such as cross-laminated timber (CLT) and glued-
laminated timber (glulam) which offer high strength, reduced carbon emissions, and faster
construction times.
4. Robotic construction is an advanced technique involving robots and automation technologies,
to perform various construction tasks, such as bricklaying, concrete pouring, and material
handling, revolutionizing the construction industry. It offers high accuracy and efficiency,
improved safety, enhanced productivity, and reduced labour costs.
5. 3D printing utilizes robotic arms or gantries to precisely deposit layers of construction

materials, such as concrete or specialized composite materials, based on complex and
customised digital designs. 3D printing in construction offers several benefits, including
faster construction timelines, reduced material waste, enhanced design flexibility, and cost
savings, and additionally, allows for the integration of sustainable features, such as
incorporating insulation directly into the printed structure.
Fig. 6.3 : Advanced technologies : (Top Left) Modular construction, (Top Right) Mass timber construction,
(Bottom Left) Robotic construction and (Bottom Right) 3D printing
6.2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Project management in construction projects refers to the discipline of planning, organizing, and
controlling resources and activities to successfully deliver construction projects within defined
constraints of time, budget, and quality. It involves coordinating various stakeholders,
managing risks, and ensuring the project progresses smoothly from initiation to completion The
PMC (project management consultant) includes the project manager, project & planning
engineer, construction manager, site engineer, surveyor, Quality control engineer, Health and
safety officer, etc. It is their responsibility to ensure timely and quality construction of projects.
6.2.1 Project Management paradigms and systems
Paradigms and Approaches
In construction project management, different paradigms or approaches are employed based on the
project's unique characteristics and requirements, such as;
1. Traditional/Waterfall Paradigm: The traditional paradigm follows a linear sequence of
project phases, where each phase is completed before moving on to the next. This includes
distinct stages such as initiation, planning, design, construction, and handover. It emphasizes
detailed planning, documentation, and a hierarchical management structure.
2. Agile Paradigm: Agile project management focuses on flexibility, adaptability, and iterative
development. It emphasizes collaboration, frequent feedback, and continuous improvement.
Agile methodologies, such as Scrum and Kanban, allow for dynamic project planning, quick
decision-making, and shorter development cycles.
3. Lean Construction Paradigm: Lean construction aims to maximize value and minimize
waste by streamlining processes and eliminating non-value-adding activities. It emphasizes
continuous improvement, visual management, and the reduction of bottlenecks. Lean
principles, derived from the manufacturing industry, are applied to improve efficiency and
productivity in construction projects.
Other systemic approaches based on Project Delivery strategy are ;

1. Design/Bid/Build approach is when the owner manages the project, contracts out design to
engineering consultants and construction to contractors, and retains a General Engineering
Consultant (GEC), Construction Management (CM) and Program Management consultant
(PMC).
2. Design/Build approach is when a single entity, typically a design-build contractor, is
responsible for both the design and construction of the project. This integrated approach
reduces coordination issues and promotes efficient communication, resulting in faster project
delivery and potentially lower costs.
3. Turnkey or D/B/O/M approach is when a turnkey contractor is in charge from design
conceptualisation to operation and maintenance.
4. Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) is a collaborative approach where all project stakeholders,
including the owner, architects, engineers, contractors, and suppliers, work together from the
project's inception. It emphasizes early involvement, shared decision- making, and
risk/reward sharing, fostering collaboration, and improving project outcomes.
5. Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is a contractual arrangement between a public agency and
a private sector entity. It combines public sector requirements with private sector innovation
and expertise. PPPs can help finance, develop, and operate infrastructure projects, leveraging
private sector resources while sharing risks and rewards.
Project Management Systems
Cleland (1977) proposed a model for project management

system, through the perspective of ‘systems approach’, with
the project team at the focus interacting with the various
functional sub-systems, as below;
● The Organizational Facilitative Subsystem

refers to the arrangement within an
organization that combines project teams with
the functional structure. This creates a
Fig. 6.4: Project management Model, showing the focal
"matrix" organization that establishes formal position of the project team and the interacting
authority, responsibility patterns, and reporting sub-systems
(Cleland, 1977)
relationships to facilitate the initiation and
completion of specific projects. In this
context, two key organizational units emerge:
the project team and the functional units.
● The Project Planning Subsystem focuses on the selection of projects, identification of project
objectives and goals, and the formulation of a strategy to achieve those objectives and goals.
Project plans outline the necessary resources and allocation methods to support the project,
drawing from the organization's resources regardless of their location.
● The Project Control Subsystem involves setting performance standards for the project's schedule,
budget, and technical aspects. This subsystem incorporates feedback mechanisms to compare
actual progress with planned progress and initiates corrective action when necessary. The control
subsystem ensures effective monitoring of the various organizational units involved in the project,
ensuring timely and within-budget project delivery.
● The Project Management Information Subsystem encompasses the essential intelligence
required for effective project control. This subsystem can be informal, involving periodic
meetings where project participants report on their project work's status. Alternatively, it can be a
formal information retrieval system that provides regular updates on project activities. This
subsystem enables project team members to make informed decisions and implement effective
project management strategies.
● Techniques and Methodology, while not a subsystem in the traditional sense, encompass various
management science techniques such as PERT, CPM, PERT-Cost related scheduling techniques,
modeling, simulation, linear programming, and regression analysis. These techniques help
evaluate risk and uncertainty factors in project decision-making.
● The Cultural Ambience Subsystem reflects the organization's environment and the practice of
project management within it. The cultural ambience encompasses how individuals and social
groups perceive and feel about project management practices in the organization. Factors such as
emotions, attitudes, assumptions, experiences, and values shape the organization's cultural
ambience. This ambience influences individual behaviours, thoughts, feelings, and expressions,
ultimately determining socially acceptable behaviour within the organization.
Construction Project Management Software
The Global construction management software market is expected to expand at a CAGR (Compound
Annual Growth Rate) of 8.70% from 2020 to 2027 and reach a net worth of $2.73 billion by 2027, as
per the (Data Bridge Market Research).
Construction project management software is a solution employed by professionals to streamline

the construction planning process. These tools provide engineering estimates and capital
maintenance capabilities, making them suitable for managing projects of varying sizes and
complexities. It enables users to define categories or jobs, track itemized costs, and
automatically generate financial reports. By incorporating features such as GIS/ESRI mapping,
data warehouses, and budget and risk analysis, construction project management software
facilitates smoother project development processes. Many construction ERP software packages
include construction project management as a prominent feature.
Construction software aids in tracking project progress and monitoring offsite teams.
● Automated accounting functions streamline tasks such as accounts payables/receivables,

payroll management, and work order entries.
● Job costing capabilities within construction management software enable builders and
contractors to define costs associated with employees, production managers, contractors, and
supervisors.
● Service management features in top-notch construction management software handle
production schedules, work orders, and asset allocation.
● Scheduling for the project delivery lifecycle is critical, the tool helps with rescheduling
timelines, managing resources, and updating schedules.
● Workload automation capabilities are beneficial for planning project timelines and balancing
workloads across multiple channels, including predicting equipment and labor
interdependencies.
● Reporting functionalities in construction project management software provide data
summaries, evaluate project status, and present architectural services costs.
● Inventory management features in construction software help locate lost inventories, track
assets on job sites, and conduct inventory audits.
There are several construction project management software presently available, each with certain
pros and cons, briefly discussed below (https://project-management.com/) ;
monday.com is a versatile platform designed to cater to the needs of architects, builders,

general contractors, and engineers. It facilitates seamless collaboration and file sharing,
enabling users to easily exchange files, images, updates, RFIs (Requests for Information), and
feedback. The platform includes a built-in progress tracking feature that automatically
monitors, calculates, and updates crucial information such as budgets, timelines, and resource
allocation at every stage of the project. This data is presented through high-level dashboards
and charts, providing users with a comprehensive overview of project performance. In
addition, monday.com offers a range of valuable features including pre-built construction
templates, tools for financial management, portfolio management capabilities, and efficient
document management.
Fieldwire offers a communication platform that enables team members to engage in real-time
conversations tied to specific tasks, promoting quicker decision-making and issue resolution.
Users have the ability to monitor and manage all construction tasks, activities, and issues
within the software. They can document and annotate issues, as well as update plans with
detailed notes, photos, and videos. The construction project management software also
provides scheduling and reporting features, along with mobile applications for on-the-go
access. Field teams can effortlessly update plans and generate digital forms, streamlining the
construction process.
6.2.2 Quality of Products, Health and Safety aspects for stakeholder
Quality control and safety in construction projects are critical determinants of project success, and
are intertwined with each other as a lack of quality may lead to a safety issue. Defects or
failures in constructed facilities can lead to requirement for re-construction, thereby, affecting
facility operations and causing project delays, cumulatively resulting in increased costs. It may
also lead to accidents causing injury or fatality leading to further costs, such as incentive,
insurance, inspection, etc. Specifying quality requirements in the design and contract
documentation is crucial during the construction process. They should be well-defined and
verifiable to ensure understanding and compliance among all project stakeholders. Decisions
made during the planning and design phases have implications on both, quality and safety
aspects as certain conformity and compliance can be built into the project management process
from the start. However, both are subject to site conditions and other uncertainties, such as,
change in the client request, or increase in material prices leading to the need of changing
designs or revisiting decisions. Effective project managers strive to ensure that the work is done
correctly from the beginning and that major accidents, at product and people level, are avoided.
Beyond design decisions and planning vigilance, safety depends on education, alertness and
cooperation amongst all stakeholders during the construction process.
Bugalia, Maemura and Ozawa (2019) note across their study comparing high-speed railways in
India and Japan, that safety is a culture and that “that top management must adopt a multi-
pronged approach to improve the safety culture of an organization. There is no one-
dimensional management strategy that is sufficient for improving the level of an organization’s
safety culture”. They further report that organisational reforms are required to bring about a
shift in the safety culture and may be achieved through strong training systems, and recommend
the need to study cultural aspects in tandem with technology, people and organisational aspects.
National and international bodies, such as, National Occupational Safety and
Health (OSH) in India and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the US,
routinely conducts site visits of workplaces in conjunction with approved state inspection
agencies. In India, Health and Safety is overlooked as per the ‘The Building and other
construction workers (Regulation of employment and conditions of service) Act 1996’, under
which, Section 38 deals with Safety Committee and safety officers in every establishment;
Section 39 deals with Notice of certain accidents (which causes death or any bodily injury by
reason of which the person injured is prevented from working for a period of forty-eight hours
or more) and prescriptions for the same; and Section 40 deals with Power of appropriate
Government to make rules for the safety and health of building and other construction workers.
6.2.3 Demand and Contribution of Civil Engineering
According to the RICS (Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors) Research on ‘Real Estate and
Construction Professionals in India by 2020’, industry projections, India's construction industry
is predicted to reach a value of USD 1 trillion by 2030 and contribute around 13% to the
country's GDP by 2025. It is the fastest growing sector and is on track to become the largest
employer by 2022, providing jobs for over 75 million individuals. Presently, skilled
(Supervisors, Technician, Foremen, Tradesmen, etc), semi-skilled and unskilled workers
(helpers and Labourers) constitute 95.3% of the workforce, while only 1.2% is occupied by the
Core Professionals, such as, Civil Engineers, Architects and Planners.
To fulfil the country's real estate needs (approximately 1.27 million civil engineers) and
infrastructure requirements (approximately 3 million civil engineers), an annual average of 4
million civil engineers in the next decade is necessary, in spite of 1.5 million graduates in India
every year. Due to the sustained shortage in annual supply and an increasing year-on-year
demand, the cumulative demand for civil engineers between 2010 and 2020 is projected to be
around 40.2 million. Unfortunately, there is an estimated shortfall of approximately 39.4 million
civil engineers during the same period and recent surveys indicate a 6.27 percent decline in
employment within the construction industry.
To Civil engineers play a crucial role in society by contributing to the development and maintenance
of social infrastructure, as well as working towards building a sustainable future.
One of the key contributions of civil engineers is the planning, design, and construction of
essential infrastructure such as roads, bridges, airports, water supply systems, and wastewater
treatment plants. These infrastructure projects not only facilitate the movement of people and
goods but also improve the overall quality of life by providing access to basic amenities and
services. Civil engineers ensure that these structures are safe, efficient, and environmentally
sustainable, taking into account factors such as traffic flow, environmental impact, and resource
efficiency.
Civil engineers also play a vital role in addressing the challenges of urbanization and
population growth. They are involved in urban planning and the design of sustainable cities,
taking into consideration factors like land use, transportation systems, and the efficient
utilization of resources. By integrating principles of sustainable development into their projects,
civil engineers contribute to reducing environmental impact, promoting energy efficiency,
and creating resilient and liveable urban environments.
In the face of climate change, civil engineers are at the forefront of developing solutions to
mitigate its effects and enhance resilience. They work on projects related to flood management,
coastal protection, and the design of structures that can withstand natural disasters such as
earthquakes and hurricanes. By incorporating climate adaptation strategies and utilizing
innovative technologies, civil engineers contribute to building a more resilient society that
can withstand the challenges posed by a changing climate.
Furthermore, civil engineers contribute to the sustainable use of resources through their
focus on efficient design and construction practices. They promote the use of renewable
materials, energy-efficient systems, and sustainable construction techniques, thereby
minimizing the environmental impact of infrastructure projects. By embracing concepts such as
green building design and sustainable construction practices, civil engineers help to reduce
carbon emissions, conserve resources, and create environmentally friendly structures.
Moreover, civil engineers actively engage in research and development to drive innovation
in their field. They explore new materials, technologies, and methodologies that can improve
the efficiency, durability, and sustainability of infrastructure.

While in the previous Units several technological and methodological innovations have been
discussed, for project management a cutting-edge innovation is Virtual Design and
Construction (VDC). It is a technology that aids in the coordinated management of
comprehensive performance models for design-construction projects, which encompasses
various aspects such as the facilities themselves, work processes, and the organization of the
design-construction-operation team. VDC involves using digital tools, such as Building
Information Modeling (BIM), to visualize, simulate, and coordinate various aspects of a
construction project. It enables better collaboration, clash detection, and data-driven decision-
making, leading to improved project coordination, cost control, and reduced rework.
VDC offers several benefits, such as;

- Integrated Approach with a Common Data Environment (CDE) and allowing
communication and collaboration with different project team members, third party
members and other stakeholders.
- Risk mitigation and Enhanced safety for workers and end-users, as the level of
detail allows decision-makers to identify potential hazards and mitigate them
- Sustainability that can be conceptualised and planned for, as VDC can support
assessment of energy efficiency, carbon emissions, environmental impact, embodied
carbon, etc. It can not only help incorporate strategies like, adaptive reuse of
materials, but also aid design of improved IEQ and plan for future use.
The VDC is a combination of several tools and can to be tailored, such seen in the Singapore
VDC Framework below which boasts the slogan “Build Twice” (first Virtual, then real) ;
Fig. 6.5 : Singapore VDC Framework 2017 (www.corenet.gov.sg)
In essence, this technology – which is a culmination of all the understanding, knowledge,

discussions, and practical applications so far explored in this book, bringing sustainability hand
in hand with design and construction, is the apt point for reflecting on the global and societal
impact of civil engineering and the great onus on the future civil engineer.
UNIT SUMMARY
This concluding unit on projects in civil engineering covers the procedures and techniques
directly applicable to construction and related activities during practice. The specific
procedure for ‘environmental clearance’ that is mandated in India as per EIA
Notification,2006, is outlined and Sustainable construction practices, with techniques for
reducing GHG emissions and improving sustainability are covered to inform the
requirements and consideration while proposing a project. Further, the elements of Project
management, its paradigms, responsibilities, and overall contributions are discussed to
give an overview on the systemic connections between decision-making during a project.
Finally, the latest innovations for supporting projects are presented to make the aspiring
civil engineer aware of the current trends in the domain.
EXERCISES
Q. 6.1 What is an important element of an Environment Management Plan?

(a) Probable source of Impact & Predicted Impact
(b) Environmental components (ambient air, noise , water, land aesthetics)
(c) Mitigation Methods
Q. 6.2 Which of the following are not objectives of sustainable construction?

(a) Utilise renewable and recyclable materials
(b) Green Building Certification
(c) Minimize on-site waste generation
(d) Safeguard natural habitats
Q. 6.3 Which of the following techniques for reduction of GHG emissions requires
Environmental Product Declaration information?
(a) Minimising waste
(b) Limiting carbon-intensive materials,
(c) Choosing lower carbon alternatives
(d) Reusing materials
Q. 6.4 What is the traditional paradigm for Project management, where a linear sequence of
phases is followed, called?
(a) Agile paradigm
(b) Lean construction paradigm
(c) Design-Build paradigm
(d) Waterfall paradigm
Q. 6.5 Which Indian National body instituted ‘The Building and other construction workers
(Regulation of employment and conditions of service) Act, 1996’?
(a) National Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)
(b) The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF)
(c) Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
(d) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Answers of Multiple Choice Questions: 6.1 (d) , 6.2 (b) , 6.3 (c), 6.4 (d), 6.5 (a)
Q. 6.6 Why is Environmental impact Assessment and Environmental Clearance important

consideration in the construction of built-environment.
Q. 6.7 What is Project management? Illustrate the different types of construction

management paradigms and opine which is most suitable.
Q. 6.8 Discuss the various steps involved to get Environmental Clearance for a project in
India. When is preparation of an EIA report not needed?
Q. 6.9 What is Sustainable Construction? Elaborate on the various strategies and techniques
to reduce GH emissions and improve overall sustainability.
Q. 6.10 What are some of the new and innovative innovations and methodologies for
sustainability incorporation into construction projects? Explain anyone that can be
considered as a way of the future to ensure environmental sustainability.
KNOW MORE
Case studies for EIA
https://www.adb.org/publications/environmental-impact-assessment-developing-countries-asia
https://www.adb.org/projects/documents/bhu-50165-002-eia
Project Management books
https://pdfcoffee.com/construction-project-management-theory-and-practices-by-kumar-neeraj-jha-pdf-free.htm
https://www.scribd.com/document/258603428/Construction-Project-Managamentby-KumarNeeraj-Jha
Environmental Clearance
https://environmentclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Form-1A/HomeLinks/building-construction_may-10.pdf
National Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)
https://dgfasli.gov.in/sites/default/files/service_file/Nat-OSH-India-Draft%281%29.pdf
RICS Research – Real Estate and Construction Professionals in India by 2020
http://www.inskills.co.in/download/Sectors/RICS%20Report%20on%20Construction%20Skill%20Gap%202020.pdf
● [Book] Shadan, K., & Fleming, G. (2012). Construction Project Management Handbook:
March 2012 (No. FTA Report No. 0015). United States. Federal Transit Administration.
● [Book] Kibert, C. J. (2016). Sustainable construction: green building design and delivery. John
Wiley & Sons.
● [Book] Levy, S. M. (2018). Project management in construction. McGraw-Hill Education
● Bugalia, N., Maemura, Y., & Ozawa, K. (2019). Safety culture in high-speed railways and the
importance of top management decisions.
● Cleland, D. I. (1977). Defining a project management system. Project Management Quarterly,
8(4), 37–40.
● Kibert, C. J. (2007). The next generation of sustainable construction. Building Research &
Information, 35(6), 595-601.
Web sources
● https://www.cseindia.org/environmental-clearance---the-process-403
● https://www.aia.org/articles/70446-ten-steps-to-reducing-embodied-carbon
● https://dgfasli.gov.in/sites/default/files/service_file/Nat-OSH-India-Draft%281%29.pdf
● https://environmentclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Form-1A/HomeLinks/building-
construction_may-10.p
REFERENCES FOR FURTHER LEARNING
● Andersson, L., Farrell, K., Moshkovich, O., & Cranbourne, C. (2016). Implementing
Virtual Design and Construction using BIM: Current and future practices. Routledge.
● Benedict, M. A., & McMahon, E. T. (2012). Green infrastructure: linking landscapes and
communities. Island press.
● Carroll, J. E. (2012). Sustainability and spirituality. State University of New York Press.
● Costanza-Chock, S. (2020). Design justice: Community-led practices to build the worlds
we need. The MIT Press.
● Ching, F. D. (2023). Architecture: Form, space, and order. John Wiley & Sons.
● Dameri, R. P., & Rosenthal-Sabroux, C. (Eds.). (2014). Smart city: How to create public
and economic value with high technology in urban space. Springer.
● Doran, D., & Cather, B. (Eds.). (2013). Construction materials reference book. Routledge.
● Dover, J. W. (2015). Green infrastructure: incorporating plants and enhancing
biodiversity in buildings and urban environments. Routledge.
● Elliot, J.A., (2006) An introduction to sustainable development. Routledge.
● Forbes, L. H., & Ahmed, S. M. (2010). Modern construction: lean project delivery and
integrated practices. CRC press.
● Grober, U., & Cunningham, R. (2012). Sustainability: A cultural history (p. 156).
Cambridge: Green Books.
● Hardi, P., & Zdan, T. (2001). Assessing sustainable development: principles in practice.
● Ingram, J. (2020). Understanding BIM: The past, present and future. Routledge.
● Jenks, M., & Jones, C. (Eds.). (2009). Dimensions of the sustainable city.
● Kibert, C. J. (2016). Sustainable construction: green building design and delivery. John
Wiley & Sons.
● Lawson, M., Ogden, R., & Goodier, C. (2014). Design in modular construction. CRC
Press.
● Lechner, N. (2014). Heating, cooling, lighting: Sustainable design methods for architects.
John wiley & sons.
● Smith, R. E. (2010). Prefab architecture: A guide to modular design and construction.

John Wiley & Sons.
● Vale, L. (2014). Architecture, power and national identity. Routledge.
● Vezzoli, C., & Manzini, E. (2008). Design for environmental sustainability. London:
Springer
● Wang, S. (2009). Intelligent buildings and building automation. Routledge.
CO AND PO ATTAINMENT TABLE
Course outcomes (COs) for this course can be mapped with the programme outcomes (POs) after
the completion of the course and a correlation can be made for the attainment of POs to analyze
the gap. After proper analysis of the gap in the attainment of POs necessary measures can be
taken to overcome the gaps.
Table for CO and PO attainment

Attainment of Programme Outcomes
Course
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong
Outcomes Correlation)
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3
CO-4
CO-5
CO-6
CO-7
The data filled in the above table can be used for gap analysis.
INDEX
A
Act; also Wildlife (protection) Act, 1972; Water (Prevention and 16, 66,78,90,133, 154,166
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act,1981; Environment (Protection) Act, 1986; The
Energy Conservation Act 2001,Biological Diversity Act 2002;
Aircraft Act 1934
Adobe : sun baked mud bricks 9, 11
Agriculture Revolution, also ‘Green Revolution’ or ‘Harit Kranti’ 4-6, 22
Airports or airfields 66,78
Appian Way 9,31,60
Art Deco (style) 38-39
Art Nouveau (style) 38
Autonomous Robotic Construction systems (ARCs) or Freeform 9, 14, 24, 160
Construction, also 3D printing
B
Baroque (style) 35
Biomass 68-69, 71,84
Brunel (n. civil engineering) 10,12, 35-37,44
Building Control system, also Energy Management Systems 14, 118 - 121, 131
(EMS), Building Automation Systems (BAS) and Building
Management Systems (BMS)
Building Information Modelling (BIM) 9,82
Building Security System or Fire Safety 81, 119-122
Built Environment 3,14, 28, 97, 115, 117, 123, 132, 136,
140-141, 151, 157
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) 78
C
China 4,32,33,41, 42,53,57, 58,60,64-65,92
Chipko Movement (or andolan) 16
Circular Economy 82, 94
Civil Engineering 1-4, 9-10,
12,14,19,21,24,26-30,33,36,
42-44,51,65
Classical (style) 26,31, 34-37, 44
Climate Change 18, 29, 55, 68, 71, 72, 88-90, 92-93,
95-96, 98, 100, 102, 106, 109-110,
113, 117-118, 127-128, 154,168, 171
Contemporary (style) 26,35,39-41, 136-137
D
De Architectura 33
De re aedificatoria 35
Digital Revolution 8,22
Disaster Management 52, 83, 100
E
Earth Day 16
Egypt 4,9,11,31,57,60, 64-65
Embodied Energy’ or Embodied Carbon 124, 157-158, 168
Energy Efficiency 17,93,119-120,
124,127-128,130,133,142, 148, 168,
169
Environmental impact 28-29, 55, 68-69, 82, 88, 97, 103,110,
113,116, 125,148, 150, 152, 158, 168,
171
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 82, 103
Environmental Management Plan (EMP) 104
Environmental Performance Index (EPI) 88, 101-102, 110, 130
Environmental rule of law 96
Essential Climate Variable 88, 98
F
Facility Management, or Sustainable facility management (SFM) 81, 115-118, 141
Forest Conservation 93
Fossil Fuel 15,70, 91- 93, 119
G
Geographic Information System (GIS) 1,21,164
GHG emissions 88, 90-94, 109, 110, 170
Gilded Age 6,22,37
Global Climate Indicators 88, 98
Global warming 88-90, 92-96, 106,109, 141
Global Warming Potential (GWP) 9,21,06,131,141
Government of India (GoI) 5,56, 62,68,70,130, 134-135, 154
Gothic (style) 34, 44
Great Reform Movement 6
Greece 4,31,33,64
Green infrastructure 42,82
Greenhouse effect 15,90
GRIHA certification 129-130
H
Habitat, also Habitation 3,13-14,16,39, 41, 50-55,57, 59,65,
87, 124,129,130, 158, 170
Human Development Index (HDI) 21,23,65
I
Indian Standard (IS) codes 78-80
Indicators 18-21, 90, 97-99, 101, 105, 118, 143
Indus Valley 4,9
Industrial Revolution 1-6,8,21-25, 36-37,49
Industry 4.0 or i4.0 8,9
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) 55
Infrastructure 3-6, 17-18, 21, 28-29, 31, 33, 42,
52-82
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 92,93,100
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 78, 105
L
Land Use 3,29,56,92-93, 103, 110, 156, 157,
168
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) 118, 126-130
Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA), also Life Cycle Impact 82,88,105,106
Assessment (LCIA)
Locomotive 37,62
M
macadamisation (process) 37
Megacities 50,53-55,87
Mesopotamia 4,9,11,22,30,45,65
Modernism 26,36,40-41
Monitoring 9, 19-20, 57, 97-98,100, 102-103,
107, 118-119, 129, 132, 141-142,
153,162
N
Nalanda University 33
National Building Code (NBC) 81,141
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) 120
National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP) 74
Neoclassical (style) 37
P
Parametricism 41-42,135, 146
Persia 3-4,22,60
Pile 10,11
Pollution Mitigation 88,93,110
Pyramid 4,9, 30-32,43,60
Q
Qanats 4,31
Quality control and safety 151, 159-160, 165
Quality Infrastructure Investment (QII) 81
R
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle; also 3R Principles 69, 72,74, 82, 95, 115, 117-118,
124-126, 136
Reforestation 93
Renaissance (style) 26,34,35,44,46
Renewable Energy or Clean Energy, also; Solar, Wind, 17,68,69,70,71,84,93,119, 129, 130,
Geothermal, Hydropower, Tidal and wave, Bioenergy 50, 90,121,122, 131
Repair and/or Rehabilitation and/or Retrofitting 116, 134, 137-138
Restoration 34, 133-134, 136-137
Roccoco (style) 35
Roman cement or pozzolana 10
Romanesque 34
Rome 4,9,31,32,33,34,60,64
S
SDG India Index 19
Silk route 60
Smart City or Smart cities 55,56,57,83, 84, 87,132,144
Smart-readiness indicator (SRI)
Stonehenge 4,31,43
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) 88,10,31,07,108
Sustainable Agriculture 17,93
Sustainable construction
Sustainable consumption and production 95
Sustainable Development 15-21, 28-29, 55, 95-96, 106-107,
141, 143
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 1,15-17,19,24,29,49,108,109,142
T
Takshashila or Taxila 60
Tar McAdam Road 10
Targets 16,17,18,19,92, 96,102, 108, 119, 146
Telecommunication or Telecom 6,7,15,50,51,52,59,68, 74, 75, 76,
77,78,83, 84
The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, or 37
Exposition Universelle, Crystal Palace, Eiffel Tower
Tower of Pisa, or the ‘Leaning Tower’ 14,34
Tunnel 15,28,31,36,37,50,63, 64,
68,80,84144
U
UK or United Kingdom 4,10,24,60,142, 143
Unité d'Habitation, also Capitol Complex, Chandigarh 41
United Nations, also, UNCED, UNCTAD, UNDESA, UNDP, 16, 20-21, 31, 33, 41, 62, 65, 81-82,
UNEA, UNEP, UNESCO, UNFCCC, UNSC, UNSDSN 94-96, 99-100, 102, 137
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 16, 92, 94, 104-106, 115, 142
V
Vitruvius or Vitruvian 32-33, 132
W
Water Resource Management (WRM), or Integrated Water 72, 82
Resources Management (IWRM)
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) 72-74
World Heritage site (UNESCO) 31, 33-34, 41, 135137
Z
Ziggurat 30, 43

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CIVIL ENGINEERING SOCIETAL

All India Council for Technical Education

BOOK REVIEWER DETAILS

Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Dr. Shakuntala Acharya

Dr. Shakuntala Acharya

Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes

Students’ ability to Operate or Technical Presentation/

Abbreviations Full form

Fig. 1.1 : Persian Qanat Profile 3

Unit 2 Importance of Civil Engineering

Fig. 2.1 : Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro 30

Fig. 3.1 : Megacities of the World 54

Unit 5 Built Environment

Fig. 5.1 : 11 Core Solutions

Unit 6 Civil Engineering Projects

Fig. 6.1 : Typical Project Life 152

Outcome Based Education viii

Guidelines for Teachers xi

Guidelines for Students xii

List of Abbreviations xiii

List of Figures xviii

Unit 1: Impact of Civil Engineering: An introduction 1-25

Unit 3: Infrastructure 50-87

Unit 4: Environment 88-112

Unit 5: Built Environment 113-148

5.1 The Built Environment and Its Impact 115

Unit 6: Civil Engineering Projects 149-173

Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:

● The past to look into the future:

EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

The distinct most character of a civilisation is the advent of organised social

1.1 DAWN OF CIVIL ENGINEERING: A BRIEF HISTORY

1.1.1 Pre-Industrial Revolution

Fig. 1.1 Persian Qanat Profile (source: Manian, et al., 2022 )

1.1.2 Agricultural Revolutions

The strategic developments and innovations of the British Agriculture Revolution

The Third Agriculture Revolution, popularly known as the ‘Green

MS Swaminathan, agronomist and parliamentarian, loving called the ‘Wheat man

Fig.1.2 : 'Harit Kranti' - The Indian Green Revolution

Presently, several strategies and contributions of the ‘Green revolution’ is being

1.1.3 Industrial Revolution

Studies and experiments looking into the phenomena of electricity, by Benjamin

Another key area of innovation continued to be telecommunication. Graham

Transportation remained a focus and a remarkable innovation that took place at

Fig. 1.3 : Assembly Line at Ford Motor Co. (source : www.corporate.ford.com)

1.1.4 Digital Revolution and Industry 4.0

characterised by artificial intelligence, advanced robotics, internet of things (IoT), cloud

1.2 MAJOR BREAKTHROUGHS AND INNOVATIONS

Construction 3D Printing is the technology of using additive manufacturing technique

1.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

1.3.1 The steady erosion of Sustainability and Mitigative Actions

1.3.2 Sustainable Development Goals and Global Impact

Fig. 1.8 : Sustainable Development Goals (source : www.sdgs.un.org)

1.4 EVALUATING FUTURE REQUIREMENTS

1.4.1 Sustainability Indicators

Sustainability indicators are measurable aspects of the three dimensions of sustainability –

Division of Sustainable Development (DSD) and Statistics, under the UN Department of

1.4.2 Monitoring: Methodology and applications