CHAPTER 6

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 Part I. LEXICAL AND AUXILIARY
VERBS
Every full (non-elliptical) VP = a lexical verb + (may be) one or more
auxiliary verbs.

*** Auxiliaries: be, have, and do; can /could, will/would, shall /should,
may/might, must, and need.
+ Primary auxiliaries: be, have, and do
+ Modal auxiliaries: can /could, will/would, shall /should, may/might,
must, and need.

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 I. LEXICAL AND AUXILIARY VERBS
[1a] Daisy fills/filled the pool. [1b] Max writes/wrote nothing.
[2a] Daisy will/ would fill the pool. [2b] Max can/could write nothing.
[3a] Daisy has/had filled the pool. [3b] Max has/had written nothing.
[4a] Daisy is/was filling the pool. [4b] Max is/was writing nothing.
[5a] The pool is/was filled. [5b] Nothing is/was written.
 Lexical Vs: fill, write  Auxiliary Vs: will/ would/ has/
had/ is/ was/ can/ could/ has/had

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 I. LEXICAL AND AUXILIARY VERBS
a. First V >> Lexical verb: display tense (Present >< Past)
b. Second V >> Auxiliary verb
c. V form << determined by V preceding it
*** Auxiliaries  finite
*** Vs following an Auxiliary = non-finite (neither present nor past)

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 II. TENSE AND TIME
1. Finite verb forms: tensed verb forms (Past/Present form)
 change of form in the finite verb according to the number and person
of the subject NP (subject–verb agreement).
Examples:
Lee likes playing rugby.
finite V
We watched Lee playing rugby.
finite V

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 II. TENSE AND TIME
1. Finite verb forms: tensed verb forms

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 II. TENSE AND TIME
2. Non-finite verbs:
 Untensed verb forms (Vs that do not show tense):
+ Infinitive: bare-inf, to-inf
+ Gerund (V-ing)
+ Participle (present participle, past participle)
e.g. Find a recipe to cook prawns.
non-finite V
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 II. TENSE AND TIME
2. Non-finite verbs:
e.g. Cleaning teeth with urine was common in Roman times.
non-finite V
e.g. Leave immediately when you are asked to do so.
non-finite V
e.g. They have run away together.
non-finite V

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 III. THE CONTRAST BETWEEN LEXICAL
AND AUXILIARY VERBS
Differences Lexical Vs Auxiliary Vs
1. Questions Lex + S (NP) …? Aux. + S (NP) + …?
e.g. Looks he like his e.g. Does he look like his
mother? mother?
2. Negative Particle Lexi Vs + not/n’t Aux. + not/n’t + …
(not/n’t)
e.g. He looks not like his e.g. He doesn’t look like
mother. his mother.

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 III. THE CONTRAST BETWEEN LEXICAL
AND AUXILIARY VERBS
There are two verbs “need”, one an auxiliary, the other lexical – with a
subtle difference in meaning:

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 III. THE CONTRAST BETWEEN
LEXICAL AND AUXILIARY VERBS

 Lexical verb can take a direct object NP >< Auxiliary verbs never take
an NP complement:
[21a] *He needn’t a drink. [21b] *Needs he a drink?  Wrong

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 III. THE CONTRAST BETWEEN LEXICAL
AND AUXILIARY VERBS
Infinitive Particle (to):
e.g. He hopes to pass but he forgot to study.
Inf. Prt Inf. Prt
Differences Lexical Vs Auxiliary Vs
3. Infinitive Particle ‘to’ Lex V + to + V2 Aux. V + V2 (no ‘to’)

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 IV. MODAL AUXILIARIES (MOD)
Modal Auxiliaries:
+ always tensed (finite).
+ not have untensed (non-finite) forms.
PRESENT: can - will - shall - may
PAST: could - would - should - might
e.g.
[22] (Present): He says he will come.
[23] (Past): He said he would come.

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IV. MODAL AUXILIARIES (MOD)
Modal Aux. must Only present tense
need Only present tense

❖ Modals is that they never show subject-verb agreement.

e.g. She can go, not *She cans go.

❖ Always come first in any sequence of verbs.

❖ Only one modal verb in a sequence of Vs
e.g. *He could would go, *He will must go.  wrong

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IV. MODAL AUXILIARIES (MOD)
Modal Auxiliaries:

Verb + a modal auxiliary >> V (non-finite) stem form

e.g. would fill/ can write

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V. THE PERFECT AUXILIARY — HAVE
(PERF)
Auxiliary ‘have’  ‘perfect’ auxiliary.
Perfect ‘have’ << always followed by another verb (ellipsis aside).
[3a] Daisy has/had filled the pool.
[3b] Max has/had written nothing.
Perfect Aux Lexical V
[27] has had a little chat with the
Aldo doorman.
Perfect Aux Lexical V NP PP
 V. THE PERFECT AUXILIARY — HAVE
(PERF)

➢ PERF will only have the tense feature if it is the first verb in the sequence.
➢ When perfect have co-occurs with a modal >> it follows the modal.
➢ MOD + PERF + Lexical V.
e.g. [31] Millie will have filled the pool.
[32] Max could have written something.
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 VI. THE PROGRESSIVE AUXILIARY — BE
(PROG)
Progressive Aux (be):
e.g. [4a] Daisy is/was filling the pool.
Prog A Prog Participle

e.g. [4b] Max is/was writing nothing.

Prog A Prog Participle
 Progressive be + -ING V form (non-finite)

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VI. THE PROGRESSIVE AUXILIARY —
BE (PROG)
Progressive Aux (be):
➢ Like ‘have’, ‘be’ can function either as an auxiliary or as a lexical verb.
➢ Lexical ‘be’ is the intensive verb, the copula in [33].
[33] Kubla Khan was very extravagant.
Intensive V - copula
[34] Nanny is being a nuisance again.
Prog A Prog Participle

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VI. THE PROGRESSIVE AUXILIARY —
BE (PROG)
Look at the following sentence: [35] This turn of events is worrying.
 Is ‘is’ progressive auxiliary?
Ans: No
If ‘is’ = a progressive A Prog A + Prog Participle (Lexical V + D.O)
This turn of events is worrying
NP (S) Prog A Lexical V + D.O  Where is D.O?
 Worrying: Adj, not V  ‘be’: not Prog A  be: intensive LX

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 VI. THE PROGRESSIVE AUXILIARY — BE
(PROG)

❖ PROG = the first verb in the sequence >> PROG has the tense feature.
❖ MOD + PERF + PROG + Lexical V.
e.g. [38] You may be wondering about the future. (MOD + PROG)
[39] Millie has been using the bleach. (PERF + PROG)
[40] Bill might have been teasing you. (MOD + PERF + PROG)
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 VII. THE PASSIVE AUXILIARY — BE (PASS)

e.g. [5a] The pool is/was filled.

PASS PP

[5b] Nothing is/was written.

PASS PP

 Sentences in Passive voice

 Passive Aux (be) + Past Participle (P.P)

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 VII. THE PASSIVE AUXILIARY — BE (PASS)
❖ PASS can co-occur with any combination of other auxiliaries.
❖ MOD + PERF + PROG + PASS + Lexical V.

[43] Your water pistol will be confiscated. (MOD + PASS)

[44] The pool has been filled by Daisy. (PERF + PASS)
[45] Otto is being driven mad by all the noise. (PROG + PASS)
[46] It should have been written by now. (MOD + PERF + PASS)
[47] It may be being written right now. (MOD + PROG + PASS)
[48] It could have been being written. (MOD + PERF + PROG + PASS)

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 VIII. WHERE AUXILIARIES FIT IN THE
STRUCTURE OF VP
e.g.
[49a] Monsieur Blanc will VP[study the menu].
[50a] Monsieur Blanc has VP[studied the menu].
[51a] Monsieur Blanc is VP[studying the menu].
Aux Vs + VP (complements):
[51a] Monsieur Blanc is [studying the menu].

Head of
PROG A VP COMPLEMENT
VP
VP 110
VIII. WHERE AUXILIARIES FIT IN THE
STRUCTURE OF VP

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 VIII. WHERE AUXILIARIES FIT IN THE
STRUCTURE OF VP
More than one Aux V  each Aux V = head of its VP + a VP complement.
e.g. [53a] You should have written an essay.

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 VIII. WHERE AUXILIARIES FIT IN THE
STRUCTURE OF VP
Try drawing a phrase marker for: [56] You should have been writing that essay.

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 IX. AUXILIARY VPS AND ADVERBIALS
❖ Adverbials can occur between verbs:
e.g.
[57] That hippo could easily have killed me!
[58] You are deliberately missing the point!
[59] Bill might just have been teasing you.
[60] Matilda had been quietly reading Simon a story.
[61] She may have never been there.

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 IX. AUXILIARY VPS AND ADVERBIALS
❖ Assumption 1. If an adverbial precedes a verb, assume it modifies the
following VP.
❖ Phrase marker:
 IX. AUXILIARY VPS AND ADVERBIALS
Draw the phrase marker for:
[60] Matilda had been quietly reading Simon a story.

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 IX. AUXILIARY VPS AND ADVERBIALS
Assumption 2. Assume that sentence-final adverbials modify (and form a VP
constituent with) the lexical VP.
e.g. [65] They have been complaining for the fun of it.

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 IX. AUXILIARY VPS AND ADVERBIALS
*** Exception: Time adverbials
e.g. [68] They were going to India next week last week.

Modify
past
intention

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 Part II: CONSTRUCTIONS THAT DEPEND
ON AUXILIARIES
A. Passive Sentences:
O (Active) → S
Active: [71a] The boss fired Max. (Passive)
S (Active) → By + O
Passive: [71b] Max was fired (by the boss). (Passive)

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 A. PASSIVE SENTENCES
Only lexical verbs that take objects (direct or indirect) >> passive sentences.
Now construct the passive counterparts of the following sentences.
[72] Mrs Golightly forgave the lodger.
 The lodger was forgiven (by Mrs Golightly).
[73] The bouncer is ejecting the intruder.
 The intruder is being ejected (by the bouncer).

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 A. PASSIVE SENTENCES
In passive sentences, a gap is created in the object position left by the
movement of the object to subject position.

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 A. PASSIVE SENTENCES
In passive, dO becomes subject >> leaving a gap in the dO position.
Example:

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A. PASSIVE SENTENCES

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 A. PASSIVE SENTENCES
Ditransitive verbs + first Object + second Object

S (Passive)

[82a] Max sent the boss an anonymous letter. (NP + NP: iO + dO)
[82b] The boss was sent (•) an anonymous letter.
[83a] Max sent an anonymous letter to the boss. (NP + PP: dO + iO)
[83b] An anonymous letter was sent (•) to the boss.

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 A. PASSIVE SENTENCES
Give the phrase marker for [82b], using triangles for the NPs.

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 B. NEGATIVE SENTENCES AND
AUXILIARY ‘DO’
Negative particle NOT: PLACED IMMEDIATELY AFTER tensed auxiliary.
e.g. [84] Byron would not dance. (contracted form: wouldn’t)
[85] Byron has not been dancing. (contracted form: hasn’t)

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 B. NEGATIVE SENTENCES AND
AUXILIARY ‘DO’
❖ Auxiliary ‘Do’: carry TENSE & NEGATION

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 B. NEGATIVE SENTENCES AND
AUXILIARY ‘DO’
❖ ‘Do’ can function as an auxiliary verb and as a transitive lexical verb.
e.g. [89] They didn’t do the exercises.
Aux V Trans LV

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 C. QUESTIONS — FRONTING THE
TENSED AUXILIARY
Look at [90a] and [90b]:
[90a] Byron was dancing.

 Tensed Aux V + S + …?
In Phrase Marker [91]: C: Complementiser
The Complementiser position is: sister of S and daughter of S-bar (S′′).
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 C. QUESTIONS — FRONTING THE
TENSED AUXILIARY
Draw a phrase marker for [92]: Could Simon have written these words?

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 C. QUESTIONS — FRONTING THE
TENSED AUXILIARY
Now look at: [94a] Hasn’t Oleg been arrested?
both a question and passive  auxiliary-fronting to C and passive
object-to-subject – creating two different gaps.
 Draw a phrase marker for [94b]:

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 C. QUESTIONS — FRONTING THE
TENSED AUXILIARY
Draw a phrase marker for [94b]:

(+) They haven’t

arrested Oleg.
(-) Oleg hasn’t been
arrested.
(?) Hasn’t Oleg been
arrested?

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 D. MORE ON ‘HAVE’ AND ‘BE’
1. Have:
+ Functioning as a lexical verb, behaving like a lexical verb:
e.g. [99a] Do we have any garlic?
[99b] We don’t have any garlic.
+ Functioning as a lexical verb, behaving like an auxiliary:
e.g. [100a] Have we any garlic?
[100b] We haven’t any garlic.

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 D. MORE ON ‘HAVE’ AND ‘BE’
2. Be:
+ Functioning as a lexical verb, behaving like an auxiliary:
e.g. [101a] Was Kubla extravagant?
[101b] Kubla wasn’t extravagant.

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