School of Textile Science and Engineering

Fiber Technology Assignment one

Prepared by ID

Lengamo Lenteta 2315386001

Submitted to:-Zhong Zhao (PHD)

Submitted date12/12/23

Wuhan Textile University

 Assignment 1
1. Can you name some commonly used synthetic fibre? What are the
characteristics of each of them (perhaps you can make a table of this
characteristics for comparison
Answer: -

Ø Textile fibre: -Textile fibers are natural or synthetic structures that can be spun into yarn and
woven, knitted, or bonded into fabric. Textile fibers are natural or synthetic structures that
can be spun into yarn and woven, knitted, or bonded into fabric. Textile fibers are those
which have properties that allow them to be spun into yarn or directly made into fabric. This
means they need to be strong enough to hold their shape, flexible enough to be shaped into a
fabric or yarn, elastic enough to stretch, and durable enough to last. Textile fibers are natural or
synthetic structures that can be spun into yarn and woven, knitted, or bonded into fabric. Because
the inherent characteristics of fibres directly relate to the finished fabric’s performance and the
maintenance required, understanding fibers and yarns will in turn help you to understand how to
incorporate fabrics into interior scheme. (Buchwalter, 2001)

Ø Commonly used synthetic fibers: -

Synthetic Fibres: - Synthetic fibres are man-made fibres, most of them are prepared from raw
material petroleum called petrochemicals. All fabrics are obtained from fibres, while fibres are
obtained from artificial or man-made sources. They consist of a small unit or a polymer which is
made from many repeating units known as monomers. They include nylon, acrylics,
polyurethane, and polypropylene. Millions of tons of these fibres are produced all over the world
each year. It is man-made origin, not occurring naturally. Manufactured from different
raw materials. (Buchwalter, 2001)
Commonly used synthetic fibers: -

1. ACRYLIC

 Acrylic fibres can be manufactured and woven for a specific use, from fine sheers to
heavy upholsteries, with a very good drape and handle.
 Durability and abrasion resistance is good when produced for upholstery application, but
it can be susceptible to pilling.
 Excellent UV resistance. Most gradual colour change can be attributed to varying
qualities in the dyestuffs used during production, rather than to the fibre itself.
 Generally not affected by mildew or acidic pollution.
 Acrylics are strong and stable, non-absorbent fibres.

2. NYLON

 Nylon can be manufactured and woven for specific use, from fine sheers to
heavy upholsteries.
 The fibre is generally not affected by mildew.
 Long exposure to UV light will affect nylon and weaken the yarn over time.
 A very strong and stable fibre that is often blended with other fibres to improve durability
for upholstery application.

3. POLYESTER

 Polyester fibres can be manufactured and woven for a specific use, from fine sheers to
heavy upholsteries, with a very good drape and handle.
  Durability, abrasion resistance, and UV light resistance is generally very good.
 A non-absorbent fibre, it will move very little in humid conditions.
 Not affected by acidic pollution or mildew.
 A strong and stable fibre.
 Wrinkle resistance with very good recovery.

4. POLYPROPYLENE / OLEFIN / POLYOLEFIN

 A synthetic yarn from the polyolefin family which is a by-product of the petrochemical
industry. Olefin, polyolefin and polypropylene share the same performance
characteristics and are generally used to manufacture outdoor textiles.
 They are most suitable for outdoor application when the fabric has been solution dyed,
i.e. the fibre is dyed in solution form prior to being extracted and manufactured into a
yarn. Solution dyed fabrics give the best possible resistance against colour fading from
direct UV exposure. The production of these yarns are generally environmentally
friendly, being recyclable and resulting in minimal waste.
 Excellent colour fastness and resistance to fading.
 Fast drying.
 A strong fibre with excellent abrasion resistance.
 Resistant to stains, mildew, and chemicals making it easy to clean.

https://www.jamesdunloptextiles.com › tips-how-to › text.)

Ø Characteristics of synthetic fibre

 Characteristics of synthetic fibers.

CRYLIC NYLON POLYESTER POLYPROPYLENE /

OLEFIN / POLYOLEFIN
 Luxurious appearance.  Lightweight.  Strong.
 Strong.
 Crisp or soft hand.  Exceptional strength.  Crisp, soft hand.
 Crisp, soft hand.
 Wide range of colors; dyes and prints  Good drapeability.  Resistant to stretching and
 Resistant to stretching and shrinkage.
well.  Abrasion resistant. shrinkage.
 Washable or dry-cleanable.
 Excellent drapeability and softness.  Easy to wash.  Washable or dry-
 Quick drying.
 Shrink, moth, and mildew resistant.  Resists shrinkage and cleanable.
 Resilient, wrinkle resistant, excellent
 Low moisture absorbency, relatively fast wrinkling.  Quick drying.
pleat retention (if heat set)
drying.  resilient, pleat retentive.  Resilient, wrinkle
 Abrasion resistant.
 No pilling problem, little static problem.  Fast drying, low resistant, excellent pleat
 Resistant to most chemicals.
 Most acetate garments require dry- moisture absorbency. retention (if heat set)
cleaning  Abrasion resistant
 Resistant to most
https://www.fabriclink.com › University ›
https://www.fabriclink.com chemicals.
Acrylic https://www.fabriclink.com › University ›
› University › Nylon
 Polyester

https://www.fabriclink.com ›
University › Polyester
2. Briefly describe the characteristics of polymers? Like the definition, the
types of polymer chain, the glass transition temperature, the
polymerization degree, etc.
Ø What is polymers: - A substance made from long chains of repeating groups of atoms.
Manufactured polymers include nylon, polyvinyl chloride (better known as PVC) and many
types of plastics. Natural polymers include rubber, silk and cellulose (found in plants and
used to make paper, for example). Polymers are large molecules made by bonding
(chemically linking) a series of building blocks. These materials, many of them artificial, are
built from repeating chains of smaller chemical units

Fig, Polymers, whether artificial (such as the plastic shown) or natural, are made of repeating
chains of smaller chemical units. Here, carbon atoms are shown as black, oxygen as red and
hydrogen as white.( By Sid Perkins October 13, 2017 at 5:50 am)

Polymers are everywhere. Just look around. Your plastic water bottle. The silicone rubber tips on
your phone’s earbuds. The nylon and polyester in your jacket or sneakers. The rubber in the tires
on the family car. Now take a look in the mirror. Many proteins in your body are polymers, too.
Consider keratin (KAIR-uh-tin), the stuff your hair and nails are made from. Even the DNA in
your cells is a polymer. By definition, polymers are large molecules made by bonding (chemically
linking) a series of building blocks. The word polymer comes from the Greek words for “many parts.”
Each of those parts is scientists call a monomer (which in Greek means “one part”). Think of a polymer
as a chain, with each of its links a monomer. Those monomers can be simple — just an atom or two or
three — or they might be complicated ring-shaped structures containing a dozen or more atoms. In an
artificial polymer, each of the chain’s links will often be identical to its neighbors. But in proteins, DNA
and other natural polymers, links in the chain often differ from their neighbors. In some cases,
polymers form branching networks rather than single chains. Regardless of their shape, the
molecules are very big. They are so big, in fact, that scientists classify them as macromolecules.

Ø Types of polymer chain

There are four basic polymer structures which are shown in the figure below. In practice, some
polymers might contain a mixture of the various basic structures. The four basic polymer
structures are linear, branched, crosslinked, and networked.Polymer chains can fall into one of
the three molecular categories: linear, branched, and crosslinked and networked Much of
polymer therapeutics research involves the synthesis of linear polymers. The methods to produce
these often result in a heterogeneous, poly disperse mixture of compounds.

A. Linear polymer:-
B. Branched polymer:-
C. Crosslinked polymer:-
D. Networked:-

Linear polymers resemble ‘spaghetti’ with long chains. The long chains are typically held
together by the weaker van der Waals or hydrogen bonding. Since these bonding types are
relatively easy to break with heat, linear polymers are typically thermoplastic. Heat breaks the
bonds between the long chains allowing the chains to flow past each other, allowing the material
to be remolded. Upon cooling the bonds between the long chains reform, i.e., the polymer
hardens.
Branched polymers resemble linear polymers with the addition of shorter chains hanging from
the spaghetti backbone. Since these shorter chains can interfere with efficient packing of the
polymers, branched polymers tend to be less dense than similar linear polymers. Since the short
chains do not bridge from one longer backbone to another, heat will typically break the bonds
between the branched polymer chains and allow the polymer to be a thermoplastic, although
there are some very complex branched polymers that resist this ‘melting’ and thus break up
(becoming hard in the process) before softening, i.e., they are thermosetting.

Crosslinked polymers resemble ladders. The chains link from one backbone to another. So,
unlike linear polymers which are held together by weaker van der Waals forces, crosslinked
polymers are tied together via covalent bonding. This much stronger bond makes most
crosslinked polymers thermosetting, with only a few exceptions to the rule: crosslinked polymers
that happen to break their crosslinks at relatively low temperatures.

Networked polymers are complex polymers that are heavily linked to form a complex network
of three-dimensional linkages. These polymers are nearly impossible to soften when heating
without degrading the underlying polymer structure and are thus thermosetting polymers.

Monomers do not have to be of a single atom type, but when referring to a specific monomer it is
understood to be of the same composition structure. When building a polymer from two distinct
monomers, those polymers are referred to as copolymers. Next, we will look at how copolymers
are classified. (Buchwalter, 2001)

Ø Glass transition temperature: - The glass transition temperature is the point below which
polymer or other non-crystalline material changes from a rigid, glassy state to a rubbery or
viscous state. This physical change is brought on by the fact that polymer chains become
more mobile as the temperature rises. Tg can be measured using methods like differential
scanning calorimetry and dynamic mechanical analysis. It is a vital property for
comprehending the behavior and processing of polymers. The term "glass transition
temperature" (Tg) refers to the temperature at which an amorphous solid material transforms
from a hard, brittle state to a softer, more malleable state that resembles a super cooled
liquid. This phenomenon occurs because the bonds between molecular chains become less
 rigid and more mobile. Anyone who wishes to process or manufacture glassy and polymeric
materials must understand Tg properties. The glass transition temperature (Tg) is the
temperature of amorphous polymers at which increased molecular mobility results in
significant changes in the thermal properties. Plastic products molded with oriented
molecules expand differentially, as long as the glass transition temperature is not reached.

What Are the Units Used for Glass Transition Temperature?

Glass transition temperature can be given in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), and
Kelvin (K). This temperature represents the point at which heating or cooling causes an
amorphous material to change between a hard, glassy state and a rubbery, viscous state.

How Does the Glass Transition Temperature Work?

At the glass transition temperature, the energy contained in the polymer chains begins to match
or exceed the energy contained in their intermolecular bonds. This results in an increase in
molecular mobility and a gradual shift from a rigid to a more flexible state. Below Tg, the
substance is in a glassy state with a highly ordered, rigid, and brittle structure. The material's
flexibility and molecular mobility increase once Tg is reached, enabling it to deform under stress
or flow under shear. The transition is dictated by internal energy within the molecular chains;
when they become more mobile, they alter the polymer’s overall physical characteristics.

What is the Importance of Glass Transition Temperature?

Tg is significant because of how it affects the mechanical, thermal, and processing characteristics
of polymers. The Tg value, for instance, can determine the temperature range over which a
polymer will be considered stable and retain its mechanical properties. A polymer will be hard
and brittle below Tg and soft and deformable above Tg. Tg has an impact on polymer processing
as well because it specifies the range of temperatures where the item’s shape can be altered
without major changes to its overall form.The glass transition temperature can also have an
impact on a product's shelf life since polymers can deteriorate or change shape if stored at
temperatures above Tg.
What Are the Different Methods of Measuring Glass Transition Temperature?

The different methods of measuring glass transition temperature are listed below:

1. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR): FTIR measures changes in

molecular vibrations that take place close to Tg.
2. Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA): Tg is calculated from the plot of thermal
expansion or compression of the material versus temperature. A change in the curve’s
slope indicates the Tg point. TMA measures the dimensional changes of a sample as it is
heated or cooled.
3. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC): DSC measures the glass transition by
providing data on the energy absorbed or released during the transition.
4. Dynamic Vapor Sorption (DVS): DVS calculates the change in sorption behavior, or
the polymer's ability to absorb water vapor as a function of temperature.
5. Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA): The DMA process deforms the polymer
sinusoidally in order to measure its mechanical properties. The material’s Tg appears at
the peak of its storage modulus.
6. Dielectric Analysis (DEA): This is a way to measure electrical properties in a polymer
as a function of temperature. A significant increase in permittivity and the occurrence of
the peak in dielectric loss are both associated with the glass transition.

How Does Tg Relate to the Behavior and Properties of Polymeric Materials?

The glass transition temperature, also known as the critical temperature, is the point at which
polymeric materials change from a glassy state to a rubbery state. This transition alters the
polymer's stiffness, ductility, and conductivity, along with other thermal, electrical, and
mechanical properties. The processing conditions and end-use applications of polymeric
materials are largely dependent on the Tg value. The Tg value is a key factor in the design and
selection of materials because it influences their stability, durability, and shelf life.
What Type of Polymeric Materials Are Measured for Glass Transition Temperature?

Polymeric materials fall under the following three categories, but glass transition temperature
does not apply to all of them.

1. Crystalline Polymers

Since crystalline polymers do not have clearly defined Tg, these measurements do not apply to
them. Crystalline polymers are characterized by other properties instead.

2. Semi-Crystalline Polymers

Semi-crystalline polymers are substances that contain both disordered amorphous and ordered
crystalline regions. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) or dynamic mechanical analysis
(DMA) is used to measure the glass transition temperature of such polymers. The semi-
crystalline polymer polyethylene, with a Tg of about -100°C, is one common example.

3. Amorphous Polymers

Amorphous polymeric materials change from a hard, brittle state to a rubbery, flexible state at a
temperature known as the glass transition temperature. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA),
thermomechanical analysis (TMA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and other methods
can be employed to identify this value. In polystyrene, for instance, that temperature happens to
be about 100 °C.

What Are the Different Factors That Are Affecting the Tg Value of a Material?

The following factors can have an impact on a material's Tg value:

1. Pressure

High pressure can raise a material's Tg value by compressing the polymer chains and increasing
their rigidity.
2. Moisture

Moisture content can influence a material's Tg value because it can plasticize the polymer. Water
molecules can interrupt intermolecular bonding force and add volume between polymer chains,
ultimately having the effect of lowering the Tg value.

3. Composition

The Tg value of a material can vary depending on its composition. For instance, a material may
be made from two different homopolymers. The Tg value range for the overall structure may be
wider than that of a material made only of homopolymer A or homopolymer B. The addition of
various fillers or additives can also impact a material’s Tg value.

4. Molecular Weight

In general, polymers with higher molecular weights also have higher Tg values because their
intermolecular forces are stronger and require more energy to break.

5. Chemical Structure

A polymer's Tg value may vary depending on its chemical composition. Because they have more
free volume and are less densely packed, polymers with flexible backbones have lower Tg
values.

6. Plasticizers

Plasticizers increase the free volume between polymer chains and reduce intermolecular forces.
This also has the effect of lowering the Tg value.

7. Crystallinity

Highly crystalline polymers have more rigid, ordered structures and higher Tg values.
8. Polar Groups

The intermolecular interactions between the polymer chains can be significantly changed if the
monomer is modified with polar groups. In particular, the type and quantity of polar groups
incorporated into the polymer can be changed to alter the Tg value.

9. Chemical Cross-linking

Crosslinking can raise a polymer’s Tg value because it restricts molecular motion and makes the
polymer more rigid.

10. Thermal History

The thermal history of a polymer can alter its Tg value. A polymer's Tg value, for example,
might be lower if it cools quickly than if it cools slowly.

How Does Tg Impact the Durability and Longevity of Polymer Products?

Tg has an impact on the toughness and longevity of polymer products. Polymers with higher Tg
values tend to last longer because they are more resistant to creep deformation and have better
mechanical properties at higher temperatures.

What Are the Advantages of a Tg?

The glass transition temperature (Tg) is an integral property of amorphous materials. There are
several reasons you’d want to know it:

1. Predicting the Mechanical Properties: A material's properties can be predicted based

on temperature. The material is rubbery and flexible above Tg but stiff and brittle below
Tg.
2. Stability: Tg also indicates the thermal stability of the material. Higher-Tg materials can
withstand higher temperatures before experiencing significant structural changes and are
more resistant to thermal degradation
 3. Processing: Tg is used to identify the ideal processing temperature range to prevent
structural changes in the material and maintain the desired properties.
4. Shelf-life: The Tg can also be used to estimate a material's shelf life. Lower-Tg materials
are more susceptible to structural changes over time, which results in shorter shelf life.

What Are the Disadvantages of a Tg?

Materials with a glass transition temperature have many beneficial uses in materials science and
engineering, but they also have their own drawbacks. Here are a few examples:

1. Limited Applicability: The Tg concept only applies to materials that experience a glass
transition cannot be used to explain how substances like metals and ceramics behave.
2. Sensitivity to Sample Preparation: A material's thermal history and preparation can have
an impact on its Tg. It can be challenging to compare data from different sources because
different Tg measurement techniques can produce inconsistent results.
3. Dependence on Composition: The overall Tg can depend on the molecular weight of a
polymer or the number of additives in a glass. This implies that Tg might not always be a
reliable predictor of a material's behavior.
4. Not a Complete Characterization: Tg is just one of many attributes that characterize a
material's behavior. It does not give a comprehensive picture of its mechanical or thermal
characteristics.

Is Tg a Stiffness Indicator for a Material?

No, a material's glass transition temperature is not a direct indicator of stiffness, but it can be
linked to stiffness. The glass transition temperature is the point at which material changes from a
glassy to a rubbery state, affecting its mechanical properties.

Is Tg a Temperature at Which a Material Changes From a Solid to a Liquid State?

No, the temperature at which a substance transforms from a solid to a liquid state is not the same
as the Tg. Rather, Tg is the temperature at which a material changes from a glassy state to a
rubbery state, which is indicated by a change in mechanical properties like stiffness and
viscosity.

Does Tg Have an Impact on How Polymers Are Manufactured and Processed?

Yes, the Tg has a significant effect on the production and processing of polymers. The Tg
establishes a polymer's processing temperature range and affects how the substance behaves
during cooling and solidification, which in turn affects its mechanical and physical
characteristics. Various processing techniques and environmental factors can also affect the Tg
of a polymer.

Can a Material's Glass Transition Temperature Be Changed as It Is Being Synthesized?

Yes, changing the chemical makeup or processing conditions during synthesis changes a
material's glass transition temperature. For instance, adding plasticizers can lower Tg while
boosting cross-linking can raise it.

What Is the Difference Between Glass Transition Temperature and Melting Temperature?

The temperature at which a material goes through a reversible transition from a hard, brittle state
to a more rubbery, flexible state is known as the glass transition temperature. The temperature at
which a material changes from a solid to a liquid state is known as the melting point (Tm). The
flexible material behavior is not the same as liquid behavior (Campo, 2008)

Ø Degree of Polymerization

The degree of polymerization (DP or X n) is defined as the number of monomer units in the
polymer. It is calculated as the ratio of molecular weight of a polymer and molecular weight of
the repeat unit. Number average DP and weight average DP are the two main types used for
measuring the DP. The DP of cellulose varies depending on the source and treatment of the
original cellulose fiber. It has been widely determined according to ISO 5351 method that
consists of diluting the cellulose sample in cupri-ethyene-diamine (CED) solution and measuring
the intrinsic viscosity of the solution with the use of a Cannon–Fenske capillary viscometer [43].
These values of intrinsic viscosity were translated into DP through the Mark–Houwink–Sakurada
equation, η=0.42·DP when DP <950 and η=2.28·DP0.76 when DP >950 [233].

How to Calculate Degree of Polymerization

Polymerization is the process in which monomer units are linked by chem- ical reaction to form
long chains. These long chains set polymers apart from other chemical species and give them
their unique characteristic properties. The polymer chains can be linear, branched, or cross-
linkedA polymer sample usually contains a distribution of chains with different degrees of
polymerization. Therefore, an average value must be taken when determining the DP. The degree
of polymerization can be calculated by using the following relationship if a molecular weight of
a polymer molecule is known. (Fourne, 2021)

M= (DP) M0

M is the molecular weight of the polymer, DP is the degree of polymerization and the M 0 is the
formula weight of the repeating unit.
Ex: calculate the degree of polymerization of a sample of polyethylene [ (CH2-CH2)n], which has
a molecular weight of 150,000 g/mol.

The molecular weight of a repeating unit, Mo= (12 x 2 + 1 x 4) g/ mol = 28 g/mol

DP = M/Mo

= 150,000 g/mol / 28 g/mol

= 5.35 x 103

The particular molecule contains 5.35 x 103 of repeat units.

When considering the molecular weight of a polymer for the above calculation, we usually take
either the number average molecular weight (Mn) or weight average molecular weight (Mw).

Formula to Calculate Number Average Molecular Weight

The number average molecular weight can be determined by,

Mn= Σ xi Mi

xi is the fraction of the total number of chains within each range, and M i is the mean molecular
weight of each size range of polymer chains.

Formula to Calculate Weight Average Molecular Weight

The weight average molecular weight can be determined by,

Mw= Σ fi Mi

fi is the weight fraction of the polymer chains, and M i is again the mean molecular weight of
each range.
Polymerization degrees of polymer. Polymerization is the process in which monomer units are
linked by chemical reaction to form long chains. These long chains set polymers apart from other
chemical species and give them their unique characteristic properties. The polymer chains can be
linear, branched, or cross-linked. Polymerization reactions are divided into two groups known as
step reactions (also called condensation reactions) and chain reactions (also known as addition
reactions). Step reactions require bifunctional or poly functional monomers, while chain
reactions require the presence of an initiator. (Polymerization, 2021)
References
Buchwalter, S. (2001). Semiconductor Chip Underfill Materials. Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and
Technology, 8332-8335.

Campo, E. (2008). Thermal Properties of Polymeric Materials. sellection of polymer material, 103-140.

Fourne, F. (2021). Synthetic Fibers. Hand book for plant eng., 803.

Polymerization, R. (2021). Polymerization Chain Transfer. Polymerization, R, 354-383.

Stuart, B. H. (2008).Polymer analysis (Vol. 30). John Wiley & Sons.

Rudin, A., & Choi, P. (2012).The elements of polymer science and engineering. Academic press.

Alger, M. (1996).Polymer science dictionary. Springer Science & Business Media.

Hannant, D. J. (1989). The Science and Engineering of Materials: By Donald R. Askeland. PWS,
Boston, MA, USA, 1989. ISBN 0-534-91657-0. 876 pp.