ch2 EN BK

Chapter 2: Operating-System
Structures
Operating System Concepts Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Operating System Services
 Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs

and services to programs and users
 A set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful
to the user:
 User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI).
4 Varies between Command-Line Interface (CLI), Graphical User Interface
(GUI), Touch-screen
 Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into

memory, to run that program, and end execution, either normally or
abnormally (indicating error)
 I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve a
file or an I/O device
Operating System Concepts 4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Operating System Services (Cont.)
 File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.

Programs need to read and write files and directories, create and delete
them, search them, list file Information, permission management.
 Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same

computer or between computers over a network
4 Communications may be via shared memory or through message passing

(packets moved by the OS)
 Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
4 May occur in the CPU and memory, hardware, in I/O devices, in user program
4 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to ensure correct
and consistent computing
4 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s

abilities to efficiently use the system

Operating System Services (Cont.)
 Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation

of the system itself via resource sharing
 Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
4 Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory, file storage, I/O devices.
 Logging - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of
computer resources
 Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser

or networked computer system may want to control use of that
information, concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
4 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled
4 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends to

defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts

A View of Operating System Services

User Operating System Interface - CLI
 CLI or command interpreter allows direct command entry
 Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by system programs
 Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
 Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it
 Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of programs
4 If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require shell modification

Bourne Shell Command Interpreter

User Operating System Interface - GUI
 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface
 Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
 Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc.
 Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various

actions providing information, options, execute function, open directory
 Invented at Xerox PARC
 Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
 Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
 Apple Mac OS X is “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel underneath

and shells available
 Unix and Linux have CLI with optional GUI interfaces (e.g., CDE, KDE,
GNOME)
Touchscreen Interfaces
 Touchscreen devices require

new interfaces
 Mouse not possible or not
desired
 Actions and selection based

on gestures
 Virtual keyboard for text entry
 Voice commands

The Mac OS X GUI

System Calls
 Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
 Typically written in a high-level language (e.g., C or C++)
 Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application

Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call use
 Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API
for POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX,
Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java Virtual Machine
(JVM)
(Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are generic)

Example of System Calls
 System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

System Call Implementation
 Typically, a number associated with each system call
 System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to these

numbers
 The system call interface invokes the intended system call in OS

kernel and returns status of the system call and any return values
 The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented
 Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a result call
 Most details of OS interface are hidden from programmer by API
4 Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built into libraries

included with compiler)

API – System Call – OS Relationship
Index of open()
Index table

System Call Parameter Passing
 Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired

system call
 Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS and call
 Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
 Simplest: pass the parameters in registers

4 In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
 Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of block

passed as a parameter in a register
4 This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
 Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack (see Memory structure) by

the program and popped off the stack by the operating system
4 Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of parameters
being passed

Parameter Passing via Table

Types of System Calls
 Process control
 create process, terminate process
 end, abort process execution
 load, execute
 get process attributes, set process attributes
 wait for time, wait event, signal event
 allocate and free memory
 dump memory if error
 debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
 Locks for managing access to shared data between processes

Types of System Calls (cont.)
 File management
 create file, delete file
 open, close file
 read, write, reposition
 get and set file attributes
 Device management
 request device, release device
 read, write, reposition
 get device attributes, set device attributes
 logically attach or detach devices

Types of System Calls (Cont.)
 Information maintenance
 get time or date, set time or date
 get system data, set system data
 get and set process, file, or device attributes
 Communications
 create, delete communication connection
 send, receive messages if using message passing model to host name or

process name
 Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory regions
 transfer status information
 attach and detach remote devices

Types of System Calls (Cont.)
 Protection
 Control access to resources
 Get and set permissions
 Allow and deny user access

Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

Standard C Library Example
 C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write()

system call

System Services
 System programs provide a convenient environment for program

development and execution. They can be divided into:
 File manipulation
 Status information sometimes stored in a file
 Programming language support
 Program loading and execution
 Communications
 Background services
 Application programs
 Most users’view of the operation system is defined by system

programs, not the actual system calls

Linkers and Loaders
 Source code compiled into object files designed to be loaded into any
physical memory location – relocatable object file
 Linker combines these (also, brings in libraries) into single binary
executable file
 Program resides on secondary storage as binary executable and

must be brought into memory by loader to be executed
 Relocation assigns final addresses to program parts and adjusts code
and data in program to match those addresses
 Modern general purpose systems don’t link libraries into executables
 Rather, dynamically linked libraries (in Windows, DLLs) are loaded as

needed, shared by all that use the same version of that same library
 Object, executable files have standard formats, so

operating system knows how to load and start them
The Role of the Linker and Loader

Operating System Structure
 General-purpose OS is very large program
 Various ways to structure ones
 Simple structure – MS-DOS
 More complex – UNIX
 Layered – an abstraction
 Microkernel – Mach

Monolithic Structure – Original UNIX
 UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating

system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists of two
separable parts
 Systems programs
 Kernel
4 Consists of everything below the system-call interface and above the physical
hardware
4 Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory management, and other
operating-system functions; a large number of functions for one level

Traditional UNIX System Structure
 Beyond simple but not fully layered

Linux System Structure
 Monolithic plus modular design

Layered Approach
 The operating system is

divided into a number of
layers (levels), each built
on top of lower layers.
The bottom layer (layer 0),
is the hardware; the
highest (layer N) is the
user interface.
 With modularity, layers
are selected such that
each uses functions
(operations) and services
of only lower-level layers

Microkernels
 Moves as much from the kernel into user space
 Mach is an example of microkernel
 Mac OS X kernel (i.e., Darwin) partly based on Mach
 Communication takes place between user modules using message

passing model
 Benefits
 Easier to extend a microkernel
 Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
 More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode), more secure
 Detriments: Performance overhead of user space to kernel space

communication

Microkernel System Structure

Modules
 Many modern operating systems implement Loadable Kernel

Modules (LKMs)
 Uses object-oriented approach
 Each core component is separate
 Each talks to the others over known interfaces
 Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
 Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible
 Linux, Solaris, etc.

Hybrid Systems
 Most modern operating systems are actually not one pure model
 Hybrid combines multiple approaches to address performance, security,

usability needs
 Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address space, so monolithic, plus

modular for dynamic loading of functionality
 Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel for different subsystem

personalities
 Apple Mac OS X hybrid, layered, Aqua UI plus Cocoa programming

environment
 Below is kernel consisting of Mach microkernel and BSD Unix parts, plus
I/O kit and dynamically loadable modules (called kernel extensions)

macOS and iOS Structure

Darwin

Building and Booting Linux
 Download Linux source code (http://www.kernel.org)
 Configure kernel via “make menuconfig”
 Compile the kernel using “make”
 Produces vmlinuz, the kernel image
 Compile kernel modules via “make modules”
 Install kernel modules into vmlinuz via “make modules_install”
 Install new kernel on the system via “make install”

Performance Tuning
 Improve performance by removing bottlenecks
 OS must provide means of computing and displaying measures of

system behavior
 For example, “top” Linux program or Windows Task Manager

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Chapter 2: Operating-System

Operating System Concepts Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

 Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs

 Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into

Operating System Concepts 4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

 File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.

 Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same

4 Communications may be via shared memory or through message passing

 Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors

4 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s

Operating System Concepts 5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

 Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation

 Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser

4 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled

4 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends to

Operating System Concepts 6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Operating System Concepts 7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

 CLI or command interpreter allows direct command entry

 Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by system programs

 Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells

 Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it

 Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of programs

4 If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require shell modification

Operating System Concepts 8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Operating System Concepts 9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

 Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor

 Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc.

 Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various

 Invented at Xerox PARC

 Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces

 Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell

 Apple Mac OS X is “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel underneath

 Touchscreen devices require

 Actions and selection based

 Virtual keyboard for text entry

Operating System Concepts 11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Operating System Concepts 12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

 Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

 Typically written in a high-level language (e.g., C or C++)

 Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application

Operating System Concepts 13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Operating System Concepts 14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

 Typically, a number associated with each system call

 System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to these

 The system call interface invokes the intended system call in OS

 Most details of OS interface are hidden from programmer by API

4 Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built into libraries

Operating System Concepts 16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Operating System Concepts 17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

 Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired

 Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS

 Simplest: pass the parameters in registers

 Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of block

 Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack (see Memory structure) by

Operating System Concepts 18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

Operating System Concepts 19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018

 create process, terminate process

 end, abort process execution