CAM 7 - TEST 2 - Vocab

CAM 7 TEST 2: Why pagodas don’t fall down?
In a land swept by typhoons and shaken by earthquakes, how have Japan’s tallest and
seemingly flimsiest mỏng manh/không chắc chắn old buildings – 500 or so wooden pagodas – remained standing
for centuries? Records show that only two have collapsed sụp đổ during the past 1400 years. Those that have
disappeared were destroyed by fire as a result of lightning or civil war. The disastrous Hanshin earthquake
in 1995 killed 6,400 people, toppled quật ngã/làm đổ elevated highways đường cao tốc , flattened office blocks
and devastated phá hủy the port area of Kobe. Yet it left the magnificent tráng lệ, lộng lẫy five-storey pagoda at the
Toji temple in nearby Kyoto unscathed không bị tổn thương/vô sự , though it levelled san bằng/phá sập a number of
buildings in the neighbourhood.
Japanese scholars have been mystified làm bối rối/gây khó hiểu for ages about why these tall, slender mỏng
manh buildings are so stable. It was only thirty years ago that the building industry felt confident enough
to erect dựng lên office blocks of steel and reinforced được gia cố/có cốt thép concrete bê tông that had more than a
dozen floors. With its special shock absorbers thiết bị giảm xóc to dampen làm giảm đi the effect of sudden
sideways movements from an earthquake, the thirty-six-storey Kasumigaseki building in central Tokyo –
Japan’s first skyscraper tòa nhà chọc trời – was considered a masterpiece of modern engineering when it was
built in 1968.
Yet in 826, with only pegs cái cọc and wedges cái nêm (để bổ gỗ, bửa đá...) to keep his wooden structure upright, the
master builder Kobodaishi had no hesitation sự do dự, chần chừ in sending his majestic tráng lệ, hùng vĩ Toji pagoda
soaring fifty-five metres into the sky – nearly half as high as the Kasumigaseki skyscraper built some eleven
centuries later. Clearly, Japanese carpenters thợ mộc of the day knew a few tricks about allowing a building to
sway and settle itself rather than fight nature’s forces. But what sort of tricks?
The multi-storey pagoda came to Japan from China in the sixth century. As in China, they were first
introduced with Buddhism đạo Phật and were attached to important temples. The Chinese built their pagodas
in brick or stone, with inner staircases, and used them in later centuries mainly as watchtowers tháp quan sát,
tháp canh . When the pagoda reached Japan, however, its architecture was freely adapted to local conditions
– they were built less high, typically five rather than nine storeys, made mainly of wood and the staircase
was dispensed with loại trừ/loại bỏ because the Japanese pagoda did not have any practical use but became
more of an art object. Because of the typhoons that batter tàn phá, càn quét Japan in the summer, Japanese
builders learned to extend the eaves of buildings further beyond the walls. This prevents
rainwater gushing đổ (xuống), tràn down the walls. Pagodas in China and Korea have nothing like
the overhang phần nhô ra (của đá, mái nhà...) that is found on pagodas in Japan.
The roof of a Japanese temple building can be made to overhang the sides of the structure by fifty per cent
or more of the building’s overall width. For the same reason, the builders of Japanese pagodas seem to
have further increased their weight by choosing to cover these extended eaves mái hiên not with
the porcelain sứ tiles ngóingói of many Chinese pagodas but with much heavier earthenware làm từ đất nung tiles.
But this does not totally explain the great resilience Khả năng chống chịu of Japanese pagodas. Is the answer
that, like a tall pine tree, the Japanese pagoda – with its massive trunk-like central pillar known as
shinbashira – simply flexes bẻ cong, uốn cong and sways during a typhoon or earthquake? For centuries, many
thought so. But the answer is not so simple because the startling đáng ngạc nhiên thing is that the shinbashira
actually carries no load at all. In fact, in some pagoda designs, it does not even rest on the ground, but
is suspended from treo the top of the pagoda – hanging loosely down through the middle of the building. The
weight of the building is supported entirely by twelve outer and four inner columns.
And what is the role of the shinbashira, the central pillar? The best way to understand the shinbashira’s role
is to watch a video made by Shuzo Ishida, a structural engineer at Kyoto Institute of Technology. Mr Ishida,
known to his students as ‘Professor Pagoda’ because of his passion to understand the pagoda, has built a
series of models and tested them on a ‘shake- table’ in his laboratory. In short, the shinbashira was acting
like an enormous stationary bất động, không dịch chuyển pendulum quả lắc/con lắc . The ancient craftsmen thợ thủ công ,
apparently without the assistance of very advanced mathematics, seemed to grasp hiểu/nắm được the
principles that were, more than a thousand years later, applied in the construction of Japan’s first
skyscraper. What those early craftsmen had found by trial sự thử nghiệm and error was that under pressure a
pagoda’s loose stack of floors could be made to slither to and fro slither: trượt/trườn/dịch chuyển to and fro: qua
lại independent of one another. Viewed from the side, the pagoda seemed to be doing a snake dance – with
each consecutive nối tiếp floor moving in the opposite direction to its neighbours above and below. The
shinbashira, running up through a hole in the centre of the building, constrained hạn chế individual storeys
from moving too far because, after moving a certain distance, they banged into
it, transmitting truyền/dẫn energy away along the column.
Another strange feature of the Japanese pagoda is that, because the building tapers nhỏ dần, bé dần , with
each successive kế tiếp floor plan being smaller than the one below, none of the vertical thẳng đứng pillars that
carry the weight of the building is connected to its corresponding tương ứng pillar above. In other words, a five-
storey pagoda contains not even one pillar that travels right up through the building to carry the structural
loads from the top to the bottom. More surprising is the fact that the individual storeys of a Japanese
pagoda, unlike their counterparts người hoặc vật tương ứng elsewhere, are not actually connected to each
other. They are simply stacked one on top of another like a pile of hats. Interestingly, such a design would
not be permitted under current Japanese building regulations.
And the extra-wide eaves? Think of them as a tightrope dây kéo căng (của diễn viên xiếc) walker’s balancing
pole. The bigger the mass at each end of the pole, the easier it is for the tightrope walker to maintain his or
her balance. The same holds true for a pagoda. ‘With the eaves extending out on all sides like balancing
poles,’ says Mr Ishida, ‘the building responds to even the most powerful jolt cú xóc nảy mạnh bất ngờ of an
earthquake with a graceful nhẹ nhàng, khẽ khàng swaying, never an abrupt bất ngờ, đột ngột shaking.’ Here again,
Japanese master builders of a thousand years ago anticipated dự đoán concepts of modern structural
engineering.
abrupt (adj) /ə'brʌpt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
bất ngờ, đột ngột =sudden and unexpected, and often unpleasant
Ví dụ:
 Our conversation came to an [abrupt] end when George burst into the
room.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The same holds true for a pagoda. ‘With the eaves extending out on
all sides like balancing poles,’ says Mr Ishida, ‘the building responds to even the
most powerful jolt of an earthquake with a graceful swaying, never an abrupt
shaking
absorber (n) /əbˈzɔrbər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thiết bị giảm xóc =a device that reduces the effect or intensity of sound or an
impact
Ví dụ:
 A model of an electrorheological shock [absorber] is constructed.
Ghi chú:
In passage: With its special shock absorbers to dampen the effect of sudden
sideways movements from an earthquake, the thirty-six-storey Kasumigaseki
building in central Tokyo – Japan’s first skyscraper – was considered a
masterpiece of modern engineering when it was built in 1968.
anticipate (v) /æn'tɪsɪpeɪt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
dự đoán =to see what might happen in the future and take action to prepare for it
Ví dụ:
 We need someone who can [anticipate] and respond to changes in the

fashion industry.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Here again, Japanese master builders of a thousand years ago
anticipated concepts of modern structural engineering.
batter (v) /'bætər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tàn phá, càn quét =if a place is battered by wind, rain, or storms, it is seriously
damaged or affected by very bad weather.
Ví dụ:
 Thunderstorms were [battering] Kansas again on Sunday.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Because of the typhoons that batter Japan in the summer, Japanese
builders learned to extend the eaves of buildings further beyond the walls.
buddhism (n) /ˈbudɪzəm/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
đạo Phật =a religion that originally comes from South Asia, and teaches that
personal spiritual improvement will lead to escape from human suffering
Ví dụ:
 My own interest has been in the actual practice of [Buddhism] in

Buddhist lands today.
Ghi chú:
In passage: As in China, they were first introduced with Buddhism and were
attached to important temples.
carpenter (n) /'kɑːpɪntər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thợ mộc =a person whose job is making and repairing wooden objects and
structures
Ví dụ:
 A master [carpenter] was in charge of teaching the apprentices.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Clearly, Japanese carpenters of the day knew a few tricks about
allowing a building to sway and settle itself rather than fight nature’s forces. But
what sort of tricks?
collapse (v) /kə'læps/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sụp đổ =to fall down or fall in suddenly, often after breaking apart
Ví dụ:
 The roof [collapsed] under the weight of snow.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Records show that only two have collapsed during the past 1400
years.
concrete (n) /'kɒŋkriːt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
bê tông =a very hard building material made by mixing together cement, sand,
small stones, and water
Ví dụ:
 Built of reinforced cement [concrete], the house is fireproof.
Ghi chú:
In passage: It was only thirty years ago that the building industry felt confident
enough to erect office blocks of steel and reinforced concrete that had more than
a dozen floors.
consecutive (adj) /kən'sekjʊtɪv/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
nối tiếp =following one after another in a continuous series
Ví dụ:
 She was absent for nine [consecutive] days.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Viewed from the side, the pagoda seemed to be doing a snake dance
– with each consecutive floor moving in the opposite direction to its neighbours
above and below.
constrain (v) /kən'streɪn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
hạn chế =to control and limit something
Ví dụ:
 The country's progress was [constrained] by a leader who refused to look

forward.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The shinbashira, running up through a hole in the centre of the
building, constrained individual storeys from moving too far because, after
moving a certain distance, they banged into it, transmitting energy away along
the column.
corresponding (adj) /ˌkɒrɪ'spɒndɪŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tương ứng =similar to, connected with, or caused by something else
Ví dụ:
 As the course becomes more difficult, there's usually a [corresponding]

drop in attendance
Ghi chú:
In passage: Another strange feature of the Japanese pagoda is that, because the
building tapers, with each successive floor plan being smaller than the one
below, none of the vertical pillars that carry the weight of the building is
connected to its corresponding pillar above.
counterpart (n) /'kaʊntəpɑːt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
người hoặc vật tương ứng =a person or thing that has the same position or
function as somebody/something else in a different place or situation
Ví dụ:
 The Foreign Minister held talks with his Chinese [counterpart].
Ghi chú:
In passage: More surprising is the fact that the individual storeys of a Japanese
pagoda, unlike their counterparts elsewhere, are not actually connected to each
other.
craftsman (n) /'krɑːftsmən/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thợ thủ công =a person who is skilled, especially someone who makes things by
hand
Ví dụ:
 The plates are painted by our finest [craftsmen].
Ghi chú:
In passage: The ancient craftsmen, apparently without the assistance of very
advanced mathematics, seemed to grasp the principles that were, more than a
thousand years later, applied in the construction of Japan’s first skyscraper.
dampen (v) /'dæmpən/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
làm giảm đi =to make something less strong or successful
Ví dụ:
 None of the setbacks could [dampen] his enthusiasm for the project.
Ghi chú:
devastate (v) /'devəsteɪt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
phá hủy =to completely destroy a place or an area
Ví dụ:
 The bomb [devastated] much of the old part of the city.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The disastrous Hanshin earthquake in 1995 killed 6,400 people,
toppled elevated highways, flattened office blocks and devastated the port area
of Kobe
dispense with (v) /dɪ'spens wɪð/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
loại trừ/loại bỏ =to stop using somebody/something because you no longer need
them or it
Ví dụ:
 Debit cards [dispense with] the need for cash altogether.
Ghi chú:
In passage: When the pagoda reached Japan, however, its architecture was freely
adapted to local conditions – they were built less high, typically five rather than
nine storeys, made mainly of wood and the staircase was dispensed with because
the Japanese pagoda did not have any practical use but became more of an art
object.
earthenware (adj) /'eðnweər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
làm từ đất nung =made of quite rough clay, often shaped with the hands
Ví dụ:
 The remains of some Roman [earthenware] vessels were found during the
dig.
Ghi chú:
In passage: For the same reason, the builders of Japanese pagodas seem to have
further increased their weight by choosing to cover these extended eaves not
with the porcelain tiles of many Chinese pagodas but with much heavier
earthenware tiles.
eaves (n) /iːvz/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
mái hiên =the lower edges of a roof that stick out over the walls
Ví dụ:
 birds nesting under the [eaves]
Ghi chú:
earthenware tiles.
erect (v) /ɪ'rekt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
dựng lên =to build a building, wall, or other structure
Ví dụ:
 The war memorial was [erected] in 1950.
Ghi chú:
a dozen floors.
flex (v) /fleks/ UK US

Định nghĩa:
bẻ cong, uốn cong =(of a material) to bend without breaking, or to make a
material do this
Ví dụ:
 Metal fatigue occurs when steel is [flexed].
Ghi chú:
In passage: But this does not totally explain the great resilience of Japanese
pagodas. Is the answer that, like a tall pine tree, the Japanese pagoda – with its
massive trunk-like central pillar known as shinbashira – simply flexes and sways
during a typhoon or earthquake?
flimsy (adj) /'flɪmzɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
mỏng manh/không chắc chắn =badly made and not strong enough for the
purpose for which it is used
Ví dụ:
 a [flimsy] table
Ghi chú:
In passage: In a land swept by typhoons and shaken by earthquakes, how have
Japan’s tallest and seemingly flimsiest old buildings – 500 or so wooden
pagodas – remained standing for centuries?
graceful (adj) /'greɪsfəl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
nhẹ nhàng, khẽ khàng =moving in a smooth, relaxed, attractive way, or having a
smooth, attractive shape
Ví dụ:
 [graceful] movements
Ghi chú:
shaking
grasp (v) /grɑːsp/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
hiểu/nắm được =to understand something completely
Ví dụ:
 They failed to [grasp] the importance of his words.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The ancient craftsmen, apparently without the assistance of very
advanced mathematics, seemed to grasp the principles that were, more than a
thousand years later, applied in the construction of Japan’s first skyscraper.
gush (v) /gʌʃ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
đổ (xuống), tràn =to flow or pour suddenly and quickly out of a hole in large
amounts
Ví dụ:
 Water [gushed] out of the pipe.
Ghi chú:
In passage: This prevents rainwater gushing down the walls. Pagodas in China
and Korea have nothing like the overhang that is found on pagodas in Japan.
hesitation (n) /ˌhezɪ'teɪʃn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự do dự, chần chừ =the act of being slow to speak or act because you feel
uncertain or nervous
Ví dụ:
 She agreed without the slightest [hesitation].
Ghi chú:
In passage: Yet in 826, with only pegs and wedges to keep his wooden structure
upright, the master builder Kobodaishi had no hesitation in sending his majestic
Toji pagoda soaring fifty-five metres into the sky – nearly half as high as the
Kasumigaseki skyscraper built some eleven centuries later.
highway (n) /'haɪweɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
đường cao tốc =a public road, especially an important road that joins cities or
towns together and has high speed limits
Ví dụ:
 The interstate [highways] are usually faster, but smaller roads can be
more scenic.
Ghi chú:
of Kobe
jolt (n) /dʒəʊlt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
cú xóc nảy mạnh bất ngờ =a sudden violent movement
Ví dụ:
 As the plane touched the ground, there was a massive [jolt] and we were
thrown forwards.
Ghi chú:
shaking
level (v) /'levl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
san bằng/phá sập =to completely destroy a building or area
Ví dụ:
 The bombing [levelled] the village
Ghi chú:
In passage: Yet it left the magnificent five-storey pagoda at the Toji temple in
nearby Kyoto unscathed, though it levelled a number of buildings in the
neighbourhood.
magnificent (adj) /mæg'nɪfɪsnt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tráng lệ, lộng lẫy =extremely attractive and impressive; deserving praise
Ví dụ:
 The Taj Mahal is a [magnificent] building.
Ghi chú:
neighbourhood.
majestic (adj) /mə'dʒestɪk/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tráng lệ, hùng vĩ =impressive because of size or beauty
Ví dụ:
 The Rockies are [majestic] in size
Ghi chú:
mystify (v) /'mɪstɪfaɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
làm bối rối/gây khó hiểu =to make somebody confused because they do not
understand something
Ví dụ:
 They were totally [mystified] by the girl's disappearance.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Japanese scholars have been mystified for ages about why these tall,
slender buildings are so stable.
overhang (n) /ˌəʊvə'hæŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
phần nhô ra (của đá, mái nhà...) =the part of a rock or roof that sticks out over
something below
Ví dụ:
 The church is unsafe because it was built on an [overhang].
Ghi chú:
In passage: This prevents rainwater gushing down the walls. Pagodas in China
and Korea have nothing like the overhang that is found on pagodas in Japan.
peg (n) /peg/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
cái cọc =a device used to attach something or hold it in place
Ví dụ:
 The action is not unlike pushing a tent [peg] into the ground.
Ghi chú:
pendulum (n) /'pendjʊləm/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
quả lắc/con lắc =a device consisting of a weight on a stick or thread that moves
from one side to the other, especially one that forms a part of some types of
clocks
Ví dụ:
 The [pendulum] in the grandfather clock swung back and forth.
Ghi chú:
In passage: In short, the shinbashira was acting like an enormous stationary
pendulum.
porcelain (n) /'pɔːsəlɪn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sứ =a hard but delicate, shiny, white substance made by heating a special type of
clay to a high temperature, used to make cups, plates, decorations, etc.
Ví dụ:
 The tea cups are made of [porcelain].
Ghi chú:
earthenware tiles.
reinforced (adj) /ˌriːɪn'fɔːst/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
được gia cố/có cốt thép =made stronger by being made of a strong material or by
having special parts added
Ví dụ:
 These T-connectors have a [reinforced] centre section, to strengthen the

join between the vertical and horizontal bits.
Ghi chú:
a dozen floors.
resilience (n) /rɪ'zɪlɪəns/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
Khả năng chống chịu =the quality of being able to return quickly to a previous
good condition after problems
Ví dụ:
 The [resilience] of the economy has come as a surprise to some.

Ghi chú:
In passage: But this does not totally explain the great resilience of Japanese
pagodas. Is the answer that, like a tall pine tree, the Japanese pagoda – with its
massive trunk-like central pillar known as shinbashira – simply flexes and sways
during a typhoon or earthquake?
skyscraper (n) /'skaɪskreɪpər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tòa nhà chọc trời =a very tall modern building, usually in a city
Ví dụ:
 The restaurant is at the top of one of the big downtown [skyscrapers].
Ghi chú:
slender (adj) /'slendər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
mỏng manh =thin and delicate, often in a way that is attractive
Ví dụ:
 The plant's leaves are long and [slender].
Ghi chú:
In passage: Japanese scholars have been mystified for ages about why these tall,
slender buildings are so stable.
slither to and fro (v) /'slɪðər tuː ænd frəʊ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
slither: trượt/trườn/dịch chuyển to and fro: qua lại =slither: to move by twisting
or sliding to and fro: in one direction and then in the opposite direction, a
number of times
Ví dụ:
 The snake [slithered] away as we approached. She rocked the baby [to
and fro].
Ghi chú:
In passage: What those early craftsmen had found by trial and error was that
under pressure a pagoda’s loose stack of floors could be made to slither to and
fro independent of one another.
startling (adj) /'stɑːtlɪŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
đáng ngạc nhiên =extremely unusual and surprising
Ví dụ:
 [startling] revelations in the Sunday papers
Ghi chú:
In passage: But the answer is not so simple because the startling thing is that the
shinbashira actually carries no load at all
stationary (adj) /'steɪʃənrɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
bất động, không dịch chuyển =not moving, or not changing
Ví dụ:
 The traffic got slower and slower until it was [stationary].
Ghi chú:
In passage: In short, the shinbashira was acting like an enormous stationary
pendulum.
successive (adj) /sək'sesɪv/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
kế tiếp =following immediately one after the other
Ví dụ:
 a trait found in [successive] generations
Ghi chú:
suspend from (v) /sə'spend frɒm/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
treo =to hang something from something else
Ví dụ:
 A lamp was [suspended] from the ceiling.
Ghi chú:
In passage: In fact, in some pagoda designs, it does not even rest on the ground,
but is suspended from the top of the pagoda – hanging loosely down through the
middle of the building.
taper (v) /'teɪpər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
nhỏ dần, bé dần =to become gradually narrower at one end, or to make
something do this
Ví dụ:
 The cave [tapered] to a narrow passageway.
Ghi chú:
tightrope (n) /'taɪtrəʊp/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
dây kéo căng (của diễn viên xiếc) =a rope or wire that is stretched tightly high
above the ground and that performers walk along, especially in a circus
Ví dụ:
 a [tightrope] walker
Ghi chú:
In passage: Think of them as a tightrope walker’s balancing pole.
tile (n) /taɪl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
ngói =a thin, usually square or rectangular piece of baked clay, plastic, etc. used
for covering roofs, floors, walls, etc.
Ví dụ:
 Trees shook violently and [tiles] were dislodged from rooftops
Ghi chú:
earthenware tiles.
topple (v) /'tɒpl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
quật ngã/làm đổ =to (cause to) lose balance and fall down
Ví dụ:
 The statue of the dictator was [toppled] (over) by the crowds.
Ghi chú:
of Kobe
transmit (v) /trænz'mɪt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
truyền/dẫn =to send an electronic signal, radio or television broadcast, etc.
Ví dụ:
 The ceremony was [transmitted] live by satellite to over fifty countries.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The shinbashira, running up through a hole in the centre of the
building, constrained individual storeys from moving too far because, after
moving a certain distance, they banged into it, transmitting energy away along
the column.
trial (n) /'traɪəl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự thử nghiệm =a test, usually over a limited period of time, to discover how
effective or suitable something or someone is
Ví dụ:
 They're doing clinical [trials] on a new drug.
Ghi chú:
In passage: What those early craftsmen had found by trial and error was that
under pressure a pagoda’s loose stack of floors could be made to slither to and
fro independent of one another.
unscathed (adj) /ʌn'skeɪðd/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
không bị tổn thương/vô sự =without injuries or damage being caused
Ví dụ:
 The hostages emerged from their ordeal [unscathed].
Ghi chú:
neighbourhood.
vertical (adj) /'v3ːtɪkl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thẳng đứng =standing or pointing straight up or at an angle of 90° to a horizontal
surface or line
Ví dụ:
 She looked over the cliff and found she was standing at the edge of a
[vertical] drop.
Ghi chú:
watchtower (n) /'wɒtʃtaʊər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tháp quan sát, tháp canh =a tower built to create an elevated observation point.
Ví dụ:
 It's a tower - an old [watchtower] from the days when they needed
[watchtowers].
Ghi chú:
In passage: The Chinese built their pagodas in brick or stone, with inner
staircases, and used them in later centuries mainly as watchtowers.
wedge (n) /wedʒ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
cái nêm (để bổ gỗ, bửa đá...) =a piece of wood, metal, etc. having one thick end
and tapering to a thin edge, that is driven between two objects or parts of an
object to secure or separate them
Ví dụ:
 Pieces of stone can be split off by forcing [wedges] between the layers.
Ghi chú:
CAM 7 TEST 2: The true cost of food
A
For more than forty years the cost of food has been rising. It has now reached a point where a growing
number of people believe that it is far too high, and that bringing it down will be one of the great challenges
of the twenty first century. That cost, however, is not in immediate cash thanh toán ngay bằng tiền mặt hoặc séc . In the
West at least, most food is now far cheaper to buy in relative tương đối terms than it was in 1960. The cost is
in the collateral ngoài lề, ngoài dự kiến damage of the very methods of food production that have made the food
cheaper: in the pollution of water, the enervation sự suy giảm chất lượng, sự suy thoái of soil, the destruction of
wildlife, the harm to animal welfare sức khỏe, sự phát triển (về mặt thể chất và tinh thần) and the threat to human health
caused by modern industrial agriculture.
First mechanisation sự cơ khí hóa , then mass use of chemical fertilisers phân bón and pesticides thuốc trừ sâu ,
then monocultures sự độc canh , then battery chuồng lồng, chủ yếu sử dụng trong chăn nuôi công nghiệp rearing việc chăn
nuôi of livestock vật nuôi, súc vật , and now genetic thuộc về gen, thuộc về di truyền engineering – the onward về phía trước,
tiến lên march sự tiến triển, bước tiến of intensive farming has seemed unstoppable in the last half-century, as
the yields sản lượng of produce have soared. But the damage it has caused has been colossal to lớn, khổng lồ . In
Britain, for example, many of our best-loved farmland birds, such as the skylark chim chiền chiện , the
grey partridge gà gô , the lapwing chim te te and the corn bunting chim sẻ đất , have vanished from huge stretches of
countryside, as have even more wild flowers and insects. This is a direct result of the way we have
produced our food in the last four decades. Thousands of miles of hedgerows hàng rào cây , thousands of
ponds, have disappeared from the landscape. The faecal filth rác thải, chất bẩn of salmon farming has driven
wild salmon from many of the sea lochs hồ and rivers of Scotland. Natural soil fertility (đất) sự màu mỡ is
dropping in many areas because of continuous industrial fertiliser and pesticide use, while the growth
of algae tảo is increasing in lakes because of the fertiliser run-off sự chảy, sự rò rỉ (nước, nước mưa, chất lỏng...) .
Put it all together and it looks like a battlefield chiến trường , but consumers người tiêu dùng rarely make the
connection at the dinner table. That is mainly because the costs of all this damage are what economists nhà
kinh tế học refer to as externalities ngoại ứng (ảnh hưởng nảy sinh từ quá trình sản xuất hàng hóa và dịch vụ, nhưng không được phản
ánh trong giá cả thị trường) : they are outside the main transaction sự giao dịch , which is for example producing and
selling a field of wheat, and are borne directly by neither producers nor consumers. To many, the costs may
not even appear to be financial at all, but merely chỉ là/đơn thuần aesthetic thẩm mỹ/mang tính thẩm mỹ – a terrible
shame, but nothing to do with money. And anyway they, as consumers of food, certainly aren’t paying for it,
are they?
But the costs to society can actually be quantified xác định số lượng and, when added up, can amount
to staggering đáng kinh ngạc sums. A remarkable exercise in doing this has been carried out thực hiện điều gì by
one of the world’s leading thinkers on the future of agriculture, Professor Jules Pretty, Director of the Centre
for Environment and Society at the University of Essex. Professor Pretty and his colleagues calculated the
externalities of British agriculture for one particular year. They added up the costs of repairing the damage it
caused, and came up with a total figure of £2,343m. This is equivalent tương đương (giá trị, số lượng, tầm quan
trọng,...) to £208 for every hectare of arable (đất) có thể trồng trọt/canh tác được land and permanent pasture đồng cỏ (cho
súc vật ăn) , almost as much again as the total government and EU spend on British farming in that year. And
according to Professor Pretty, it was a conservative (ước tính) khiêm tốn/thận trọng estimate sự ước lượng .
The costs included: £120m for removal sự loại bỏ of pesticides; £16m for removal of nitrates; £55m for
removal of phosphates and soil; £23m for the removal of the bug Cryptosporidium from drinking water by
water companies; £125m for damage to wildlife habitats, hedgerows and dry stone walls; £1,113m
from emissions sự thải ra of gases likely to contribute to climate change; £106m from soil erosion sự xói mòn and
organic carbon losses; £169m from food poisoning; and £607m from cattle gia súc disease. Professor Pretty
draws a simple but memorable conclusion from all this: our food bills are actually threefold. We are paying
for our supposedly cheaper food in three separate ways: once over the counter quầy thanh toán , secondly
through our taxes, which provide the enormous subsidies tiền trợ cấp propping up modern intensive farming,
and thirdly to clean up the mess that modern farming leaves behind.
F
So can the true cost of food be brought down hạ xuống, làm tụt xuống ? Breaking away from industrial agriculture
as the solution to hunger may be very hard for some countries, but in Britain, where the immediate need to
supply food is less urgent, and the costs and the damage of intensive farming have been clearly seen, it
may be more feasible khả thi . The government needs to create sustainable, competitive and diverse farming
and food sectors, which will contribute to a thriving thịnh vượng and sustainable rural economy, and advance
environmental, economic, health, and animal welfare phúc lợi goals.
But if industrial agriculture is to be replaced, what is a viable khả thi/có khả năng thành công alternative phương án thay
thế ? Professor Pretty feels that organic hữu cơ farming would be too big a jump in thinking and in practices for
many farmers. Furthermore, the price premium phần trả thêm would put the produce out of reach of many
poorer consumers. He is recommending the immediate introduction of a ‘Greener Food Standard’, which
would push the market towards more sustainable environmental practices than the current norm quy phạm, tiêu
chuẩn , while not requiring the full commitment to sự cam kết organic production. Such a standard
would comprise bao gồm agreed practices for different kinds of farming, covering agrochemical hóa chất nông
nghiệp use, soil health, land management, water and energy use, food safety and animal health. It could go a
long way, he says, to shifting thay đổi/chuyển/dời consumers as well as farmers towards a more sustainable
system of agriculture.
aesthetic (adj) /iːs'θetɪk/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thẩm mỹ/mang tính thẩm mỹ =connected with beauty and art and the
understanding of beautiful things
Ví dụ:
 The works of art are judged on purely [aesthetic] grounds.
Ghi chú:
In passage: To many, the costs may not even appear to be financial at all, but
merely aesthetic – a terrible shame, but nothing to do with money.
agrochemical (n) /ˌægroʊˈkɛmɪkəl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
hóa chất nông nghiệp =chemical that is used in farming to help grow crops or
kill insects
Ví dụ:
 They produce a wide range of [agrochemicals] including pesticides,

fungicides, herbicides, and seed treatments.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Such a standard would comprise agreed practices for different kinds
of farming, covering agrochemical use, soil health, land management, water and
energy use, food safety and animal health.
algae (n) /'ældʒiː/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tảo =very simple, usually small plants that grow in or near water and do not have
ordinary leaves or roots
Ví dụ:
 The importance of red [algae] is clearly a theme in several of these papers.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Natural soil fertility is dropping in many areas because of continuous
industrial fertiliser and pesticide use, while the growth of algae is increasing in
lakes because of the fertiliser run-off.
alternative (n) /ɔːl't3ːnətɪv/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
phương án thay thế =a thing that you can choose to do or have out of two or
more possibilities
Ví dụ:
 The car is too expensive so we're trying to find a cheaper [alternative].
Ghi chú:
In passage: But if industrial agriculture is to be replaced, what is a viable
alternative?
arable (adj) /'ærəbl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
(đất) có thể trồng trọt/canh tác được =(of land) used for or right for growing
crops
Ví dụ:
 The country is rich in [arable] land.
Ghi chú:
In passage: This is equivalent to £208 for every hectare of arable land and
permanent pasture, almost as much again as the total government and EU spend
on British farming in that year.
battery (n) /'bætərɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
chuồng lồng, chủ yếu sử dụng trong chăn nuôi công nghiệp =a large number of
small cages that are joined together and are used for keeping chickens, etc. in on
a farm
Ví dụ:
 Egg-laying hens are confined to [battery] cages.
Ghi chú:
In passage: First mechanisation, then mass use of chemical fertilisers and
pesticides, then monocultures, then battery rearing of livestock, and now genetic
engineering – the onward march of intensive farming has seemed unstoppable in
the last half-century, as the yields of produce have soared.
battlefield (n) /'bætlfiːld/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
chiến trường =a place where a battle is being fought or has been fought in the
past
Ví dụ:
 They carried the wounded from the [battlefield].

Ghi chú:
In passage: Put it all together and it looks like a battlefield, but consumers rarely
make the connection at the dinner table
bring down (phr v) /brɪŋ daʊn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
hạ xuống, làm tụt xuống =to reduce the level of something
Ví dụ:
 They've really [brought down] the price of DVD players.
Ghi chú:
In passage: So can the true cost of food be brought down?
bunting (n) /'bʌntɪŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
chim sẻ đất =any of several types of small singing bird with a short, wide beak,
and usually brownish feathers, found in Europe, Asia, and Africa
Ví dụ:
 They saw lapwings, skylarks and [buntings]
Ghi chú:
In passage: In Britain, for example, many of our best-loved farmland birds, such
as the skylark, the grey partridge, the lapwing and the corn bunting, have
vanished from huge stretches of countryside, as have even more wild flowers
and insects.
carry out (phr v) /'kærɪ aʊt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thực hiện điều gì =to do and complete a task
Ví dụ:
 Extensive tests have been [carried out] on the patient.
Ghi chú:
In passage: A remarkable exercise in doing this has been carried out by one of
the world’s leading thinkers on the future of agriculture, Professor Jules Pretty,
Director of the Centre for Environment and Society at the University of Essex.
cattle (n) /'kætl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
gia súc =a group of animals that includes cows, buffalo, and bison, that are often
kept for their milk or meat
Ví dụ:
 Because of the war the national [cattle] stock is low and animals have to
be imported.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The costs included: £120m for removal of pesticides; £16m for
removal of nitrates; £55m for removal of phosphates and soil; £23m for the
removal of the bug Cryptosporidium from drinking water by water companies;
£125m for damage to wildlife habitats, hedgerows and dry stone walls; £1,113m
from emissions of gases likely to contribute to climate change; £106m from soil
erosion and organic carbon losses; £169m from food poisoning; and £607m
from cattle disease.
collateral (adj) /kə'lætərəl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
ngoài lề, ngoài dự kiến =relating to something but less important than it
Ví dụ:
 [Collateral] damage is injury inflicted on something other than an
intended target.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The cost is in the collateral damage of the very methods of food
production that have made the food cheaper: in the pollution of water, the
enervation of soil, the destruction of wildlife, the harm to animal welfare and the
threat to human health caused by modern industrial agriculture.
colossal (adj) /kə'lɒsl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
to lớn, khổng lồ =extremely large
Ví dụ:
 They were asking a [colossal] amount of money for the house
Ghi chú:
In passage: But the damage it has caused has been colossal
commitment (n) /kə'mɪtmənt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự cam kết =a promise or firm decision to do something
Ví dụ:
 The government reaffirmed its [commitment] to the peace process.
Ghi chú:
In passage: He is recommending the immediate introduction of a ‘Greener Food
Standard’, which would push the market towards more sustainable
environmental practices than the current norm, while not requiring the full
commitment to organic production
comprise (v) /kəm'praɪz/ UK US

Định nghĩa:
bao gồm =to have somebody/something as parts or members
Ví dụ:
 The collection [comprises] 327 paintings.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Such a standard would comprise agreed practices for different kinds
of farming, covering agrochemical use, soil health, land management, water and
energy use, food safety and animal health.
conservative (adj) /kən's3ːvətɪv/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
(ước tính) khiêm tốn/thận trọng =(of an estimate) lower than what is probably
the real amount or number
Ví dụ:
 At a [conservative] estimate, he'll be earning £50 000.
Ghi chú:
In passage: And according to Professor Pretty, it was a conservative estimate.
consumer (n) /kən'sjuːmər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
người tiêu dùng =a person who buys goods or services for their own use
Ví dụ:
 The new rates will affect all [consumers], including businesses.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Put it all together and it looks like a battlefield, but consumers rarely
make the connection at the dinner table
counter (n) /'kaʊntər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
quầy thanh toán =a long, flat, narrow surface or table in a shop, bank, restaurant,
etc. at which people are served
Ví dụ:
 I asked the woman behind the [counter] if they had any postcards.
Ghi chú:
In passage: We are paying for our supposedly cheaper food in three separate
ways: once over the counter, secondly through our taxes, which provide the
enormous subsidies propping up modern intensive farming, and thirdly to clean
up the mess that modern farming leaves behind.
economist (n) /ɪ'kɒnəmɪst/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
nhà kinh tế học =a person who studies or has a special knowledge of economics
Ví dụ:
 As an [economist], he was able to shed some light on the problem.
Ghi chú:
In passage: That is mainly because the costs of all this damage are what
economists refer to as externalities: they are outside the main transaction, which
is for example producing and selling a field of wheat, and are borne directly by
neither producers nor consumers.
emission (n) /ɪ'mɪʃn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự thải ra =the production or sending out of light, heat, gas, etc.
Ví dụ:
 the [emission] of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
Ghi chú:
enervation (n) /enervation*/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự suy giảm chất lượng, sự suy thoái =lack of vitality
Ví dụ:
 An [enervation] of mind greater than any fatigue.
Ghi chú:
equivalent (adj) /ɪ'kwɪvələnt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tương đương (giá trị, số lượng, tầm quan trọng,...) =equal in value, amount,
meaning, importance, etc.
Ví dụ:
 The new regulation was seen as [equivalent] to censorship.
Ghi chú:
erosion (n) /ɪ'rəʊʒn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự xói mòn =the process by which the surface of something is gradually
destroyed through the action of wind, rain, etc.
Ví dụ:
 the [erosion] of the coastline by the sea
Ghi chú:
estimate (n) /'estɪmeɪt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự ước lượng =a guess of what the size, value, amount, cost, etc. of something
might be
Ví dụ:
 We'll accept the lowest of three [estimates] for the building work.
Ghi chú:
In passage: And according to Professor Pretty, it was a conservative estimate.
externality (n) /externality*/ UK US

Định nghĩa:
ngoại ứng (ảnh hưởng nảy sinh từ quá trình sản xuất hàng hóa và dịch vụ, nhưng
không được phản ánh trong giá cả thị trường) =a consequence of an industrial or
commercial activity that affects other people or things without this being
reflected in market prices
Ví dụ:
 Pollution is a negative [externality] that imposes a cost—reduced

happiness—on the victims.
Ghi chú:
feasible (adj) /'fiːzəbl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
khả thi =that is possible and likely to be achieved
Ví dụ:
 It's just not [feasible] to manage the business on a part-time basis.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Breaking away from industrial agriculture as the solution to hunger
may be very hard for some countries, but in Britain, where the immediate need
to supply food is less urgent, and the costs and the damage of intensive farming
have been clearly seen, it may be more feasible.
fertiliser (n) /fertiliser*/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
phân bón =a natural or chemical substance that is spread on the land or given to
plants, to make plants grow well
Ví dụ:
 The prices for farm equipment, [fertilizer] and fuel climb relentlessly.
Ghi chú:
fertility (n) /fə'tɪlɪtɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
(đất) sự màu mỡ =(of land) the quality of producing a large number of good
quality crops
Ví dụ:
 Good soil possesses oxygen, warmth, humidity, and [fertility].
Ghi chú:
filth (n) /fɪlθ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
rác thải, chất bẩn =any very dirty and unpleasant substance
Ví dụ:
 The floor was covered in grease and [filth].
Ghi chú:
In passage: The faecal filth of salmon farming has driven wild salmon from
many of the sea lochs and rivers of Scotland.
genetic (adj) /dʒɪ'netɪk/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thuộc về gen, thuộc về di truyền =belonging or relating to genes (= parts of the
DNA in cells) received by each animal or plant from its parents
Ví dụ:
 There are fears that [genetic] techniques could be abused.
Ghi chú:
hedgerow (n) /'hedʒrəʊ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
hàng rào cây =a line of different types of bushes and small trees growing very
close together, especially between fields or along the sides of roads in the
countryside
Ví dụ:
 We gathered blackberries from the [hedgerow].
Ghi chú:
In passage: Thousands of miles of hedgerows, thousands of ponds, have
disappeared from the landscape.
immediate cash/payment (n) /ˌɪˈmiˌdiət kæʃ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thanh toán ngay bằng tiền mặt hoặc séc =prompt payment for goods or services
in currency or by check
Ví dụ:
 Many hospitals expect [immediate payment] and do not accept credit

cards.
Ghi chú:
In passage: That cost, however, is not in immediate cash.
lapwing (n) /'læpwɪŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
chim te te =a small dark bird with a white chest and raised feathers on its head
Ví dụ:
 The provision relates to imports of quail, [lapwing] and game birds.
Ghi chú:
and insects.
livestock (n) /'laɪvstɒk/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
vật nuôi, súc vật =animals and birds that are kept on a farm, such as cows,
sheep, or chickens
Ví dụ:
 The organic [livestock] industry has grown substantially in the last few
years.
Ghi chú:
loch (n) /lɒk/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
hồ =a lake or a narrow area of sea almost surrounded by land
Ví dụ:
 The [loch] contains salmon and trout.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The faecal filth of salmon farming has driven wild salmon from
many of the sea lochs and rivers of Scotland.
march (n) /mɑːtʃ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự tiến triển, bước tiến =the continuous development of a state, activity, or idea
Ví dụ:
 It is impossible to stop the forward [march] of progress.
Ghi chú:
mechanisation (n) /mechanisation*/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự cơ khí hóa =changes made to a process, so that the work is done by machines
rather than people
Ví dụ:
 The early phases of the Industrial Revolution were closely linked to the
[mechanisation] of the textile industry.
Ghi chú:
merely (adv) /'mɪəlɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
chỉ là/đơn thuần =used meaning ‘only’ or ‘simply’ to emphasize a fact or
something that you are saying
Ví dụ:
 It is not [merely] a job, but a way of life.
Ghi chú:
In passage: To many, the costs may not even appear to be financial at all, but
merely aesthetic – a terrible shame, but nothing to do with money.
monoculture (n) /monoculture*/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự độc canh =the practice of growing only one type of crop on a certain area of
land
Ví dụ:
 Extensive irrigation for corn [monoculture] depletes water resources.
Ghi chú:
norm (n) /nɔːm/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
quy phạm, tiêu chuẩn =a situation or a pattern of behaviour that is usual or
expected
Ví dụ:
 The new design is a departure from the [norm].
Ghi chú:
In passage: He is recommending the immediate introduction of a ‘Greener Food
Standard’, which would push the market towards more sustainable
environmental practices than the current norm, while not requiring the full
commitment to organic production
onward (adj) /'ɒnwəd/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
về phía trước, tiến lên =moving forward to a later time or a more distant (=
farther away) place
Ví dụ:
 The [onward] march of time
Ghi chú:
organic (adj) /ɔː'gænɪk/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
hữu cơ =(of food, farming methods, etc.) produced or practised without using
artificial chemicals
Ví dụ:
 The farm went fully [organic] in 1996.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Professor Pretty feels that organic farming would be too big a jump
in thinking and in practices for many farmers.
partridge (n) /'pɑːtrɪdʒ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
gà gô =a bird with a round body and a short tail that is sometimes hunted for
food or for sport, or the meat of this bird
Ví dụ:
 A typical farming village in this region attracts tree sparrows, black

redstarts, gray [partridge], skylarks, and hen harriers.
Ghi chú:
and insects.
pasture (n) /'pɑːstʃər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
đồng cỏ (cho súc vật ăn) =land covered with grass that is suitable for feeding
animals on
Ví dụ:
 The cattle were put out to [pasture].
Ghi chú:
pesticide (n) /'pestɪsaɪd/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thuốc trừ sâu =a chemical substance used to kill harmful insects, small animals,
wild plants, and other unwanted organisms
Ví dụ:
 The [pesticides] that farmers spray on their crops kill pests, but they can
also damage people's health
Ghi chú:
premium (n) /'priːmɪəm/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
phần trả thêm =an amount that is more than usual
Ví dụ:
 We're willing to pay a [premium] for the best location.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Furthermore, the price premium would put the produce out of reach
of many poorer consumers.
quantify (v) /'kwɒntɪfaɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
xác định số lượng =to measure or judge the size or amount of something
Ví dụ:
 It’s difficult to [quantify] how many people will have to pay higher taxes.
Ghi chú:
In passage: But the costs to society can actually be quantified and, when added
up, can amount to staggering sums.
rearing (n) /'rɪərɪŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
việc chăn nuôi =the act of caring for young animals or children until they are
able to care for themselves
Ví dụ:
 She was a Hampshire woman, and understood the [rearing] of pigs
Ghi chú:
relative (adj) /'relətɪv/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tương đối =true to a particular degree when compared with other things
Ví dụ:
 In [relative] terms, this is a creditable performance: not all business

publishers generated profit margins this large last year.
Ghi chú:
In passage: In the West at least, most food is now far cheaper to buy in relative
terms than it was in 1960.
removal (n) /rɪ'muːvəl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự loại bỏ =the process of removing or getting rid of something, often something
that is considered to be harmful
Ví dụ:
 The forced [removals] of the Acadians began in late 1755
Ghi chú:
run-off (n) /'rʌn-ɒf/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự chảy, sự rò rỉ (nước, nước mưa, chất lỏng...) =rain, water or other liquid that
runs off land into streams and rivers
Ví dụ:
 Agricultural [run-off] containing pesticides is polluting the river.
Ghi chú:
shift (v) /ʃɪft/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thay đổi/chuyển/dời =(of a situation, an opinion, a policy etc.) to change from
one state, position, etc. to another
Ví dụ:
 The press's attention [shifted] elsewhere, at least temporarily.
Ghi chú:
In passage: It could go a long way, he says, to shifting consumers as well as
farmers towards a more sustainable system of agriculture.
skylark (n) /'skaɪlɑːk/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
chim chiền chiện =a small, brown bird that is known for its beautiful singing
Ví dụ:
 A typical farming village in this region attracts tree sparrows, black

redstarts, gray partridge, [skylarks], and hen harriers.
Ghi chú:
and insects.
staggering (adj) /'stægərɪŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
đáng kinh ngạc =so great, shocking or surprising that it is difficult to believe
Ví dụ:
 They paid a [staggering] £5 million for the house.
Ghi chú:
In passage: But the costs to society can actually be quantified and, when added
up, can amount to staggering sums.
subsidy (n) /'sʌbsədɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tiền trợ cấp =money given as part of the cost of something, to help or encourage
it to happen
Ví dụ:
 The company received a substantial government [subsidy].
Ghi chú:
In passage: We are paying for our supposedly cheaper food in three separate
ways: once over the counter, secondly through our taxes, which provide the
enormous subsidies propping up modern intensive farming, and thirdly to clean
up the mess that modern farming leaves behind.
thriving (adj) /'θraɪvɪŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thịnh vượng =continuing to be successful, strong, healthy, etc.
Ví dụ:
 a [thriving] industry
Ghi chú:
In passage: The government needs to create sustainable, competitive and diverse
farming and food sectors, which will contribute to a thriving and sustainable
rural economy, and advance environmental, economic, health, and animal
welfare goals.
transaction (n) /træn'zækʃn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự giao dịch =an occasion when someone buys or sells something, or when
money is exchanged or the activity of buying or selling something
Ví dụ:
 We need to monitor the [transaction] of smaller deals.
Ghi chú:
viable (adj) /'vaɪəbl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
khả thi/có khả năng thành công =that can be done; that will be successful
Ví dụ:
 If there was any delay then the rescue plan would cease to be [viable].
Ghi chú:
In passage: But if industrial agriculture is to be replaced, what is a viable
alternative?
welfare (n) /'welfeər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sức khỏe, sự phát triển (về mặt thể chất và tinh thần) =physical and mental
health and happiness
Ví dụ:
 We were concerned for our parents’ [welfare] when we heard about the
storm in Florida
Ghi chú:
welfare (n) /'welfeər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
phúc lợi =aid in the form of money or necessities for those in need
Ví dụ:
 Your taxes pay for [welfare] benefits such as unemployment and sickness
pay.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The government needs to create sustainable, competitive and diverse
farming and food sectors, which will contribute to a thriving and sustainable
rural economy, and advance environmental, economic, health, and animal
welfare goals.
yield (n) /jiːld/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sản lượng =an amount of something positive, such as food or profit, that is
produced or supplied
Ví dụ:
 Crop [yields] have risen steadily.
Ghi chú:
CAM 7 TEST 2: Makete integrated rural transport

project
Section A
The disappointing results of many conventional truyền thống, thông thường road transport projects in Africa led
some experts to rethink the strategy chiến lược by which rural transport problems were to be tackled giải
quyết/khắc phục at the beginning of the 1980s. A request for help in improving the availability sự có sẵn of
transport within the remote Makete District of south-western Tanzania presented the opportunity to try a
new approach cách tiếp cận .
The concept of ‘integrated tích hợp rural transport’ was adopted in the task of examining the transport needs
of the rural households in the district. The objective was to reduce the time and effort needed to obtain đạt
được access to essential goods and services through an improved rural transport system. The underlying cơ
bản assumption nhận định was that the time saved would be used instead for activities that would improve the
social and economic development of the communities. The Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project
(MIRTP) started in 1985 with financial support from the Swiss Development Corporation and
was coordinated with phối hợp the help of the Tanzanian government.
Section B
When the project began, Makete District was virtually gần như, hầu như totally isolated cô lập during the rainy
season. The regional thuộc vùng miền road was in such bad shape that access to the main towns was
impossible for about three months of the year. Road traffic was extremely rare within the district, and
alternative means of transport were restricted to chỉ có, chỉ giới hạn trong, chỉ vỏn vẹn donkeys in the north of the
district. People relied primarily chủ yếu on the paths, which were slippery trơn and dangerous during the rains.
Before solutions could be proposed nêu ra/đề xuất , the problems had to be understood. Little was known about
the transport demands of the rural households, so Phase I, between December 1985 and December 1987,
focused on research. The socio-economic kinh tế xã hội survey of more than 400 households in the district
indicated that a household in Makete spent, on average, seven hours a day on transporting themselves and
their goods, a figure which seemed extreme but which has also been obtained in surveys in other rural
areas in Africa. Interesting facts regarding transport were found: 95% was on foot; 80% was within
the locality vùng, địa phương ; and 70% was related to the collection of water and firewood and travelling
to grinding nghiền/xay mills.
Section C
Having determined xác định the main transport needs, possible solutions were identified which might reduce
the time and burden gánh nặng . During Phase II, from January to February 1991, a number of approaches
were implemented thực hiện điều gì in an effort to improve mobility tính linh động and access to transport.
An improvement of the road network was considered necessary to ensure the import and export of goods to
the district. These improvements were carried out thực hiện điều gì using methods that were heavily dependent
on phụ thuộc vào labour.
In addition to the improvement of roads, these methods provided training in the operation of a mechanical
workshop and bus and truck services. However, the difference from the conventional approach was that this
time consideration sự cân nhắc, sự xem xét was given to local transport needs outside the road network.
Most goods were transported along the paths that provide short-cuts Đường tắt up and down the hillsides, but
the paths were a real safety risk and made the journey on foot even more arduous gian khó . It made sense to
improve the paths by building steps, handrails lan can, tay vịn and footbridges cầu bộ hành .
It was uncommon to find means of transport that were more efficient than walking but less technologically
advanced than motor vehicles. The use of bicycles was constrained hạn chế by their high cost and the lack of
available spare parts linh kiện thay thế . Oxen were not used at all but donkeys were used by a few households
in the northern part of the district. MIRTP focused on what would be most appropriate for the inhabitants cư
dân of Makete in terms of what was available, how much they could afford and what they were willing to
accept. After careful consideration, the project chose the promotion of donkeys – a donkey costs less than a
bicycle – and the introduction of a locally manufacturable có thể chế tạo wheelbarrow.
Section D
At the end of Phase II, it was clear that the selected approaches to Makete’s transport problems had had
different degrees of success. Phase III, from March 1991 to March 1993, focused on the refinement sự cải
tiến and institutionalisation sự thể chế hóa of these activities. The road improvements and accompanying kèm
theo/đi cùng maintenance sự bảo dưỡng system had helped make the district centre accessible throughout the
year. Essential goods from outside the district had become more readily available at the market, and prices
did not fluctuate (giá cả) lên xuống, thay đổi thất thường as much as they had done before.
Paths and secondary roads were improved only at the request of communities who were willing to
participate in construction and maintenance. However, the improved paths impressed the inhabitants, and
requests for assistance greatly increased soon after only a few improvements had been completed.
The efforts to improve the efficiency of the existing transport services were not very successful because
most of the motorised có lắp động cơ vehicles in the district broke down and there were no resources to repair
them. Even the introduction of low-cost means of transport was difficult because of the general poverty of
the district. The locally manufactured wheelbarrows were still too expensive for all but a few of the
households. Modifications to sự sửa đổi (thường để cải tiến) the original design by local carpenters thợ mộc cut
production time and costs. Other local carpenters have been trained in the new design so that they can
respond to requests. Nevertheless, a locally produced wooden wheelbarrow xe cút kítxe cút kít which costs
around 5000 Tanzanian shillings (less than US$20) in Makete, and is about one quarter the cost of a metal
wheelbarrow, is still too expensive for most people.
Donkeys, which were imported to the district, have become more common and contribute, in particular, to
the transportation of crops and goods to market. Those who have bought donkeys are mainly from richer
households but with an increased supply through local breeding sự gây giống , donkeys should become
more affordable (giá cả) phải chăng, vừa túi tiền . Meanwhile, local initiatives sáng kiến are promoting the renting out of
the existing donkeys. It should be noted, however that a donkey, which at 20,000 Tanzanian shillings đồng
shilling, đơn vị tiền tệ ở Kenya, Somalia, Uganda và Tanzania costs less than a bicycle, is still an investment sự đầu tư equal
to an average household’s income over half a year This clearly illustrates the need for
supplementary measures biện pháp if one wants to assist the rural poor.
Section E
It would have been easy to criticise the MIRTP for using in the early phases a ‘top-down’ approach, in which
decisions were made by experts and officials before being handed down to thông báo (quyết định) communities,
but it was necessary to start the process from the level of the governmental authorities chính quyền of the
district. It would have been difficult to respond to the requests of villagers and other rural inhabitants without
the support and understanding of district authorities.
Section F
Today, nobody in the district argues about the importance of improved paths and inexpensive means of
transport. But this is the result of dedicated tận tâm, tận tụy work over a long period, particularly from the officers
in charge of community development. They played an essential role in raising awareness and interest
among the rural communities. The concept of integrated tích hợp rural transport is now well established thiết lập,
tạo lập in Tanzania, where a major program of rural transport is just about to start. The experiences from
Makete will help in this initiative, and Makete District will act as a reference for future work.
accompanying (adj) /ə'kʌmpənɪɪŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
kèm theo/đi cùng =appearing or going with someone or something else
Ví dụ:
 The curator of the exhibition also wrote the [accompanying] catalogue.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The road improvements and accompanying maintenance system had
helped make the district centre accessible throughout the year.
affordable (adj) /əˈfɔrdəbəl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
(giá cả) phải chăng, vừa túi tiền =able to be bought or rented by people who do
not earn a lot of money
Ví dụ:
 According to the guidelines, ten percent of the dwellings in the

development must be [affordable].
Ghi chú:
In passage: Those who have bought donkeys are mainly from richer households
but with an increased supply through local breeding, donkeys should become
more affordable.
approach (n) /ə'prəʊtʃ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
cách tiếp cận =a way of dealing with somebody/something; a way of doing or
thinking about something such as a problem or a task
Ví dụ:
 She took the wrong [approach] in her dealings with them.
Ghi chú:
In passage: A request for help in improving the availability of transport within
the remote Makete District of south-western Tanzania presented the opportunity
to try a new approach.
arduous (adj) /'ɑːdjʊəs/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
gian khó =involving a lot of effort and energy, especially over a period of time
Ví dụ:
 an [arduous] journey across the Andes
Ghi chú:
In passage: Most goods were transported along the paths that provide short-cuts
up and down the hillsides, but the paths were a real safety risk and made the
journey on foot even more arduous
assumption (n) /ə'sʌmpʃn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
nhận định =a belief or feeling that something is true or that something will
happen, although there is no proof
Ví dụ:
 We need to challenge some of the basic [assumptions] of Western

philosophy.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The underlying assumption was that the time saved would be used
instead for activities that would improve the social and economic development
of the communities.
authority (n) /ɔː'θɒrətɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
chính quyền =a group of people with official responsibility for a particular area
of activity
Ví dụ:
 I'm going to report these potholes to the [authorities].
Ghi chú:
In passage: It would have been easy to criticise the MIRTP for using in the early
phases a ‘top-down’ approach, in which decisions were made by experts and
officials before being handed down to communities, but it was necessary to start
the process from the level of the governmental authorities of the district.
availability (n) /əˌveɪlə'bɪlɪtɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự có sẵn =the fact that something can be bought, used, or reached, or how much
it can be
Ví dụ:
 The ready [availability] of guns has contributed to the escalating violence.
Ghi chú:
In passage: A request for help in improving the availability of transport within
the remote Makete District of south-western Tanzania presented the opportunity
to try a new approach.
breeding (n) /'briːdɪŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự gây giống =the keeping of animals or plants in order to breed from them
Ví dụ:
 The family's business was horse-[breeding].
Ghi chú:
In passage: Those who have bought donkeys are mainly from richer households
but with an increased supply through local breeding, donkeys should become
more affordable.
burden (n) /'b3ːdn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
gánh nặng =a duty, responsibility, etc. that causes worry, difficulty or hard work
Ví dụ:
 I don't want to become a [burden] to my children when I'm old.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Having determined the main transport needs, possible solutions were
identified which might reduce the time and burden.
carpenter (n) /'kɑːpɪntər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thợ mộc =a person whose job is making and repairing wooden objects and
structures
Ví dụ:
 A master [carpenter] was in charge of teaching the apprentices.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Modifications to the original design by local carpenters cut
production time and costs.
carry out (phr v) /'kærɪ aʊt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thực hiện điều gì =to do and complete a task
Ví dụ:
 Extensive tests have been [carried out] on the patient.
Ghi chú:
In passage: These improvements were carried out using methods that were
heavily dependent on labour.
consideration (n) /kənˌsɪdə'reɪʃn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự cân nhắc, sự xem xét =the act of thinking about something carefully
Ví dụ:
 After some [consideration], we've decided to sell the house.
Ghi chú:
In passage: However, the difference from the conventional approach was that
this time consideration was given to local transport needs outside the road
network.
constrain (v) /kən'streɪn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
hạn chế =to control and limit something
Ví dụ:
 The country's progress was [constrained] by a leader who refused to look

forward.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The use of bicycles was constrained by their high cost and the lack
of available spare parts.
conventional (adj) /kən'venʃənl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
truyền thống, thông thường =following what is traditional or the way something
has been done for a long time
Ví dụ:
 It's not a hotel, in the [conventional] sense, but rather a whole village
turned into a hotel.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The disappointing results of many conventional road transport
projects in Africa led some experts to rethink the strategy by which rural
transport problems were to be tackled at the beginning of the 1980s.
coordinate with (phr v) /ˌkəʊ'ɔːdɪneɪt wɪð/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
phối hợp =to work together with another person or organization in order to
achieve something
Ví dụ:
 Retailers should [coordinate with] suppliers in order to maximize the

benefits of advertising campaigns.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project (MIRTP) started in
1985 with financial support from the Swiss Development Corporation and was
coordinated with the help of the Tanzanian government.
dedicated (adj) /'dedɪkeɪtɪd/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tận tâm, tận tụy =believing that something is very important and giving a lot of
time and energy to it
Ví dụ:
 a [dedicated] father/teacher
Ghi chú:
In passage: But this is the result of dedicated work over a long period,
particularly from the officers in charge of community development
dependent on (adj) /dɪ'pendənt ɒn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
phụ thuộc vào =needing somebody/something in order to survive or be
successful
Ví dụ:
 The festival is heavily [dependent on] sponsorship for its success.
Ghi chú:
In passage: These improvements were carried out using methods that were
heavily dependent on labour.
determine (v) /dɪ't3ːmɪn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
xác định =to discover the facts about something; to calculate something exactly
Ví dụ:
 It is difficult to [determine] when drama first appeared in India.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Having determined the main transport needs, possible solutions were
identified which might reduce the time and burden.
establish (v) /ɪ'stæblɪʃ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thiết lập, tạo lập =to start something that will last for a long time, or to create or
set something in a particular way
Ví dụ:
 He helped to [establish] the University of California at Berkeley.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The concept of integrated rural transport is now well established in
Tanzania, where a major program of rural transport is just about to start.
fluctuate (v) /'flʌktʃʊeɪt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
(giá cả) lên xuống, thay đổi thất thường =to change, especially continuously and
between one level or thing and another
Ví dụ:
 Vegetable prices [fluctuate] according to the season.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Essential goods from outside the district had become more readily
available at the market, and prices did not fluctuate as much as they had done
before.
footbridge (n) /'fʊtbrɪdʒ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
cầu bộ hành =a narrow bridge that is only used by people who are walking
Ví dụ:
 He took a short cut across a railway [footbridge]
Ghi chú:
In passage: It made sense to improve the paths by building steps, handrails and
footbridges.
grind (v) /graɪnd/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
nghiền/xay =to break or press something into very small pieces between two
hard surfaces or using a special machine
Ví dụ:
 The animal has teeth that [grind] its food into a pulp.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Interesting facts regarding transport were found: 95% was on foot;
80% was within the locality; and 70% was related to the collection of water and
firewood and travelling to grinding mills.
handrail (n) /'hændreɪl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
lan can, tay vịn =a long narrow bar that you can hold onto for support, for
example when you are going up or down stairs
Ví dụ:
 Another example that comes to my mind is of a narrow wooden bridge

with a broken handrail.
Ghi chú:
In passage: It made sense to improve the paths by building steps, handrails and
footbridges.
hand something down (to somebody) (phr v) /hænd 'sʌmθɪŋ daʊn (tɪ ˈsəm
ˌbɑdi)/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thông báo (quyết định) =to officially give a decision/statement, etc.
Ví dụ:
 The judge has [handed down] his verdict.
Ghi chú:
In passage: It would have been easy to criticise the MIRTP for using in the early
phases a ‘top-down’ approach, in which decisions were made by experts and
officials before being handed down to communities, but it was necessary to start
the process from the level of the governmental authorities of the district.
implement (v) /'ɪmplɪment/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thực hiện điều gì =to make something that has been officially decided start to
happen or be used
Ví dụ:
 A new work programme for young people will be [implemented].
Ghi chú:
In passage: During Phase II, from January to February 1991, a number of
approaches were implemented in an effort to improve mobility and access to
transport.
inhabitant (n) /ɪn'hæbɪtənt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
cư dân =a person or animal that lives in a particular place
Ví dụ:
 I knew everything there was to know about the surrounding countryside

and its [inhabitants].
Ghi chú:
In passage: MIRTP focused on what would be most appropriate for the
inhabitants of Makete in terms of what was available, how much they could
afford and what they were willing to accept.
initiative (n) /ɪ'nɪʃətɪv/ UK US

Định nghĩa:
sáng kiến =a new plan or process to achieve something or solve a problem
Ví dụ:
 The peace [initiative] was welcomed by both sides.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Meanwhile, local initiatives are promoting the renting out of the
existing donkeys.
institutionalisation (n) /institutionalisation*/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự thể chế hóa =the action of establishing something as a convention or norm in
an organization or culture.
Ví dụ:
 Prompt clinical intervention can delay the need for [institutionalisation].
Ghi chú:
In passage: Phase III, from March 1991 to March 1993, focused on the
refinement and institutionalisation of these activities.
integrate (v) /'ɪntɪgreɪt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tích hợp =to combine two or more things so that they work together; to combine
with something else in this way
Ví dụ:
 These programs can be [integrated] with your existing software.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The concept of ‘integrated rural transport’ was adopted in the task of
examining the transport needs of the rural households in the district.
integrate (v) /'ɪntɪgreɪt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tích hợp =to combine two or more things so that they work together; to combine
with something else in this way
Ví dụ:
 These programs can be [integrated] with your existing software.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The concept of integrated rural transport is now well established in
Tanzania, where a major program of rural transport is just about to start.
investment (n) /ɪn'vestmənt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự đầu tư =the act of putting money, effort, time, etc. into something to make a
profit or get an advantage, or the money, effort, time, etc. used to do this
Ví dụ:
 Stocks are regarded as good long-term [investments].
Ghi chú:
In passage: It should be noted, however that a donkey, which at 20,000
Tanzanian shillings costs less than a bicycle, is still an investment equal to an
average household’s income over half a year
isolate (v) /'aɪsəleɪt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
cô lập =to separate somebody/something physically or socially from other
people or things
Ví dụ:
 He was [isolated] from all the other prisoners.
Ghi chú:
In passage: When the project began, Makete District was virtually totally
isolated during the rainy season.
locality (n) /ləʊ'kælɪtɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
vùng, địa phương =a particular area
Ví dụ:
 Many people are opting to live in the city rather than in rural [localities].
Ghi chú:
In passage: Interesting facts regarding transport were found: 95% was on foot;
80% was within the locality; and 70% was related to the collection of water and
firewood and travelling to grinding mills.
maintenance (n) /'meɪntənəns/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự bảo dưỡng =the work needed to keep a road, building, machine, etc. in good
condition
Ví dụ:
 Old houses need a lot of [maintenance].
Ghi chú:
In passage: The road improvements and accompanying maintenance system had
helped make the district centre accessible throughout the year.
manufacturable (adj) /manufacturable*/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
có thể chế tạo =Capable of being manufactured; susceptible to manufacture
Ví dụ:
 The re-engineered design was much more [manufacturable] with cost

about half that of the first approved design.
Ghi chú:
In passage: After careful consideration, the project chose the promotion of
donkeys – a donkey costs less than a bicycle – and the introduction of a locally
manufacturable wheelbarrow.
measure (n) /'meʒər/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
biện pháp =a way of achieving something, or a method for dealing with a
situation
Ví dụ:
 What further [measures] can we take to avoid terrorism?
Ghi chú:
In passage: This clearly illustrates the need for supplementary measures if one
wants to assist the rural poor.
mobility (n) /məʊ'bɪlɪtɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
tính linh động =the ability to move easily from one place, social class or job to
another
Ví dụ:
 The high cost of living acts as an obstacle to [mobility] of labour
Ghi chú:
In passage: During Phase II, from January to February 1991, a number of
approaches were implemented in an effort to improve mobility and access to
transport.
modification to (n) /ˌmɒdɪfɪ'keɪʃn tuː/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự sửa đổi (thường để cải tiến) =a change to something, usually to improve it
Ví dụ:
 [Modification] of the engine to run on lead-free fuel is fairly simple
Ghi chú:
In passage: Modifications to the original design by local carpenters cut
production time and costs.
motorised (adj) /motorised*/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
có lắp động cơ =specially fitted with an engine or motor
Ví dụ:
 a [motorized] wheelchair
Ghi chú:
In passage: The efforts to improve the efficiency of the existing transport
services were not very successful because most of the motorised vehicles in the
district broke down and there were no resources to repair them.
obtain (v) /əb'teɪn/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
đạt được =to get something, especially by making an effort
Ví dụ:
 I've been trying to [obtain] permission to publish this material.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The objective was to reduce the time and effort needed to obtain
access to essential goods and services through an improved rural transport
system.
primarily (adv) /'praɪmərəlɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
chủ yếu =mainly
Ví dụ:
 Baseball is [primarily] a summer game.
Ghi chú:
In passage: People relied primarily on the paths, which were slippery and
dangerous during the rains.
propose (v) /prə'pəʊz/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
nêu ra/đề xuất =to suggest a plan, an idea, etc. for people to think about and
decide on
Ví dụ:
 The Board of Directors is [proposing] an amendment to Article I.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Before solutions could be proposed, the problems had to be
understood.
refinement (n) /rɪ'faɪnmənt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
sự cải tiến =a small change that improves something
Ví dụ:
 These [refinements] have increased the machine's accuracy by 25 percent.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Phase III, from March 1991 to March 1993, focused on the
refinement and institutionalisation of these activities.
regional (adj) /'riːdʒənl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
thuộc vùng miền =relating to or coming from a particular part of a country
Ví dụ:
 National advertising has been much harder hit than [regional] advertising.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The regional road was in such bad shape that access to the main
towns was impossible for about three months of the year
restrict someone/ something to (phr v) /riˈstrɪkt ˈsəmˌwən/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
chỉ có, chỉ giới hạn trong, chỉ vỏn vẹn =to limit the size, amount or range of
something
Ví dụ:
 We [restrict] the number of students per class to ten.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Road traffic was extremely rare within the district, and alternative
means of transport were restricted to donkeys in the north of the district.
shilling (n) /'ʃɪlɪŋ/ UK US

Định nghĩa:
đồng shilling, đơn vị tiền tệ ở Kenya, Somalia, Uganda và Tanzania =the
standard unit of money used in Kenya, Somalia, Tanzania, and Uganda
Ví dụ:
 Government figures say that in 2018 the average minimum wage in big
cities was 19,831 Kenyan [shillings], about $186 today.
Ghi chú:
In passage: It should be noted, however that a donkey, which at 20,000
Tanzanian shillings costs less than a bicycle, is still an investment equal to an
average household’s income over half a year
short-cut (n) /short-cut*/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
Đường tắt =a route that leads from one place to another and is quicker and more
direct than the usual route
Ví dụ:
 I know a [shortcut] to town.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Most goods were transported along the paths that provide short-cuts
up and down the hillsides, but the paths were a real safety risk and made the
journey on foot even more arduous
slippery (adj) /'slɪpərɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
trơn =difficult to hold or to stand or move on, because it is smooth, wet or
polished
Ví dụ:
 In places the path can be wet and [slippery].

Ghi chú:
In passage: People relied primarily on the paths, which were slippery and
dangerous during the rains.
socio-economic (adj) /socio-economic*/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
kinh tế xã hội =relating to society and economics
Ví dụ:
 people from different [socio-economic] backgrounds
Ghi chú:
In passage: The socio-economic survey of more than 400 households in the
district indicated that a household in Makete spent, on average, seven hours a
day on transporting themselves and their goods, a figure which seemed extreme
but which has also been obtained in surveys in other rural areas in Africa
spare part (n) /speər pɑːt/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
linh kiện thay thế =an extra piece that can be used to replace a piece that breaks,
esp. in a machine
Ví dụ:
 The company produces [spare parts] for 90,000 engines.
Ghi chú:
In passage: The use of bicycles was constrained by their high cost and the lack
of available spare parts.
strategy (n) /'strætədʒɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
chiến lược =a detailed plan for achieving success in situations such as war,
politics, business, industry, or sport, or the skill of planning for such situations
Ví dụ:
 Follow this [strategy] for avoiding minor mistakes.
Ghi chú:
tackle (v) /'tækl/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
giải quyết/khắc phục =to make a determined effort to deal with a difficult
problem or situation
Ví dụ:
 The government is determined to [tackle] inflation.
Ghi chú:
underlying (adj) /ˌʌndə'laɪɪŋ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
cơ bản =used to describe something on which something else is based
Ví dụ:
 And what might be the [underlying] significance of these supposedly

random acts?
Ghi chú:
In passage: The underlying assumption was that the time saved would be used
instead for activities that would improve the social and economic development
of the communities.
virtually (adv) /'v3ːtʃʊəlɪ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
gần như, hầu như =almost or very nearly, so that any slight difference is not
important
Ví dụ:
 He [virtually] admitted he was guilty.
Ghi chú:
In passage: When the project began, Makete District was virtually totally
isolated during the rainy season.
wheelbarrow (n) /'wiːlbærəʊ/ UK US
Định nghĩa:
xe cút kít =a large, open container for moving things in with a wheel at the front
and two handles at the back, used especially in the garden
Ví dụ:
 To allow room for a [wheelbarrow] or garden cart, plan on 2-to 3-foot-

wide walkways.
Ghi chú:
In passage: Nevertheless, a locally produced wooden wheelbarrow which costs
around 5000 Tanzanian shillings (less than US$20) in Makete, and is about one
quarter the cost of a metal wheelbarrow, is still too expensive for most people.

CAM 7 - TEST 2 - Vocab

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CAM 7 TEST 2: Why pagodas don’t fall down?

abrupt (adj) /ə'brʌpt/ UK US

absorber (n) /əbˈzɔrbər/ UK US

 A model of an electrorheological shock [absorber] is constructed.

anticipate (v) /æn'tɪsɪpeɪt/ UK US

 We need someone who can [anticipate] and respond to changes in the

batter (v) /'bætər/ UK US

 Thunderstorms were [battering] Kansas again on Sunday.

buddhism (n) /ˈbudɪzəm/ UK US

 My own interest has been in the actual practice of [Buddhism] in

carpenter (n) /'kɑːpɪntər/ UK US

 A master [carpenter] was in charge of teaching the apprentices.

collapse (v) /kə'læps/ UK US

 The roof [collapsed] under the weight of snow.

concrete (n) /'kɒŋkriːt/ UK US

 Built of reinforced cement [concrete], the house is fireproof.

consecutive (adj) /kən'sekjʊtɪv/ UK US

 She was absent for nine [consecutive] days.

constrain (v) /kən'streɪn/ UK US

 The country's progress was [constrained] by a leader who refused to look

corresponding (adj) /ˌkɒrɪ'spɒndɪŋ/ UK US

 As the course becomes more difficult, there's usually a [corresponding]

counterpart (n) /'kaʊntəpɑːt/ UK US

 The Foreign Minister held talks with his Chinese [counterpart].

craftsman (n) /'krɑːftsmən/ UK US

 The plates are painted by our finest [craftsmen].

dampen (v) /'dæmpən/ UK US

devastate (v) /'devəsteɪt/ UK US

 The bomb [devastated] much of the old part of the city.

dispense with (v) /dɪ'spens wɪð/ UK US

 Debit cards [dispense with] the need for cash altogether.

earthenware (adj) /'eðnweər/ UK US

eaves (n) /iːvz/ UK US

 birds nesting under the [eaves]

erect (v) /ɪ'rekt/ UK US

 The war memorial was [erected] in 1950.

flex (v) /fleks/ UK US

 Metal fatigue occurs when steel is [flexed].

flimsy (adj) /'flɪmzɪ/ UK US

graceful (adj) /'greɪsfəl/ UK US

grasp (v) /grɑːsp/ UK US

 They failed to [grasp] the importance of his words.

gush (v) /gʌʃ/ UK US

 Water [gushed] out of the pipe.

hesitation (n) /ˌhezɪ'teɪʃn/ UK US

 She agreed without the slightest [hesitation].

highway (n) /'haɪweɪ/ UK US

jolt (n) /dʒəʊlt/ UK US

level (v) /'levl/ UK US

 The bombing [levelled] the village

magnificent (adj) /mæg'nɪfɪsnt/ UK US

 The Taj Mahal is a [magnificent] building.

majestic (adj) /mə'dʒestɪk/ UK US

 The Rockies are [majestic] in size

mystify (v) /'mɪstɪfaɪ/ UK US

 They were totally [mystified] by the girl's disappearance.

overhang (n) /ˌəʊvə'hæŋ/ UK US

 The church is unsafe because it was built on an [overhang].

peg (n) /peg/ UK US