Guerrero 2013
Guerrero 2013
Guerrero 2013
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11-0935-TIE 2
nonlinear loads. All of them consist in distorting the voltage to A key feature of microgrids with distributed energy sources is
enhance the harmonic current sharing accuracy, resulting in a that the sources are dispersed over a wide area. These sources
trade-off. Recently, novel control loops that adjust the output are interconnected to each other and to loads by a distribution
impedance of the units by adding output virtual reactors [17] or network. Further, the distributed microgrid may be connected
resistors [16] have been included into the droop method, with to the main power grid at some point as well. Fig. 1(a) shows a
the purpose of sharing the harmonic current content properly. distributed microgrid structure connected to the main grid. The
Further, by using the droop method, the power sharing is figure also shows the microgrid line impedances
affected by the output impedance of the units and the line (𝑍01 , 𝑍12 , … 𝑍𝑛−1,𝑛 ). The source is connected to the microgrid
impedances. Hence, those virtual output impedance loops can distribution network by an inverter interface through a filter,
solve this problem. In this sense, the output impedance can be e.g. an LCL filter, shown in Fig. 1(b).
seen as another control variable. The control of the inverter+filter interfaces is crucial to the
operation of the microgrid. Because of the distributed nature of
Besides, another important disadvantage of the droop
the system, these interfaces need to be controlled on the basis of
method is its load-dependent frequency and amplitude
local measurements only; it is not desirable to use data
deviations. In order to solve this problem, a secondary
communication. The decentralized control of the individual
controller implemented in the microgrid central control can interfaces should address the following basic issues.
restore the frequency and amplitude in the microgrid. • The interfaces should share the total load (linear or
In this paper, a review of advanced control techniques for nonlinear) in a desired way.
microgrids is provided. The paper is organized as follows. In • The decentralized control based on local measurement
Section II decentralized control techniques for microgrid are should guarantee stability on a global scale.
reviewed. In Section III recent developments in the stability • The inverter control should prevent any dc voltage offsets
analysis of decentralized controlled microgrids are discussed. on the microgrid.
Section IV presents the hierarchical control architecture for • The inverter control should actively damp oscillations
microgrids. Finally, Section V presents the conclusions of the between the output filters.
paper. From the viewpoint of decentralized control, it is convenient
to classify distributed generation architectures into three classes
with respect to the interconnecting impedances 𝑍01 etc., shown
in Fig. 1(a). In highly dispersed networks, the impedances are
predominantly inductive and the voltage magnitude and phase
angle at different source interconnects can be very different. In
networks spread over a smaller area, the impedances are still
inductive but also have a significant resistive component. The
voltage magnitude does not differ much, but the phase angles
can be different for different sources. In very small networks,
the impedance is small and predominantly resistive. Neither
magnitude nor phase angle differences are significant at any
point. In all cases, the main common quantity is the steady-state
frequency which must be the same for all sources. In the
grid-connected mode, the microgrid frequency is decided by
the grid. In the islanded mode, the frequency is decided by the
microgrid control.
In each of these classes, if every source is connected to at
most two other sources as shown in Fig. 1(a), then the
microgrid is radial. Otherwise, it is meshed. If there is a line
connecting Source 1 with Source k in Fig. 1(a), then it is a
meshed microgrid. By far the largest body of research work
done in decentralized microgrid control has been for radial
architectures of the type described in [1].
Early work on decentralized parallel inverter control concepts
Fig. 1. Microgrid with distributed sources and loads suitable for microgrid operation was reported in [2]. This work
assumed that the impedance connecting sources was
predominantly inductive; resistance was neglected. Based on
the decentralized control used in conventional power systems,
II. REVIEW OF MICROGRID DECENTRALIZED CONTROL METHODS the use of droops is introduced in the generators, hence
The aim of this Section is to review recent work in microgrid adjusting the frequency set-point according to the output active
decentralized control. The emphasis is on control affecting power, and voltage magnitude set-point depending on the
microgrid dynamic behavior on a relatively fast time scale, output reactive power. It was shown that the distributed system
while the issue of load planning and scheduling has been left could be operated without the use of phase-locked loops
out of this review.
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11-0935-TIE 3
(PLLs), and that total load real- and reactive-power could be first approach decouples the voltage and frequency droop
shared based on the converter ratings. controls by analyzing and compensating for the effect of the
Subsequent work [3], [4] extended the droop concept to line impedance on active and reactive power flows. The second
ensure sharing of harmonic currents of non-linear loads. This approach introduces virtual impedance at the converter output
was done by extending the droop concept by making the through closed loop converter control.
sources inject control signals into the network at a frequency The authors of [20] adopt the first approach. They report the
which droops as the shared quantity increases. PLLs in remote way in which frequency and voltage influence active and
units extract this information and adjust their output. Although reactive power for different inductance to resistance ratios of
interesting, this approach has not yet been investigated fully to the interconnecting line. They propose a way to decouple the
study the issues of voltage distortion and noise immunity. frequency and voltage control droops by the use of a reference
In further investigation of the droop concept, some frame transformation that depends on knowledge of the line
researchers [5]-[7] have proposed power-angle droop control, reactance to resistance ratio.
in which the phase angle of the distributed source voltage, The second approach to addressing the line impedance issue
relative to a system-wide common timing reference, is set is presented in [16], in which virtual resistive output impedance
according to a droop law. One possible source for the common is introduced by modifying the output voltage reference based
timing reference is the Global Positioning System (GPS). The on output current feedback. With resistive impedance, the
GPS provides a 1-pulse-per-second (1PPS) signal [8], the rising voltage and frequency droop controllers are decoupled.
edge of which is simultaneous globally to within 1 µs. The The use of inductive virtual impedance at the converter output
1PPS signal can be used to synchronize local clocks in the is reported in [22]. Output current feedback is used to
distributed sources. The local clock is used to generate the implement a controller that presents a virtual inductor at the
timing reference with which the output voltage phase is converter output. The frequency and voltage droops are
measured. An alternative, in the near future, to the GPS clock decoupled with a virtual inductor at the output, and the
signal may be an implementation of the Precision Time conventional droop schemes can be used.
Protocol (PTP), defined in IEEE Standard 1588-2008 [9]. The virtual impedance method has the advantage over the
Angle control has the advantage that power sharing can be decoupling method in that it is insensitive to the nature of the
achieved without a change in the system frequency during line impedance [16]. Thus, an overall decentralized control
islanded operation. No communication is needed between strategy could include virtual impedance control in conjunction
sources. However, those issues of system stability, loss of the with droops, and secondary control to restore the system
global synchronizing signal at a few units, fallback to frequency and voltage [19].
power-frequency droop operation, and grid-interactive It is worth noting that the majority of work done on microgrid
operation need to be explored further. decentralized control has been for radial microgrid topologies.
Droop-based control methods have a drawback: in the The decentralized control of interfaces in meshed topologies is
islanded mode, the voltage and frequency of the microgrid an area that needs further research.
change with change in load. Steeper droops ensure better load
sharing, but also result in larger frequency and voltage
deviations. If it is intended that microgrid sources conform to
IEEE Standard 1547-2003 [10], then there should be a
mechanism to restore the system frequency and voltage to
nominal values following a load change [11], [12]. Following
the term used in electric power system control, this restoration
mechanism is termed as secondary control of voltage and
frequency, and takes place over a longer time scale. In this
regard, in addition to decentralized control, several researchers
have considered the use of low-bandwidth communication
channels between source controllers for the secondary control
functions of restoration, load sharing and management Fig. 2. Radial microgrid power-frequency droop control: small-signal
behavior.
[13]-[15].
Researchers have also recognized that the conventional
frequency- and voltage-droop methods proposed in earlier III. STABILITY ANALYSIS OF DECENTRALIZED CONTROLLED
MICROGRIDS
work have limitations when the microgrid interconnecting
impedances have a significant resistive component [16]-[23]. In Stability is a critical issue in a microgrid in which the source
this situation, the active power vs. frequency droop (P–f droop) power electronic interfaces are controlled in a decentralized
and the reactive power vs. voltage droop (Q–E droop), taken way. Each interface is controlled based only on local
from conventional power system control practice, are not valid. measurement, and so it is important to analyze how the
Thus, the real power is affected more by voltage magnitude and individual control systems interact to ensure overall stability. In
the reactive power is affected more by phase angle difference this regard, if a steady state can be reached in which the
[16], [17]. The droop controller is modified accordingly for fundamental components of all voltages in the microgrid have
resistive impedance, obtaining P–E and Q–f droops. constant amplitudes and constant relative phase angle
There are two main approaches to addressing the effect of the differences, then the system is stable. In this section we review
interconnecting line impedance on droop based control. The
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11-0935-TIE 4
results of microgrid stability analysis, and also present recent generator electromechanical model and the excitation system
results in the testing of decentralized controllers. model are linearized about an operating point. The inverter and
By far the largest body of work done in microgrid stability its control are similarly modeled and linearized. The combined
analysis is for radial microgrids. Stability studies for meshed linearized model can be used for small-signal stability studies.
microgrids have still not been reported significantly in the However, while the study is limited to two distributed sources,
literature, and are an open research area. it is not clear how the approach can be scaled to address
Stability analysis studies typically assume that frequency small-signal stability of larger systems.
deviations are small even transiently, so that all impedances in A computational approach to determining microgrid stability,
the network can be assumed constant. This assumption results scalable to large systems, is presented in [29]. The approach
in a significant simplification in the analytical formulation of considers the overall stability as affected by the droop control
microgrid stability. gains. Scalability is achieved by model order reduction. Using a
Early work towards a generalized approach for analyzing the three-inverter radial microgrid as a test case, the authors show
small-signal stability of interconnected inverter systems was that high values of frequency droop gains compromise the
reported in [24]. This was reported for a radial architecture with stability of the overall microgrid, but voltage droop gains do not
inductive line impedances, inverters controlled by have a significant effect on stability. Another scalable,
power-frequency droops, constant output voltage amplitude, computational approach to microgrid modeling is given in [29]
and fast response of the inner voltage control loop. It was and [30]. This approach uses the Automated State Model
shown that such a system is always small-signal stable Generation algorithm proposed in [31] to develop the microgrid
regardless of the number of interfaces, and has only transient model systematically. The model can then be used
non-oscillatory response to load changes. The control either as part of a transient simulation program to study
interconnections for such a system are shown in Fig. 2. In this large-signal behavior, or as part of a computational program to
figure, i and k are indices for the parallel inverters in the radial study small-signal stability. While most stability studies have
system. The constant b is the droop value, and the constant c considered radial microgrid topologies, we feel that
depends on the voltage magnitude and line impedance. Δδ is a computational approaches such as in [30] may be very suitable
small change in the voltage phase angle from its nominal value, for the stability studies of meshed topologies.
and ΔP is a small change in power flow from its nominal value. An important aspect of proving microgrid stability in specific
It was also shown that large values of the power-frequency cases is to have the ability to test microgrid controllers in
droops violate the condition on the inner voltage control loop, real-time hardware-in-loop (HIL) simulation. An example of
and the network becomes unstable. this testing is provided in [23] and [32] in which the microgrid
This result was extended in [25] with the inclusion of reactive dynamics are simulated on a real-time digital simulator, and the
power-voltage magnitude droops for the interface inverters. controller is interfaced to the simulator. Both [23] and [32]
While the inner voltage control loop dynamics were ignored, a report the use of a commercial real-time simulator to implement
frequency restoration controller was included in the the microgrid model.
small-signal stability analysis. The authors showed that a radial
microgrid with inductive interconnects is small-signal stable in IV. HIERARCHICAL CONTROL OF MICROGRIDS
the presence of both, frequency and voltage droops. The studies Microgrids are now in the cutting edge of the state of the art
of [24] and [25] show that a radial microgrid with inductive
[1]. However, the control and management of such a systems
interconnecting impedances, having fast voltage control loops,
needs still further investigation. Microgrids for standalone and
and controlled by frequency and voltage droops, will always be
grid-connected applications have been considered in the past as
small-signal stable for reasonable values of droop gains,
regardless of the microgrid size. separated approaches. Nevertheless, nowadays is necessary to
Recognizing that the nominal operating point used for conceive flexible microgrids able to operate in both
small-signal analysis changes with change in frequency and grid-connected and islanded modes [19]. Thus, the study of
voltage in a microgrid, the authors of [26] investigate the topologies, architectures, planning, and configurations of
dependence of the small-signal stability on the operating point. microgrids are necessary. This is a great challenge due to the
The authors propose a method, based on the operating point, to need of integrating different technologies of power electronics,
set droop gains adaptively. However, the analysis is limited to a telecommunications, generation and storage energy systems,
system with three sources. among others. In addition, islanding detection algorithms for
Further investigation of the effect of droop gains on microgrid microgrids are necessary for ensuring a smooth transition
stability margin is carried out in [27]. Rather than changing the between grid-connected and islanded modes. Furthermore,
droop gains constantly depending on the operating point, the security issues such as fault monitoring, predictive
authors suggest the use of limit cases to set limits on the values maintenance, or protection are very important regarding
of the droop gains. The limit cases are constructed off-line, microgrids feasibility.
based on knowledge of the microgrid structure. The authors This section deals with the hierarchical control of microgrids,
present cases that achieve acceptable transient behavior with consisted in three control levels. UCTE (Union for the
acceptable stability margins. A radial microgrid structure is Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity, Continental
assumed. Europe) have defined a hierarchical control for large power
An interesting case study of small-signal modeling of a systems, as shown in Fig. 3. In such a kind of systems, it is
microgrid that is supplied by both, a synchronous generator and supposed to operate over large synchronous machines with
an inverter-interfaced energy source, is presented in [28]. The
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11-0935-TIE 5
organized as follows [48]. The primary control deals with the Activate Secondary Correct
inner control of the DG units by adding virtual inertias and If responsible Control
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11-0935-TIE 6
The primary control level can also include the virtual output
impedance loop, in which the output voltage can be expressed
as [16]:
=
vo* vref − Z D ( s )·io (7)
where vref is the voltage reference generated by equations
(5)-(6) being vref = E sin(2πf t), and ZD(s) is the virtual output
impedance transfer function, which normally ensures inductive
behavior at the line-frequency. Fig. 4 depicts the virtual
impedance loop in relation with the other control loops: inner
current and voltage loops, and the droop control. Usually the
virtual impedance ZD is designed to be bigger than the output
impedance of the inverter plus the line impedance, this way the
total equivalent output impedance is mainly dominated by ZD
[16]. The virtual output impedance ZD is equivalent to the series
impedance of a synchronous generator. However, although the
series impedance of a synchronous generator is mainly
inductive, the virtual impedance can be chosen arbitrarily. In
contrast with a physical impedance, this virtual output
impedance has no power losses, thus it is possible to implement
resistance without efficiency losses.
Notice that by using the virtual impedance control loop, the
Fig. 5. P-Q circle and P-f and Q-E droop primary control relationship..
inverter output impedance becomes a new control variable.
Thus, we can adjust the phase angle of equations (6)-(7)
Fig. 5 shows the relationship between the P-Q circle of a DG
according to the expected X/R ratio of the line impedance,
unit and P-f and Q-E droops. Notice that in that case, the DG is
θ=tan-1X/R, and the angle of the output impedance at the line
able to generate active power (P>0) and to store energy (P<0),
frequency. Furthermore, the virtual output impedance can
and, at the same time, is able to supply reactive power (Q>0,
provide additional features to the inverter, such as hot-swap
acting like a capacitor) or to absorb reactive power (Q<0,
operation and harmonic current sharing [17]-[18]. These
acting like an inductor).
control loops allows the parallel operation of the inverters.
In the conventional droop method used by large power
However, those have an inherent trade of between P/Q sharing
systems, it is supposed that the output impedance of
and frequency/amplitude regulation [16]-[19].
synchronous generators as well as the line impedance is mainly
A. Secondary control
inductive. However, when using power electronics the output
In order to compensate for the frequency and amplitude
impedance will depend on the control strategy used by the inner
deviations, a secondary control can be used. The secondary
control loops. Further, the line impedance in low voltage
control ensures that the frequency and voltage deviations are
applications is near to be pure resistive. Thus the control droops
regulated towards zero after every change of load or generation
(1) and (2) can be modified according to the park
inside the microgrid. The frequency and amplitude levels in the
transformation determined by the impedance angle θ [18]:
microgrid fMG and ΕMG are sensed and compared with the
(
f − GP ( s ) P − P ) sin θ − ( Q − Q* ) cos θ references f*MG and Ε*MG the errors processed through
*
f =
*
(5)
compensators (δf and δE) are send to all the units to restore the
E = E − GQ ( s ) ( P − P ) cos θ + ( Q − Q ) sin θ (6)
* * *
output voltage frequency and amplitude.
f E
Secondary Secondary
response response
f* E*
Primary Primary
response response
P Q
P* Pmax -Qmax Q* Qmax
Fig. 6. P-f and Q-E primary and secondary control actions.
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11-0935-TIE 7
fMG EMG
fG =f* EG=E*
PG QG
PGmax -PG* PG * PGmax QGmax -QG* QG* QGmax
The secondary control is used in power systems correct the Notice that, depending on the sign of PG* and QG*, the active
grid frequency deviation within allowable limit, e.g. ±0.1 Hz in and reactive power flows can be exported or imported
Nordel (North of Europe) or ±0.2Hz in UCTE (Union for the independently. Fig. 7 shows the tertiary control action, which is
Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity, Continental responsible of interchange P and Q at the PCC, the power flow
Europe). It consists of a PI-type controller, also called bidirectionality of the microgrid can be observed. The grid have
Load-Frequency Control (LFC) in Europe or Automatic Gain constant frequency and amplitudes (fG=f* and EG=E*), so that it
Controller (AGC) in USA. In case of an AC-microgrid, the is represented by horizontal lines. Thus, the amount of P and Q
frequency and amplitude restoration controllers, Gf and GE, can exchanged between the microgrid and the grid (PG and QG) are
be obtained similarly as follows: determined by the intersection of the droop characteristics of
= δ f k pf f MG *
( )
− f MG + kif f MG *
∫(
− f MG dt + ∆f S (8) ) the microgrid and the horizontal lines of the grid.
E k pE ( E
δ= *
MG − EMG ) + kiE ∫ ( E *
MG − EMG ) dt (9) Consequently, PG can be controlled by adjusting the microgrid
reference frequency fMG* as follows. If fMG*>fG then PG>0, and
being kpf, kif, kpΕ, and kiE the control parameters of the secondary the microgrid injects P to the grid; while if fMG*<fG then PG<0
control compensator, and ∆ fS is a synchronization term which thus the microgrid absorbs P from the grid. The frequency of
remains equal to zero when the grid is not present. In this case, the microgrid will be determined by the grid, so that this action
δf and δΕ must be limited in order to do not exceed the will result in a change of the power angle. Similar analysis can
maximum allowed frequency and amplitude deviations. be done for the reactive power QG.
Fig. 6 depicts the primary and secondary control action over Furthermore, in (8) and (9), by making kiP and kiQ equal to
the P-f and Q-E characteristics. This way, the frequency and zero, the tertiary control will act as a primary control of the
amplitude restoration process is done by the secondary control microgrid, thus allowing the interconnection of multiple
in a droop controlled microgrid when increasing the P and Q microgrid, forming a cluster. Hence, this control loop also can
demanded. Notice that without this action, both frequency and be used to improve the power quality at the PCC. In order to
amplitude of the microgrid are load-dependent. achieve voltage dips ride-through, the microgrid must inject
reactive power to the grid, thus achieving inner voltage
B. Tertiary control stability. Particularly, if we set kiQ = 0, the microgrid will inject
When the microgrid is operating in grid-connected mode, the automatically Q when there is a voltage sag or absorb reactive
power flow can be controlled by adjusting the frequency power when there is a swell in the grid. This can endow to the
(changing the phase in steady state) and amplitude of the microgrid low-voltage ride-through (LVRT) capability. In Part
voltage inside the microgrid [19]. By measuring the P/Q at the II of this paper will be introduced the implementation of this
PCC, PG and QG, they can be compared with the desired P*G capability by means of a dedicated power converter [33].
and Q*G, and controlled as following: Islanding detection is also necessary to disconnect the
*
= k pP ( PG* − PG ) + kiP ∫ ( PG* − PG ) dt
f MG (10) microgrid from the grid and disconnect both the tertiary control
references as well as the integral terms of the reactive power PI
*
= k pQ ( QG* − QG ) + kiQ ∫ ( QG* − QG ) dt
EMG (11) controllers, to avoid voltage instabilities. When a non-planned
being kpP, kiP, kpQ, and kiQ the control parameters of the tertiary islanding scenario occurs, the tertiary control tries to absorb P
control compensator. Here, fMG* and ΕMG* are also saturated in from the grid, so that as the grid is not present, the frequency
case of being outside of the allowed limits. This variables are will start to decrease. When it goes out from the expected
inner generated in island mode (fMG* = fi* and ΕMG*=ΕMG*), by values, the microgrid is disconnected from the grid for safety
the secondary control. When the grid is present, the and the tertiary control is disabled.
synchronization process can start, and fMG* and ΕMG* can be
V. CONCLUSIONS
equal of those measured in the grid. Thus, the frequency and
amplitude references of the microgrid will be the frequency and We have reviewed the current status of microgrid
amplitude of the mains grid. After the synchronization, these decentralized control and methods to analyze and assess
signals can be given by the tertiary control (10)-(11). microgrid stability. We have also considered the issue of in-situ
decentralized testing of microgrid controllers.
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 8
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 9
Josep M. Guerrero (S’01–M’03–SM’08) was born in university. In 2005, he has been a visiting staff first at the University of Hong
Barcelona, Spain, in 1973. He received the B.S. degree in Kong, and then at Aalborg University, Denmark. In 2007 and 2009, he again
telecommunications engineering, the M.S. degree in returned to Aalborg University first as a visiting staff working on matrix
electronics engineering, and the Ph.D. degree in power converters and the control of grid-interfaced inverters, and then as a guest
electronics from the Technical University of Catalonia, member of the Vestas Power Program.
Barcelona, Spain, in 1997, 2000 and 2003, respectively. In total, Dr. Loh has received two third paper prizes from the IEEE-IAS IPCC
He has been an Associate Professor with the Department committee in 2003 and 2006, and he is now serving as an associate editor of the
of Automatic Control Systems and Computer Engineering, Technical IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics.
University of Catalonia, Barcelona, teaching courses on digital signal
processing, FPGAs, microprocessors, and control of renewable energy. Since
2004, he has been responsible for the Renewable Energy Laboratory, Escola
Industrial de Barcelona. He has been a visiting Professor at Zhejiang
University, China, and University of Cergy-Pontoise, France. From 2011, he
became a Full Professor at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg
University, Denmark, where he is the responsible of the Microgrids research
program. His research interests is oriented to different Microgrids aspects,
including power electronics, distributed energy storage systems, hierarchical
and cooperative control, energy management systems and optimization of
microgrids and islanded minigrids.
Prof. Guerrero is an Associate Editor for the IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, and IEEE Industrial
Electronics Magazine. He has been Guest Editor of the IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics Special Issues: Power Electrics for Wind Energy Conversion
and Power Electronics for Microgrids; and the IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics Special Sections: Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) systems,
Renewable Energy Systems, Distributed Generation and Microgrids, and
Industrial Applications and Implementation Issues of the Kalman Filter. He
currently chairs the Renewable Energy Systems Technical Committee of IEEE
IES.
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 10
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 11
frequent load shedding is not intended [12]. Having an inter-tie gains, ideally infinite, at the frequencies of interest. The outputs
would also expose the microgrids and utility grid to their of the controllers would then ensure that the series converter
respective inner disturbances, like harmonics, unbalance and injects the right amount of unbalanced and harmonic voltages,
other power quality “noises”. To better isolate the grids from so that the feeder carries only balanced sinusoidal current,
their respective “noises”, a power quality conditioner is which also flows through the series converter. Noting further
recommended between each microgrid and the utility grid, as that the series converter produces only unbalanced and
demonstrated in Fig. 1. This power conditioner should ideally harmonic voltages, while carrying only positive-sequence
have a shunt converter and a series converter, in order to balanced current, its active and reactive powers injected to the
achieve full voltage and current compensation. Indeed, such grid are zero.
configuration would appear similar to a unified power quality The same principles would apply during utility voltage sag,
conditioner (UPQC) [13]-[15] or a unified power flow during which the feeder current will again be large. To reduce
controller (UPFC) [16], which certainly is the case when this current, the series converter can be controlled to introduce a
judging on their power stages. Their control schemes are large impedance along the feeder, so that the large voltage
however different, as can be seen when comparing the difference caused by the sag appears mostly across it, and not
requirements of a microgrid power quality conditioner (MPQC) the feeder. Current flow through the feeder is then reduced
with those of an example UPQC. accordingly. The main concerns here would be to sense the
For the former, there is a general incline towards controlling instants of sag initiation and recovery, but cannot be done by
the shunt converter to provide a regulated voltage within the measuring the grid voltage, which is usually faraway, and
microgrid, whose parameters are properly tuned for power therefore not readily accessible. The former can however be
dispatch or sharing purposes [17], [18]. A firm voltage would detected by sensing the initial current surge along the feeder,
definitely help with the interfacing of other localized sources, while the latter can be detected by sensing the voltage at the
and the avoidance of sensitive load tripping within the point of common coupling (PCC), which would roughly be
microgrid. This is especially important in the islanded mode, equal to the grid voltage during the sag [15], [16].
during which the utility grid is not available for stabilizing the For convenience of referencing, the main requirements
network voltage. A firm voltage imposed by the shunt discussed above for MPQC can neatly be summarized as:
converter would however cause large unbalanced current to
flow along the interconnecting feeder, if the utility voltage is • Controlling its shunt converter in voltage mode, so as to
unbalanced, and the series converter is not in operation. The produce a well regulated voltage in the microgrid.
problem would prevail even for a small amount of unbalanced • Controlling its series converter in current mode, so as to
voltage, because the feeder impedance is usually small. produce balanced sinusoidal line current.
Harmonic voltages, if present in the utility grid, would likewise • Controlling its series converter as a large impedance for
lead to harmonic currents along the feeder. They however are of limiting the line current during utility voltage sag.
a lesser concern, since their values progressively contract, as
the feeder impedance increases with harmonic order. These requirements can be realized by various basic voltage
To nonetheless remove these non-idealities from the current, and control-mode control schemes with any number of inner
one probably obvious method is to control the series converter control loops. Regardless of the final implementation adopted,
to inject voltages that correspond directly to the unbalanced and the control objectives here are undeniably different from those
harmonic voltages detected in the utility grid. None of the of UPQC, listed as follows [11]-[13]:
distorted and unbalanced voltages now appears across the
feeder, inferring that no corresponding current components will • Controlling its shunt converter in current mode, so as to
flow. The main difficulty encountered here would be the shape the grid current as balanced sinusoid (unbalanced
impossibility of detecting the non-idealities in the utility grid, and harmonic load current compensation).
which is usually far away. Indirect determination is therefore • Controlling its series converter in voltage mode, so as to
needed, and can be done by first filtering out the line current balance the load terminal voltage (unbalanced and
non-idealities using notch filters or filters in the relevant harmonic grid voltage compensation).
synchronous frames [19]. These current components can then • Controlling its series converter in voltage mode, so as to
be forced to zero by passing them through controllers with large improve the downstream load voltage quality during
upstream utility voltage sag (series voltage injection).
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 12
STS Ex
ix
f
P f Ex ix
Ex Reference
Ex* ix+* ix* Current Vx
*
P&Q+ P Voltage Voltage
+ PWM
Calculation E Generators controller controller
ix
|E|
Q+ Q+
Ex*=|E|sin(2πft)
Ex G
Harmonic H Gxh ixh*
ix Power Eh
Calculation H
Ex G-
Q- G- ix -*
Q- E-
ix Calculation
Q-
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 13
voltage amplitude, since the negative-sequence reactive power where ux is the Q- – G- droop coefficient.
Q- will be used for unbalance voltage compensation. The H – Notice that if E- increases due to the voltage unbalance, Q-
Gh droop equation for DGx is defined by will be naturally increased. In this situation, the Q- – G- droop
will increase G-, and the amount of ix – will increase accordingly,
Gx = G0 − bx ⋅ ( H x 0 − H x ) (2) thus decreasing E-, which is the main control objective. That
means that all the DGs will reach a steady-state point, and they
where bx is the droop coefficient, H0x is the rated harmonic can share the amount of Q- according to the ux selection.
power, and G0 is the rated conductance. If the droop coefficient Consequently, Q- could be evenly distributed among DGs
is designed in inverse proportion to the rated harmonic power, based on each DG rated power capacity, bearing in mind that
the total harmonic power will be evenly shared among DGs in the droop coefficient ux is inversely proportional to the rated
proportion to their rated capacity: power of DGx, according to:
u1Q10− = u 2Q 20− = = u x Q X− 0 = u y Q −y 0 = u z Q z−0
b1 H 10 = b2 H 20 = = bx H x 0 = by H y 0 = bz H z 0 − (6)
Q1− Q2− Qx− Q y Qz−
H (3) = == − = − = −
H1 H H
= 2 == x = y = z
H Q10− Q20− Qx 0 Q y 0 Qz 0
H 10 H 20 H x0 H y0 H z 0
B. STATCOM for Microgrid applications
Accordingly, multiple DGs can cooperatively without using Voltage regulation in the distributed power system is
communications can share the harmonic current injected to conventionally realized by using on-load tap changer (OLTC),
reduce the harmonic voltage. This approach is suitable for static VAR compensator, step voltage regulator or switched
microgrid DGs supplying nonlinear loads. capacitor [35], [36]. In contrast, STATCOM could flexibly
On the other hand, a shunt or series converter could be compensate reactive power and also its response time is
controlled to inject negative-sequence current in order to superior to the other methods. Recent applications of
reduce unbalanced voltage [33], [34]. As can be seen from Fig. STATCOM to improve power quality in microgrids have been
2, the negative-sequence conductance Gx- was introduced in the presented recently in the literature [37]-[40].
DGs control for this purpose [34]. Thus, the negative-sequence In [37], Fujita et Al. presented an active power filter to
current can be expressed as follows: suppress voltage distortion and fluctuations. This work
ix− = Gx− ⋅ Ex− (4) illustrated voltage swell, due to DGs, could be mitigated by
drawing lagging fundamental current from the grid. The use of
where Gx- is the conductance (proportional gain) that regulates
a STATCOM to restore positive-sequence voltage and to
the amount of negative-sequence current (ix-) to be injected tp
reduce voltage unbalance has received much attention [38]-[40].
compensate the amount of negative-sequence voltage (Ex-).
In [40], a STATCOM operating with a positive-sequence
Additionally, a Q- – G- droop (red line) was established based
admittance and a negative-sequence conductance was proposed.
on the negative-sequence reactive power Qx- with respect to the
Thus, the reference current i* can be expressed as:
negative-sequence conductance Gx- in order to allow DGs to
cooperatively share the unbalance compensation, i.e. share the
amount of Q- to be injected to the reduce E-. i * = Yp* ⋅ E +′f ⋅ + Gn* ⋅ E −f ⋅ (7)
The definition of the Q- – G- droop equation is given as being YP* the positive sequence conductance, Gn the *
| E +f |*
| E +f | + PI
Yp* i
E +f ' E
i* Current Vref i
+
Controller
PWM
E −f
Gn*
STATCOM
VUF% + PI
VUF%*
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 14
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 15
𝑓−0.5(𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝑓𝑝𝑢 =
0.5(𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝑉𝑑𝑐 −0.5(𝑉𝑑𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑉𝑑𝑐,𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝑉𝑑𝑐,𝑝𝑢 = (9)
0.5(𝑉𝑑𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑑𝑐,𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 16
the flow of large fault currents. Collectively, the conditioner [9] K. Borisov, H. L. Ginn, “Multifunctional VSC Based on a Novel
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 17
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11-0935-TIE_PartII 18
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