ARDES 06

SLOPE MAP
& ANALYSIS
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in the Bachelor of Science in Architecture

Submitted by:
Bituin, Daryll
Medina, Raymond
Mercado, Renzo Anjelo
Peña, Ferdinand
Policar, Denzel Dei
Salino, John Michael

Submitted to:
Ar. John Andrei Dela Cruz

Submitted on:
March 1, 2024
 Introduction

In an architectural project, one of the fundamental steps is gathering the information

needed to start your design process. A process where you can assess and evaluate the

physical, environmental, cultural, and social characteristics of a specific location is called site

analysis. In the process of it, you will look for the issues with the site’s location, topography,

size, zoning, traffic conditions, and climate. Site analysis begins with the assessment of the

physical characteristics of a site or location. In this process, you will know the land’s topography

showing its terrain features such as slopes, ridges, or valleys. An architectural design is deeply

influenced by the surrounding landscape. We can detect if it is feasible to construct in a certain

land area. The terrain feature can also create a shape that can make the design look more

natural.

One of the most common terrain features encountered during architectural projects is the

variation of slope or gradient. It ranges from soft gentle inclines to steep grades which can

greatly impact the construction of the project. Natural geological processes such as tectonic

activity, erosion, and sedimentation exhibit varying degrees of slope. In determining the slope,

various computations and analysis are conducted to know if it will pose a problem during

construction. There are also system devices which are used in gathering information to create a

slope map. A slope map is a 2-dimensional representation of the gradient of a surface. They are

used to identify potential hazards, plan construction projects and many more. Understanding the

slope map is important in site analysis, planning development, and construction management.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SLOPE MAP ANALYSIS

Nature has always been unpredictable; it is not always straight nor in perfect shape.

Irregularities are always nature's thing in which it makes the world look more natural. Slopes are

one of these irregularities and are also a fundamental characteristic of terrain that influences

various aspects of landscape morphology, hydrology, ecology, and human activities.

Understanding the slope gradients is essential for terrain analysis, land use planning,

engineering design, and environmental management. Slope influences the formation of various

terrain features, including hills, valleys, ridges, cliffs, and terraces. Different landforms exhibit

characteristic slope profiles shaped by geological processes, such as erosion, tectonic activity,

and weathering.

Slopes can be classified into different types depending on their gradients. Low gradients

are classified as gentle slopes while the opposite is the steep slope with its high gradients.

Gentle slopes were spaced evenly and wide apart. Another classification was concave slope

which decreases in steepness while looses on its elevation. Convex slopes are often described

as curved or rounded like the exterior of a sphere. As slopes were essential for terrain analysis

and a big part of site planning, we need to know whether the site is suitable for construction.

Slope maps are an essential tool for the terrain to be assessed. Slope maps are a

two-dimensional visual representation of the gradient or the steepness of the terrain’s surface. It

is used to identify potential hazards or assess if construction in the site is possible. In creating

slope maps, part of the process was to measure the elevation of some points on the surface of

a location. Then mathematical software or drawing programs were used to plot the points on the

graph and draw lines between them. The GIS or Geographic Information System is a

computer-based system that creates, manages, analyzes, and maps various types of data,

integrating location data with descriptive information. GIS is used across different industries and
scientific fields to understand patterns, relationships, and geographic contexts, leading to

improved communication, efficiency, management, and decision-making.

GIS allows users to store, visualize, analyze, and interpret geographic data. It helps answer

questions about how location impacts various aspects like disease spread and disability. GIS

involves people who collect data, develop procedures, identify research questions, and run

analysis tasks. There are two main types of GIS data: vector data and the raster data. GIS

software like ArcGIS and QGIS are commonly used for spatial analysis in conjunction with other

software to enhance functionality.

Slope maps are a dependable tool as it serves several purposes. Various fields rely on

this tool such as geology, urban planning, civil engineering, etc. there are several purposes for

slope maps. Terrain analysis, that provides valuable information about the gradient of a surface.

They help analyze terrain characteristics, landform morphology, and landscape patterns. It is

also used for land use planning by identifying suitable areas for development, agriculture,

conservation, and recreation. Planners assess terrain suitability, determine land capability and

constraints. They also allocate land use zones based on slope gradients, soil types, hydrological

conditions, etc. Slope maps were also used to manage infrastructures, environment, and

resources. Natural Hazards were assessed also through the use of slope maps. One of the

most valuable uses of a map is to predict the flow of water. Groundwater can cause heaving and

shifting of buildings and parking lots. Runoff from storms can also damage property. A slope

map may also indicate the placement of utility lines and their depth.

An aspect-slope map overlays the elevation information with aspect information. The

direction of view is shown on the map by shading the isolines. These maps are used to visualize

the views of the future occupants of a building, the effectiveness of solar energy equipment, and

the best locations for fruit or ornamental trees, among other uses. The aspect-slope map can be
further expanded by adding bioclimatic data. Color-coded fills are drawn on the map to indicate

marshy, arid, windy, biologically active places, freeze zones, or other areas. Knowledge of these

small zones helps maintain migratory bird flyways, healthy plants, and ice-free walkways and

driveways.

SLOPE CLASSIFICATION

Slope classification involves classifying the steepness or gradient of terrain using a

numerical scale or a set of descriptive descriptors. Slope classification is significant in many

fields, including geography, geology, civil engineering, and environmental science, because it

aids in understanding terrain characteristics, assessing dangers such as landslides and erosion,

and determining infrastructure development.

SLOPE

The rise or fall of the ground surface is referred to as a slope. The property's slopes

must be understood by the engineer, site planner, farmer, and irrigator. In a steep environment,

a slope is recognized. Starting from the base of a hill and then climbing your way up is referred

to as a rising slope. Next, descend on what is referred to be a falling slope. Even areas that

appear to be flat have low gradients that are rarely visible to the naked eye. Flat regions are

never entirely horizontal. Finding these so-called "flat slopes" requires a precise terrain study.

BASIC SLOPE FORMS:

● · STRAIGHT

● · CONVEX

● · CONCAVE

● · IRREGULAR

● · S-SHAPED
Site with slopes averaging less than 1%:

Usually result in areas of poor drainage and larger than normal gravity flow systems.

Otherwise, they offer few development constraints.

Sites with slopes averaging 1 -3%:

usually offer the least topographic constraints. Positive drainage can normally be

attained without excessive site re-grading. These sites are suitable for a wide range of

development types; unfortunately, these are often our best farmlands.

Sites with slopes averaging 3 - 5%:

These sites impose only slight constraints, except to developments that require large,

fairly flat surfaces, e.g. play fields, parking areas, and major structures such as m manufacturing

plants and warehouses.

Sites with slopes averaging 5 - 8%:

Impose slight constraints to developments with small structures and minimal site

coverage and support systems. Constraints increase with the size of structures and with the

percentage of site covered. These slopes have a formative impact on site organization, as well

as on the orientation of buildings and roads.

Sites with slopes averaging more than 8%:

Generally, impose severe constraints to development. These slopes normally exclude

structures with large footprints and severely increase the cost of even small structures. On the

other hand, unique visual amenities often make these sites desirable places on which to build.
 The SLOPE attribute categorizes slope gradient in percent for polygon components,

utilizing 7 classes with definitions established in SLC versions 1.0 and 3.0, with slight variations

in the "Not Applicable" code.

SLOPE MAP AND LEGENDS

Slope Map. (n.d.). https://ppdo.bohol.gov.ph/maps/thematic-maps/slope-map/

SLOPE ANALYSIS

Slope analysis is the process of determining the steepness of a surface, often

represented by the maximum rate of change in elevation over a known horizontal distance. It is

a crucial aspect of understanding terrain characteristics and predicting landslide potential,

among other things. Slope analysis can be performed using various methods, such as

Gradient-based methods, derivative-based methods, Aspect Analysis, and Triangulated

Irregular Network (TIN) analysis.

 Slope analysis is a valuable tool in various applications, such as landform analysis,

hydrology, environmental modeling, and predicting landslide potential. It provides detailed

information about the direction of slopes and their steepness, which can be crucial for

understanding terrain characteristics and predicting landslide potential, among other things.

Gradient Based Method:

To read and calculate a slope map, one needs to understand the concept of "rise over

run" in geosciences. First, get familiar with the features of the topographic map, such as the

contour interval (CI) and the scale of the map. The contour interval tells you the change in

elevation between each contour line, while the scale tells you the distance on the ground. Then,

identify the feature for which you want to know the slope, such as a hillside or a water table.

Measure the horizontal distance between the two points you want to calculate the slope

between, and then determine the vertical distance by identifying the elevation values for each

contour line. Use the formula Slope = change in elevation between two points / horizontal

distance between those same two points to calculate the slope. You can also calculate the

percent slope by multiplying the slope ratio by 100.

SLOPE FORMULA DISTANCE

0-2 G=D/L x 100 0 - 25M

G=2
2=0.5/L x 100
L=0.5 x 100/2
L= 25

2-5 G=D/L x 100 10 - 25M

G=5
2=0.5/L x 100
L=0.5 x 100/2
L= 25

5-8 G=D/L x 100 6.25 - 10M

G=8
2=0.5/L x 100
L=0.5 x 100/2
L= 25

8-15 G=D/L x 100 3.33 - 6.25M

G=15
2=0.5/L x 100
L=0.5 x 100/2
 L= 25

15-25 G=D/L x 100 2 - 3.33M

G=25
2=0.5/L x 100
L=0.5 x 100/2
L= 25

25-33 G=D/L x 100 1.51 - 2M

G=33
2=0.5/L x 100
L=0.5 x 100/2
L= 25

Aspect Analysis:

Aspect analysis is a technique used in slope analysis to determine the direction of the

maximum rate of change in value from each pixel to its neighbors in a digital elevation model

(DEM). It identifies the downslope direction of the surface, which can be thought of as the slope

direction. Aspect values indicate the directions the physical slopes face, and they can be

classified based on the slope angle with descriptive terms such as north-facing, east-facing,

south-facing, and west-facing.

In slope analysis, aspect is often combined with slope to create an aspect-slope raster

layer. This layer simultaneously displays the aspect and slope of a surface, with the pixel values

representing the compass direction of the aspect using a hue (color) and the slope represented

by color saturation (brightness). Pixels with values below 20 are considered flat and are shown

in gray, while aspect-slope values of 21 and above are displayed with varying saturations,

indicating low, moderate, or high slope saturation.

Understanding an aspect map

The concept of an aspect map is simple to understand. Aspect values indicate the

directions the physical slopes face. We can classify aspect directions based on the slope angle
with a descriptive direction. An output aspect raster will typically result in several slope direction

classes.

The aspect map above is from a south point of view. That’s why the shades on the map are

mostly light green (southeast), light blue (south), and blue (southwest). When you rotate the

map as a north point-of-view, you see mostly purple (northwest), red (north), and orange

(north-east):

Triangular Based Method:

A Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) is a vector-based representation of a continuous

surface, consisting of irregularly distributed nodes and lines with associated coordinates in three

dimensions. It is used to describe and analyze general horizontal distributions and relationships,

as well as to store continuous surfaces efficiently. TINs are particularly useful for representing

surfaces with varying complexity, allowing for detailed representation where needed and more

generalized data storage in homogenous areas.

TINs are constructed by triangulating a set of vertices, which relate to a series of edges

to form a network of triangles. These triangles are planes that have the same slope and aspect

over the facet. The resulting triangulation satisfies the Delaunay triangle criterion, which ensures

that no vertex lies within the interior of any of the circumcircles of the triangles in the network.
This criterion helps to minimize the number of long, thin triangles, which are undesirable for

surface analysis.

To calculate the slope using a Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN), you can utilize the

vertices of the TIN model to determine the slope and aspect of the terrain. The TIN model

represents the surface as a series of contiguous, non-overlapping triangles, with each triangle

representing a plane within which the surface is defined. The vertices, or mass points, of these

triangles play a crucial role in calculating slope and aspect accurately.

1. Vertex Normal Vector: Based on the vertex normal vector N = (Nx, Ny, Nz), you can

easily calculate the slope and aspect. The slope is determined by the magnitude of this

vector, while the aspect is derived from its direction.

2. Triangle Analysis: By focusing on the vertices of the TIN triangles, you can compute the

slope and aspect values efficiently. Each triangle in the TIN model contributes to

determining the maximum rate of change in elevation across that specific triangle, which

aids in calculating the slope accurately.

3. Utilizing TIN Data: The TIN model is advantageous for representing surfaces with

varying complexity efficiently. It connects known data points with straight lines to form
 triangles, allowing for detailed representation where needed and more generalized data

storage in homogenous areas.

Cut and Fill

When planning the design and construction of a building, architects and engineers must

first consider the existing conditions of the site. Most often, the given site is not level and must

be modified before any construction can begin. So, the cut and fill process is typically one of the

first construction processes to take place on a site.

Without computer software to determine the amount of land to be added or removed, we

can do simple calculations to estimate the cut and fill volume of any site. First, the site is divided

into sections. Essentially, the site is "sliced" into segments of land, at a specified fixed distance

apart, so we can look at each segment individually. Section cuts are drawn based on the

topography of the land in order to accurately represent the land that is being evaluated.

The topography map describes the existing slopes of the land, and allows us to draw site

elevations in our section cuts.

 Each line on the topography map represents a change in elevation of 10 feet. So the

section at 0ft (the red dashed line above) looks like this in elevation:

Now that we have two dimensional section cuts, we can estimate the area to be cut and

filled in the site. On each section cut the desired land topography is represented as a "cut line"

overlaid on the line of the existing land topography. This gives us two lines on every section, and

shows us how much of the existing area must be removed or added. Then, the area between

these lines is calculated to find the cut and fill areas for each section.

The diagrams below represent the area between the existing elevation line and the cut

line. First, we mark the land that must be added to the site to achieve our desired land

topography. This area is marked "fill."

 Next, we mark the land that must be removed from the site to achieve our desired land

topography. This area is marked "cut." By combining the two diagrams, we can see begin to

estimate how much land area must be cut from the site, and how much land area must be filled

in the site to level the site for construction.

Now, once the section areas have been found, we must account for the additional length

of the site (the land between the section cuts) to be able to estimate the volume of the land cut

or filled. Finally, after computing the necessary values we are able to determine not only how

much land must be removed from or brought to the site, but also where that land must be
specifically taken from or brought to. Removing or adding land to any site is a costly process, so

it is important that our estimations be made as close to the existing conditions as possible. Once

we know how much land to cut or fill, and where to cut and fill it, work can begin to properly level

the site and construct our building.

Each two-dimensional section cut is overlaid with a grid to allow us to estimate the area

between the existing elevation line and the cut line. To estimate area, we can divide the area

under the curve into rectangles and then find the area of each rectangle. Refer to the diagram

below for the process of drawing rectangles. Consistency in drawing the rectangles is very

important to ensure proper balance between over and under estimation of area. Since all of the

intervals are the same width of 10ft, the only estimating that you will need to do is with the

height of each rectangle. For this exercise estimate the height to the nearest 2 1/2 feet (or 1/4 of

the 10' X 10' square).

 By removing the grid lines, it is easy to see the areas of the rectangles that we will be

estimating. Since these rectangles will represent an overestimation in some parts, and an

underestimation in others, we will consistently draw our rectangles and not worry about the area

between the lines that are missed.

To estimate the volume, we use the area that has been determined (as width and height)

and then multiply by the distance between each section (depth). Note that the first and last

section is on the site boundary. Notice also that these boundary sections only have a volume on

one of their sides. The remaining sections between the boundaries have land volume on each
side. See the diagram below. The solid lines refer to our section cuts, and the dashed lines refer

to the midpoint between the section cuts. The volume for section cut 0ft is shaded below.

Marianne Parsons

http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/EMAT6680/Parsons/MVP6690/Essay3/cutfill.html

Cut and fill excavation, also known as excavation and embankment is the process

where excavators move and place volumes of material to create optimal terrain for a road,

railway or canal. It involves cutting away unwanted earth material and topsoil and using it to fill

and create an embankment, slope, or another feature.

The two terms are defined as follows:

● Cut: Earth that is removed from an area is considered “cut” or excavated earth.

● Fill: Earth that is brought into an area is considered “fill” or embankment earth.

In cut and fill excavation, the ultimate goal is to conserve mass as much as possible.

Having more cut than fill results in project managers needing to find somewhere to dump

excess rock and soil, while having more fill than cut results in the manager needing to bring in

dirt from another location. Both of these outcomes result in extra material, labor and equipment
costs. To avoid bringing in or removing excess mass, cut and fill processes are planned in a way

to keep cut mass and fill mass approximately the same.

Cut and fill maps contain many of the same terrain features as traditional maps, though
they often also include elevations for the purpose of calculation. Some of the common terrain
features included in cut and fill maps are detailed below:

● Hill: A hill is defined as an area of elevated ground where the ground rises at a slope.
Hills are shown on maps using contour lines that form concentric circles. The closed
circle that’s smallest represents the hilltop.
● Saddle: A saddle is a low point between two points of high ground. It may appear as low
ground between two hills or a break or dip along a ridge crest. This feature is typically
represented on the map with an hourglass shape.
● Valley: A valley appears as a long groove in the land and usually contains a stream or
river flowing through it. On a map, valleys are usually represented by contour lines in a U
or V shape with the closed end pointing upstream. Draws are less prominent versions of
valleys and are notated in the same way.
● Ridge: A ridge is an area with steep slope and high ground on one side. Usually, ridges
will be shown with contour lines forming in a U or V shape with the closed end pointing
away from the higher ground. Sometimes, spurs form from ridges, appearing as
continuous lines of higher ground jutting out from the ridge. They’re noted similarly,
though they may affect the shape of the ridge.
● Depression: Depressions are low points or sinkholes in the ground. Maps usually show
depressions only if they are significant enough in size, and these features are notated by
closed contour lines with tick marks pointing to lower areas.
● Cliff: A cliff is a sudden drop-off, appearing as a vertical or near-vertical change in
elevation. Cliffs usually appear as contour lines being drawn extremely close together or
on top of one another.
From the complete map, cut and fill can be planned around existing topographical

features. Commonly, a map with these features may be used as a base, with the final project
laid over it to determine areas of potential cut and fill. Once initial plans are made, cut and fill

plans are added based on the topographical features.

𝐴1 + 𝐴2
● Average end area method: 𝑉 = 2
𝐿

𝐿(𝐴1+4𝐴𝑚+𝐴2)
● Prismoidal method: 𝑉𝑝 6
This is a more accurate formula, which takes out

most of the error accrued by the average end area method.

𝐴𝐿
● Pyramid method: 𝑉 3
If one end area has a value of zero, the earthwork volume can

be considered a pyramid

𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

● Average Elevation: 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
The mean value of all elevation from every points

● Height Difference: 𝐴𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 The difference in the

distance of the average elevation and the aimed finish elevation

- A negative value of height difference can mean that there is cut rather than filling

needed in that specific part of the lot

- A positive value in height difference means there is filling needed in that specific

part of the lot

● Section area: 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

(𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 1 + 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 2)

● Mid area: 2
Mean of the section areas

● Volume: 𝑀𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 Mid area multiplied to the interval

Legends:

L - Distance between stations

A - Area of cut/fill

Am - Area of a place surface midway between the two cross sections

 Challenges and Solutions for cut and fill mapping:

Exact cut and fill calculations are vital throughout every project stage. It is essential to

address mapping challenges such as data accuracy, varying site conditions and slope stability

to ensure your project moves forward on time and within budget. With proper surveying

techniques, data validation methods and risk management practices, you can mitigate cut and

fill mapping challenges and streamline projects.

Data accuracy
 Precise cut and fill excavation efforts will save time, reduce labor costs and improve

operational efficiency, but creating the precision that cut and fill mapping requires can be

challenging. Data accuracy starts with how you collect data. Modern cut and fill mapping

technologies and software enable you to gather correct data from the project’s start. If you start

your project with quality data, you will be better equipped to create quality results.

You can also improve data accuracy through data validation methods. When you verify

the data gathered from mapping technologies and software, you can ensure information is

correct and aligns with project specifications.

Varying site conditions

Worksites often have varying site conditions, especially when your project covers an

extensive area. Multiple terrains, slopes and soil qualities can add complexities to cut and fill

mapping and operations. Accurately mapping your worksite is essential to project success,

especially when managing multiple variables.

Even if your site is relatively small or the terrain is consistent across the area, you may

experience changing site conditions over time. Your worksite is susceptible to weather, erosion

and other natural and uncontrollable factors, leading to varying conditions throughout the

project’s duration. These variations are important to monitor and manage to ensure worksite

safety and stability.

Slope stability

A stable slope can support its own weight and other external forces without soil or rock

displacement. Creating this stability is essential in cut and fill operations. Aerated soil or

miscalculated cut and fill slopes can lead to significant issues later in the project.

Balanced, stable and safe cut and fill slopes can be accomplished with accurate data

collection and mapping. Modern tools and technology can bring the precision your worksite

needs to mitigate slope stability challenges and ensure safety and efficiency.
 Role of Vegetation in Slope Stability

In numerous ways, vegetation contributes to the stabilization of forested slopes. It

reduces water flowing from above to below the surface and strengthens the roots. A weak soil

mass can be strengthened by plant roots, which can penetrate through the soil mass to reach

areas of weakness and contribute to interlocking fibrous roots. Hence, all types of vegetation

have different levels of stability and can sustain the slope. Both fully grown trees and grasses

have their own unique qualities. While plants with deep root systems can physically reduce the

impacts of wind and rain, grasses provide texture and roughness to the surface. Depending on

their species and condition, medium-sized plants also contribute alongside the others.

The process will work using these primary ways plants on the slope helps to prevent soil

erosion:

Interception

Rainfall is a common source of erosion because it moves and takes soil particles away, which

can result in landslides. Raindrops hitting the soil surface create a crust that coats the soil

particles and stops infiltration. Rainfall is captured by trees and shrubs before it reaches the

soil's surface. Falling leaves and branches from plants shield the soil's surface from the impact

of raindrops, slow down water flow, and stimulate rainwater absorption into the soil.

Restraint

Restraining soil particles and hold them together.

Retardation

Slowing down any runoff and preventing large channels from forming cause by grasses,

shrubs, or trees.

Infiltration
Plants on slopes creates different pathways for water that land on the surface to enter the soil.

The more vegetation, much easier for water to enter the soil.

Transpiration

All sizes of plants absorbing water from the soil for its general processes. Which reduce amount

of moisture in the soil and oversaturation.

The two main ways that vegetation enhances the integrity and stability of a slope are

through mechanically reducing the effects of water and through water stabilization.

Interconnected root systems compacted soil particles together for mechanical stabilization,

enhancing the slope's ability to resist runoff. More stability across a greater area can be

provided by larger plants. For soil surfaces to be protected from wind and to endure wind,

mechanical stabilization is a must.

Furthermore, vegetation helps to stabilize the flow of water. Water from the surrounding

soil is absorbed up by the plant roots. More vegetation on the slope means more water will be

absorbed, preventing erosion from happening. In addition to changing the physical landscape

below the surface, stabilization also modifies the surface, making it smoother and rougher. Any

kind of plant can increase the surface variance, which lowers the volume and slows down the

speed. Not least, raindrops are intercepted by vegetation above the surface, where they land

and then re-evaporate into the sky.

However, not all slopes can be perfectly stabilized by vegetation. Even if it is far more

sustainable and efficient, there are some situations in which other approaches might be far more

useful and efficient. There are limits to what can grow on a slope. If the slope is too steep more

than 45 degrees the roots of the vegetation may not be able to support the soil, which could

cause instability and erosion.

The ability of vegetation to develop a good anchoring may be limited in poor soil

conditions. Furthermore, it is not feasible to cultivate established plants with dense root systems

when stabilization is required immediately. Climate has an impact on vegetation as well;

locations with limited rainfall might not need for dense plant growth. In contrast, vegetation on

slopes may become so saturated with rain that it loses some of its protective qualities.

Slope Stabilizing Combining Slope Protection Methods

Vegetation and Bioengineering

Vegetation and bioengineering techniques are often employed as approaches for obtaining

successful slope management. In addition to being improved by vegetation like deep-rooted

grasses, bushes, and trees, slope stability also plays a role in the soil's natural reinforcement. A

very cost-effective, long-lasting, and aesthetically pleasing solution. Covering the slope with

blankets made of biodegradable materials stops soil erosion and facilitates expansion of

vegetation.

Mechanical Reinforcement

By confining soil particles, geocells—honeycomb-shaped grids made of polymers—improve

slope stability. Geocells that are loaded with vegetation are ideal for steep slopes. Plus, on

steeper inclines, terraces and retaining walls are effective constructions for physically restricting

soil and breaking it down into manageable portions. For managing slopes, this method is quite

practical and adaptable.

Drainage Control

Ditches and channels are used to move water away from slopes, reducing soil saturation and

weakening, to maintain slope stability. Subsurface drainage collects and drains groundwater

from within the slope using perforated pipes to lessen the risk of landslides and pressure

developing. By using this method, it guarantees the slope's long-term stability and offers a

thorough approach to water management.

Soil Improvement
This approach is especially helpful for weak and fractured rock slopes because it inserts long

nails into the slope to assist pin together soil layers to increase stability. In addition,

shotcrete—a layer of sprayed concrete that binds loose soil particles to the slope surface—is

added to the slope surface to reinforce and uphold against erosion.

 LAWS RELATED TO SLOPE

BATAS PAMBANSA BILANG 220

Section 5. Technical Guidelines and Standards for Subdivisions

In determining whether an economic and socialized housing shall be allowed, the

following guidelines shall be considered.

B. Planning Considerations

a. Slope The finished grade shall have a desired slope to allow rainwater to be

channeled into street drains. Where cut and fill is necessary, an appropriate grade shall be

attained to prevent any depression in the area. Grading and ditching shall be executed in a

manner that will prevent erosion or flooding of adjoining properties.

Section 10. Application for Approval of Subdivision Development Plan

Every registered owner or developer of a parcel of land who wishes to convert the same into a

subdivision project shall apply with the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board or Local

Government Unit concerned for approval of the subdivision development plan by filing the

following:

A. For Optional Application for Preliminary Subdivision Development Plan

2. A set of the following documents duly signed and sealed by a licensed geodetic

engineer:

b. Topographic plan to include existing conditions as follows:

1) Boundary lines: bearings and distances or geographic coordinates of

the reference or tie point (referred to as the BLLM #);

2) Streets, easements, width and elevation of right-of-way within the

project and adjacent subdivisions/areas;

 3) Utilities within and adjacent to the proposed subdivision project,

location, sizes and invert elevations of sanitary and storm or combined sewers;

location of gas lines, fire hydrants, electric and telephone poles and streetlights. If

water mains and sewers are not within/adjacent to the subdivision, indicate the

direction and distance to and size of nearest one, showing invert elevations of

sewers, if applicable;

4) Ground elevation of the subdivision: for ground that slopes less than

2%, indicate spot elevations at all breaks in grade, along all drainage channels

and at selected points not more than 25 meters apart in all directions: for ground

that slopes more than 2%, either indicate contours with an interval of not more

than 0.50 meter if necessary due to irregular land or need for more detailed

preparation of plans and construction drawings. 5) Watercourses, marshes, rock

and wooded areas, presence of all preservable trees in caliper diameter of 200

millimeters, houses, barns, shacks, and other significant features.

B. For application for Subdivision Development Permit

2. Subdivision Development Plan consisting of the site development plan at any of the

following scales: 1:200; 1:1,000; or any scale not exceeding 1:2,000; showing all proposals

including the following:

a. Roads, easements or right-of-way and roadway width, alignment, gradient, and

similar data for alleys, if any.

3. Civil and Sanitary Works Design

Engineering plans/construction drawings based on applicable engineering code

and design criteria to include the following:

a. At least 2 copies of road (geometric and structural) design/plan duly

signed and sealed by a licensed civil engineer.

 1) Profile derived from existing topographic map signed and

sealed by a licensed geodetic engineer showing the

vertical control, designed grade, curve elements and all

information needed for construction.

c . At least 2 copies of site grading plan with finished contour lines

superimposed on the existing ground the limits of earth work embankment

slopes, cut slopes, surface drainage, drainage outfalls and others, duly

signed and sealed by a licensed civil engineer.

NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES

SECTION 707. Maximum Height of Buildings

Notes: a. Establishing Grade

- In case of sloping grade where the edges of the building footprint (AMBF) running

perpendicular to the RROW has a difference in elevation of more than 3.00 meters, the average

grade level of the building footprint (AMBF) shall be considered the established grade elevation.

SECTION 707.3 Other Considerations in Height Determination

d. In accordance with the Standards and Recommended Practices (SARP’s) of the

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) where the Philippines is a member state, and

Administrative Order No. 5 (Civil Air Regulation) of the Air Transportation Office (ATO), the

following rules and regulations shall govern the construction of buildings/structures within the

24-kilometer radius of aerodromes where turbo-jet aircraft operate and within the 10-kilometer

radius of aerodromes where no turbo-jet aircraft operate. (Figs. VII.4. through VII.6.) i. The

height of buildings/structures within this area shall be limited by an imaginary line with slope of

2% (1:50) for aerodromes where turbo-jet aircraft operates, and 2.5% (1:40) for aerodromes
where no turbo-jet aircraft operates from the inner edge reckoned from the surface of the

runway.

GUIDELINES ON EASEMENTS, VIEW CORRIDORS/SIGHT LINES, STREETS/ROAD

RIGHT-OF-WAY (RROW), SIDEWALKS, ARCADES, BASEMENTS, LOTS, AND PUBLIC

BUILDINGS/STRUCTURES

D. SIDEWALKS

11. Grade of Sidewalks

b. Whenever the slope of the street does not exceed 1/12 the sidewalk grade

shall follow the level or slope of the street.

c. Whenever the slope of the street is 1/10, the sidewalk shall be

maintained level for every 20.00 to 40.00 meters of run (Fig. VIII.G.18.). Sidewalks of different

levels shall be joined by means of a ramp having any convenient slope not exceeding 1/6.

d. When the grade of two (2) connecting sidewalks are between 1/10 and

1/8, the two sidewalks shall be joined by means of a ramp having any convenient slope not

exceeding 1/10.

12. Driveways, Entrances and Exits

a. Driveways Across Sidewalks

i. To maximize the use of the sidewalk area, the surface of the sidewalk

and the driveway shall as much as possible, be at the same plane. The entry

ramp of the driveway connecting the roadway surface to the sidewalk surface

shall have a slope ranging from 1/3 to 1/4.

 ii. Whenever the height of the curb is more than 200 millimeters,

driveways may be constructed across the entire width of the sidewalk, provided

that the driveway shall be joined to the sidewalk by means of a ramp of rough

finish have a slope of not more than 1/8. The driveway and the ramp shall be

made of the same materials as that of the sidewalk.

iv. Entrance and exits ramps shall have a slope not exceeding 1/10.

RULE XII - GENERAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

SECTION 1202. Excavation, Foundation, and Retaining Walls

1202.2 Excavation and Fills

g. Cut slopes for permanent excavations shall not be steeper than two (2) horizontal to

one (1) vertical and slopes for permanent fills shall not be steeper than two (2) horizontal to one

(1) vertical. Deviation from the foregoing limitations for slopes shall be permitted only upon the

presentation of a geotechnical/geological investigation report acceptable to the Building Official.

h. On a large site that is at a considerable distance from the surrounding properties and

public highways, deep excavation may be carried out in the open in bulk, leaving slopes around

the perimeter. It is important to ensure that no serious failures of the banks will occur to

endanger those working on the site or the public. The safe angle of the cut slope shall be

determined by an appropriate geotechnical/geological site investigation acceptable to the

Building Official.

l. Except in excavation inside sloping banks, rock, or within caissons, all excavations

should be lined with shotcrete, boards, runners or sheet piles supported laterally, if necessary,

by framings of wallings and struts, which may be of timber, steel, or reinforced concrete, to a
sufficient extent to prevent the excavation from becoming dangerous to life or limb by movement

or caving in of the adjoining soil.

u. Fills to be used to support the foundations of any building/structure shall be placed in

accordance with accepted engineering practice. A soil investigation report and a report of

satisfactory placement of fill, shall be both acceptable to the Building Official.

SECTION 1207.10 . Exit Outlets, Courts, and Passageways

b. Slope The slope of exit courts shall not exceed 1 in 10. The slope of exit passageway

shall not exceed 1 in 8.

SECTION 1207.12. AISLES

e. Slope The slope portion of aisles shall not exceed a fall of 1 in 8

 DEFINITION OF TERMS

A Cut - are typically used in road, rail, and

canal construction to reduce the length and

Architectural Design - is the designing and
grade of a route.
planning of structures where functionality

and aesthetics are the two key elements of Cut Slope - A cut slope is the vertical cut

the process. adjacent to the road, where earth is

removed to accommodate the road.

Arid - Excessively dry

Cliff - A cliff is a mass of rock that rises very

Aspect-Slope Map - simultaneously shows
high and is almost vertical, or straight
the aspect (direction) and degree
up-and-down.
(steepness) of slope for a terrain (or other

continuous surface). D

B Depression - Absolute value of the

difference of pressure between any point of

Bioclimatic - relating to the interrelation of
the ventilation system.
climate and the activities and distribution of

living organisms. E

C Ecology - is the study of organisms and

how they interact with the environment

Contour Interval - the vertical distance or
around them.
difference in elevation between contour

lines. Elevation- is distance above sea level.

Elevation - is a precise and detailed Grade - generally refers to the ground level,

representation of one vertical plane or face or the elevation at any given point.

of a building or structure.
Geological - relating to the study of the

Erosion - the process of eroding or being earth's physical structure and substance.

eroded by wind, water, or other natural

H
agents.

Hill - is a landform that extends above the

Excavation - a site that is being or has
surrounding terrain.
been excavated.

Hydrology - is the science that

F
encompasses the occurrence, distribution,

Fill - means fill that may contain solid waste movement and properties of the waters of

utilized to provide material for construction the earth and their relationship with the

projects such as roads, parking lots, environment within each phase of the

buildings or other structures. hydrologic cycle.

Fill Slope - The inclined slope extending L

from the outside edge of the road shoulder

Location - a particular place or position.
to the toe (bottom) of the fill.

M
G

Marshy - characteristic of or resembling a

GIS - geographic information system
marsh; waterlogged.

Gradient - is a measure of how steep a

Morphology - is the study of the shapes
slope is.
and arrangement of parts of organisms.
P Site - a place where something is, was, or

will be built, or where something happened,

Pixel - a minute area of illumination on a
is happening, or will happen.
display screen, one of many from which an

image is composed. Site Analysis - involves the assessment of

the physical and cultural factors of sites.

Pixel Value - a single number that

represents the brightness of the pixel. Slope - a surface of which one end or side

is at a higher level than another.

R

Slope Map - a two-dimensional

Ridge - a long, narrow raised part of a
representation of the gradient of a surface.
surface, especially a high edge along a

mountain. Slope Stability - the condition of inclined

soil or rock slopes to withstand or undergo

RROW - road right-of-way
movement.

S
T

Saddle - A low point between two distinct

Terrain - a stretch of a land, especially with
peaks (or hills) and forms the shape of a
regard to its physical features.
saddle.

Tectonic Activity - earthquakes,

Section - the drawing of a vertical cut
volcanoes, and mountain building caused
through a building or an area of a building.
by the interaction of two or more tectonic

Sedimentation - is the deposition of rock plates along their boundaries.

fragments, soil, organic matter, or dissolved

material that has been eroded. TIN - Triangulated Irregular Network

Topography - the study and description of Z

the physical features of an area.

Zoning - a law that organizes how land may

V be used. It establishes an orderly pattern of

development across neighborhoods and the

Valley - an elongated low area often

running between hills or mountains, which city by identifying what may be built on a

will typically contain a river or stream piece of property.

running from one end to the other.

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Canada, A. a. A. (2021, May 26). Slope Gradient. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

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(Casey,2024) What is a Slope Map?

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Middlebury Remote Sensing. (2023, March 24). What is a Triangular Irregular Network (TIN)?

(C13, V4) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XpZ6_Nk8ZM8

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