Topic 2 Geological data collection

538416 Surface Mining and Mine Design

Uncertainty in slope design
 What are joint patterns at slip surfaces?
 What are the joint properties?
 What will the loads be over time?
 Pore pressures can be seasonal, or a storm

 Earthquake loads are hard to predict

 Will the rock strength deteriorate over time?
 Geochemical changes in shale

 Dissolution of limestone
 Did blasting affect properties?
 A highly indeterminate design problem
 Mary factors govern the size and shape of an open pit
 These must be properly understood and are used in the planning of
an open pit operation
 The following are the key items affecting the pit design:
1) Geology 9) Processing costs
2) Grade 10)Ore recovery
3) Localization of the 11)Marketing considerations
mineralization 12)Bench height
4) Extent of the deposit 13)Pit slopes
5) Property boundaries 14)Cutoff grade
6) Production rates 15)Strip ratios (SR)
7) Road grades 16)Break-even stripping ratio
8) Mining costs
Exploration Methods
 Remote sensing  Geochemical surveys
 Geological mapping  Bulk sampling
 Geophysical surveys  Drilling (core or destructive)
 Gravimetric methods
 Magnetic methods
 Electrical methods
 Electromagnetic methods
 Seismic methods
 Radiometric methods
 Geothermal methods
“The worst types of problem with
which an underground excavation
designer can be faced is
the unexpected problem”

“Truly Understand the

Geologic Condition”
Geological data collection for surface
mining
Processes
 Regional geologic study (map, air
photo, report, journal)
 Communication with local
geologist/engineer
 Detail contour mapping
 Geologic surface mapping
 Geolophysical exploration
 Diamond drilling (coring)
 Laboratory testing
 Borehole logging
Geophysical Exploration Techniques
 Gravity meter
 Magnetometer
 Electrical resistively
 Electromagnetic
 Radiometer (Scintillometer)
 Seismic Refraction
 Seismic Reflection
Geophysical Exploration Techniques for U.G.
What are the objectives in explorations?
 Establish baseline/background conditions
 Find alteration zones
 Find ore body
 Determine if ore can be mined or leached
 Determine if ore can be processed
 Determine ore reserves
 Locate areas for infrastructure/operations
 Environmental assessment
 Further understand uranium deposits
 Refine exploration models
 Common types of slope failure
 Plane Failure (การเลือ
่ นตามแผ่นระนาบ)
 Wedge Failure (การเลือ
่ นแบบรูปลิม
่ )
 Circular Failure (การพังทลายรูปโค ้ง)
 Toppling Failure (การพังแบบพลิกควา่ )
 Rockfall (หินร่วง)

Factors controlling instability

 Structural control instability
 Stress control instability
 Groundwater condition
 Weathering and swelling
Plane Failure
Slope face หรือ
ระนาบของความลาดชน ั

Plane หรือ
ระนาบของรอยแตก

การเลือ
่ นตามแผ่นระนาบ
(Plane Failure)
Plane Failure
Wedge Failure

Joint Joint
Set 1 Set 2

การเลือ
่ นแบบรูปลิม
่
(Wedge Failure)
 Wedge Failure

Set 1 Set 2
Circular Failure
Toppling
Failure
 วิธป
ี ้ องกันผลกระทบจากหินร่วง

Rockfall
Steinschlag = Rockfall
Sicht = See
 Rock mass structure/ Joint shear
Intact rock
Discontinuity strength
strength

Intact rock Slope

properties geometry
(overall slope
Groundwater height, overall
condition slope angle)

Excavation State of stress

method
Factors affecting slope stability
 Geological discontinuities of rock mass
 Geotechnical properties of slope
 Groundwater and rainfall (force due to seepage of water)
 Geometry of slope (gravitational force)
 State of stress
 Erosion of the surface of the slopes due to flowing water
 Seismic effect (force due to earthquakes)
 Dynamic forces due to blasting
 Slope modification, Under cutting
 Temperature and spontaneous heating
 Presence of underground galleries
Factors affecting slope stability
No Name of the parameters Details
and properties
1 Geological discontinuities Fault, Joint, bedding plane, etc.
2 Geometry of slope Height and angle of slope, bench
height and angle
3 Strength Joint shear strength and intact rock
strength (compressive strength, tensile
strength)
4 Water Ground water, drainage pattern,
rainfall, permeability, aquifer
5 Geotechnical parameters Gran size, moisture content, Atterberg
limit, etc.
6 Method of construction Shovel, dumper, bucket wheel
excavator or combination
7 Dynamic forces Blasting, Seismic activity
Factors affecting slope failure
 Geological Discontinuities
 bedding plane  joint  fissure
 schistosity  cleavage  crack
 foliation  fracture  fault plane
Geological Discontinuities
 Effect of discontinuity orientation on the types of slope failure
Geological Discontinuities
 Effects of persistence on slope stability
 Effect of water
 The water applies horizontal and
vertical pressure along the
discontinuities.
 It discontinuity reduces the
effective normal stress acting on
the plane.
 Water is also wash away the filling
material between discontinuities.
How to describe discontinuities
1) Orientation (Strike/Dip)
2) Spacing
3) Persistence
4) Roughness
5) Wall strength
6) Aperture
7) Filling
8) Seepage (water)
9) Number of sets
10) Block size
Quantitative Description of Discontinuities in Rock Masses (ISRM)

A - Rock type
B - Rock strength
C - Weathering
D - Discontinuity description
E - Discontinuity orientation
F - Roughness
G - Aperture
H - Infilling type and width
I - Spacing
J - Persistence
K - Number of sets
L - Block size and shape
M – Seepage
Description of Discontinuity
The ISRM publication Suggested methods for the quantitative description of
discontinuities in rock masses (ISRM, 1978) defined ten parameters to
describe the characteristics of discontinuities:

1) Orientation: The attitude of a discontinuity in space. It is

described by the dip direction (azimuth) and dip of the line of
steepest declination in the plane of the discontinuity.
2) Spacing: The perpendicular distance between adjacent
discontinuities. It normally refers to the mean or modal spacing
of a set of discontinuities.
3) Persistence: The discontinuity trace length as observed in an
exposure. It may give a crude measure of the areal extent or
penetration length of a discontinuity. Termination in solid rock or
against other discontinuities reduces the persistene.
4) Roughness: The inherent surface roughness and
waviness relative to the mean plane of a discontinuity.
Both roughness and waviness contribute to the shear
strength. Large scale waviness may also alter the dip
locally.
5) Wall strength: The equivalent compressive strength of
the adjacent rock walls of a discontinuity. It may be
lower than rock block strength due to weathering or
alteration of the walls. It is an important component of
shear strength if rock walls are in contact.
6) Aperture: The perpendicular distance between
adjacent rock walls of a discontinuity, in which the
intervening space is air or water filled.
7) Filling: The material that separates the adjacent rock walls of a
discontinuity and that is usually weaker than the parent rock.
Typical filling materials are sand, silt, clay, breccia, gouge,
mylonite. It also includes thin mineral coatings and healed
discontinuities such as quartz and calcite veins.
8) Seepage: The water flow and free moisture visible in individual
discontinuities or in the rock mass as a whole.
9) Number of Sets: The number of discontinuity sets comprising
the intersecting discontinuity system. The rock mass may be
further divided by individual discontinuities.
10) Block Size: The rock block dimensions resulting from the mutual
orientation of intersecting discontinuity sets, and resulting from
the spacing of the individual sets. Individual discontinuities may
further influence the block size and shape.
Quantitative Description of Discontinuities in Rock Masses (ISRM)

A - Rock type
B - Rock strength
C - Weathering
D - Discontinuity description
E - Discontinuity orientation
F - Roughness
G - Aperture
H - Infilling type and width
I - Spacing
J - Persistence
K - Number of sets
L - Block size and shape
M - Seepage
 (a) Closed Discontinuity (b) Opened Discontinuity (c) Filled Discontinuity

Suggested definitions of the aperture of open discontinuities and the

width of filled discontinuities (after ISRM, 1978)
Classification of Discontinuity Aperture
Examples of block shapes or the jointing pattern (from Dearman, 1991)
v
Discontinuity/m3
 Discontinuity Orientation and Dimension

The four important properties of discontinuities that determine

the shape and size of block:

1) Orientation
2) Position
3) Length (joint
persistence/continuously)
4) Spacing
Simple sketch and block diagrams indicating the persistence of various sets of
discontinuities (after ISRM, 1978)
Quantitative Description of Discontinuities in Rock Masses (ISRM)

A - Rock type
B - Rock strength
C - Weathering
D - Discontinuity description
E - Discontinuity orientation
F - Roughness
G - Aperture
H - Infilling type and width
I - Spacing
J - Persistence
K - Number of sets
L - Block size and shape
M - Seepage
R0
R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6
Graphical Presentation of Geological Data
Stereographic Projection
(สเตริโอกราฟิกโปรเจกชัน
่ )

 True dip: มุมเทจริง

 Apparent dip: มุมเทปรากฏ
 Trend: เทรนด์
 Plunge: พลันจ์
 True dip: มุมเทจริง
 Apparent dip: มุมเทปรากฏ
 Trend: เทรนด์
 Plunge: พลันจ์
Orientation of Discontinuity

Strike = N60E

Azimuth

Strike/Dip Angle: 060/30

Dip Direction/Dip Angle: 150/30
 Types of Stereonet

Schmidt net: an equal area net Wulff net: an equal angle net
Schmidt (Equal Area) Net
Wulff (Equal Angle) Net
Schmidt (Equal Area) Net
Right Hand Rule
 N
Example
045/40
170/70

W E

S
 N
Example
045/40
170/70 Strike = 45°

W E

S
Example Strike = 45°

045/40

E
170/70

S
Example Strike = 45°

045/40
N E
170/70

Dip = 40°
90° 0°

W S
Example Strike = 45°

045/40

E
170/70

Dip = 40°
90° 0°

S
 N
Example
045/40
170/70

St
rik
e
=
45
°
90
W E

D
ip
=
40
°
0°
S
 N
Example
045/40
170/70

Set#1
Strike/Dip
(45°/40°)

W E
Set#2
Strike/Dip
(170°/70°)

S
 N
Example
045/40
170/70

Set#1
Strike/Dip
(45°/40°)

W E
Set#2
Strike/Dip
(170°/70°)

S
Schmidt (Equal Area) Net
 การหาเฉลีย
่ ของทิศทางการวางตัวของระนาบ
Set#1 Set#2 Set#3
Strike Dip Angle Strike, Dip Angle Strike Dip Angle
(degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)
123 62 11 57 255 70
127 75 3 60 252 67
21 55 267 67
125 67
20 54 268 70
134 57
11 53 230 58
123 72
6 53 226 56
122 75 356 54
126 65 335 56
132 64
117 70
130 57 Set#2 Set#3
120 67
134 56
Set#1
The Kalsbeek counting net is
based on this principle. It consists
of ten equally spaced circles. Each
annulus is divided into triangles.
Altogether there are 600
triangles. At each vertex, six
triangles meet. The hexagon of
triangles around each vertex
contains 1% of the area of the
net.
Plot the data on an equal
area net then transfer the
overlay to the counting
net. Of course, the two
nets must be the same
diameter!
At each vertex, count the number
of points in the surrounding six
triangles and plot the number at
the vertex. You may want to do
this on a second overlay above the
data overlay.

Each triangle is common to three

hexagons so every point is counted
three times. (No, this
does not mean the densities have
to be divided by three.) Be certain
to check every vertex close to the
data points to be sure of not
missing any.
Remove the numbered overlay
and contour the data.
Kalsbeek Net
90
 การประยุกต์ใช้ Stereographic projection เพื่อหามุมระหว่างเส้น

กาหนดเส้นทัง้ สองเป็นจุด หมุนให้จดุ ตัวแทนเส้นทัง้ สองให้อยู่ใน Great Circle

บน Stereonet เดียวกัน แล้วอ่านค่ามุมจาก small circle

Determination of angle between lines with orientations 240/54 and 140/40

http://app.visiblegeology.com/stereonetApp.html
 Example: Set#1
Strike,  Dip Angle, 
(degrees) (degrees)
255 70
252 67 227/55
267 67
260/67
268 70
230 58
226 56
Probabilistic Analysis of Structure Geology
(Directional Cosine Method)
  dip angle
  dip direction
l  sin( ) cos(  )
m  sin( ) sin(  )
n  cos( )
 li  mi  ni
lR  mR  nR 
R R R

R   l i
2
  mi    ni 
2 2

1
2

 R  cos 1( nR )
 lR 
1
 R   cos   for mR  0
 sin( R 
)
 lR 
 R   cos 1   for mR  0
 sin( R ) 
Example
Strike,  Dip Angle,  l m n
(degrees) (degrees) = sin () cos () = sin () sin () = cos ()
255 70 -0.2432 -0.9077 0.3420
252 67 -0.2845 -0.8755 0.3907
267 67 -0.0482 -0.9192 0.3907
268 70 -0.0328 -0.9391 0.3420
230 58 -0.5451 -0.6496 0.5299
226 56 -0.5759 -0.5964 0.5592
 -1.7296 -4.8875 2.5546
R   li    mi    ni  
2 2 = [(-1.7296) + (-4.8875) + (2.5546) ]
2 2
1 2 2 2 ½
= 5.7797
 li  1.7296  R  cos 1( nR )  cos 1( 0.4420 )  63.77  64
lR    0.2993
R 5.7797
 lR  1   0.2993 
 mi  4.8875  R   cos 1     cos  sin( 63.77 ) 
mR    0.8456  sin( R )   
R 5.7797
  cos 1  0.3337   109.49
 ni 2.5546
nR    0.4420  360  109.49  250.51  251
R 5.7797