2.4 Related Literature

2.
4 Related Literature
Special Concentrically Braced Frames (SCBFs) are a special class of CBF that are proportioned and
detailed to maximize inelastic drift capacity. This type of CBF system is defined for structural steel and
composite structures only. The SCBF system is generally an economical system to use for low-rise
buildings in areas of high seismicity. It is sometimes preferred over Special Moment Frames because of
the material efficiency of CBFs and the smaller required beam and column depths. SCBFs are only
possible for buildings that can accommodate the braces in their architecture (Sabelli, Roeder, & Hajjar,
2013)
Cross bracing is the most common bracing system for low-rise building nowadays. The system can
significantly increase the building’s capability to resist seismic activity from an earthquake. It is usually
seen with two diagonal supports placed in an X shaped manner, these support compression and tension
forces (Wikipedia, n. d.)
The members used in Chevron bracing are designed for both tension and compression forces. Chevron
bracing allows for doorways or corridors through the bracing lines in a structure. It uses two types of
connections where the floor level connection may use a gusset plate much like the connection on cross
(X) braced frames. The bracing members are connected to the beam/girder at the top and converge to a
common point. Despite their poor seismic performance, the use of chevron (inverted-V) braced frames
still represents a very popular means of resisting lateral loads in steel building structures. Under severe
earthquake ground motions, the braces are expected to buckle and lose their strength (Connections and
Bracings, 2002). Also, according to the study of (Robert & Trembly, 2000) for the behavior of chevron
bracings in a seismic occurrence for a typical 2-4 storey structures with ductile brace frame, a tension
brace load of 0.6AgFy can be used in the design of brace members.
In conventional composite construction, concrete slabs rest over steel beams and are supported by
them. Uder load these two components acts independently and a relative slip occurs at the interface if
there is no connection between them. With the help of a deliberate and appropriate connection
provided between the beam and the concrete slab, the slip between them can be eliminated. In this
case the steel beam and the slab acts as a “composite beam” and their action is similar to that of a
monolithic Tee beam. Though steel and concrete are the most commonly used materials for composite
beams, other materials such as pre-stressed concrete and timber can also be used. Concrete is stronger
in compression than in tension, and steel is susceptible to buckling in compression. By the composite
action between the two, we can utilize their respective advantages to the fullest extent. Generally, in
steel-concrete composite beams, steel beams are integrally connected to prefabricated or cast in situ
reinforcement concrete slabs. There are many advantages associated with steel concrete composite
construction (Johnson, 1994).
The development of highly automated workshops in recent years has reduced the fabrication costs of
plate girders very considerably; box girders and trusses still have to be fabricated manually, with
consequently high fabrication costs. Optimum use of materials is made, compared with rolled sections,
as the girder is fabricated from plates and the designer has greater freedom to vary the section to
correspond with the changes in the applied forces. Thus, variable depth plate girders have been
increasingly designed in recent years (The civil builders, n. d.). Plate girders are designed to resist the
applied actions using proportions that ensure low self-weight and high load resistance
(SteelConstruction.info, n.d.).
The use of concrete-filled tube columns in buildings is a new trend in high-rise composite construction.
During construction, the flange plate acts as both erection steel and forming for the composite column,
decreasing the labor and materials required for construction and consequently, lowering the
construction cost. Structurally, the flanged plate acts as longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. The
shell also improves the structural behavior of the column, and efficiently to provide confinement to
inside concrete and increase the resistance to bending movement, shear force, and column buckling. On
the other hand, the flanged plate is stiffened by the concrete core, while the ductility of the concrete
core is enhanced by the flange plate. The enhanced behavior of concrete-filled rectangular tubular
columns allows the use of smaller sections than required for conventionally reinforced concrete columns
with similar loading (Lu & Lu, 2000).
The wide flange steel beam is very common in modern construction of steel. It is a beam with an I or H-
shaped cross-section. The horizontal elements of the I are known as flanges, while the vertical element
is termed the web. I-beams are usually made of structural steel and are used in construction and civil
engineering. The web resists shear forces, while the flanges resist most of the bending moment
experienced by the beam. Beam theory shows that the I-shaped sections is a very efficient form for
carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of the web. On the other hand, the cross-section has
reduced capacity in the transverse direction, and is also inefficient in carrying torsion, for which hollow
structural sections are often preferred (Wikipedia).
Welding is a core activity in the fabrication factory, undertaken by skilled, qualified operatives working
to a welding quality management system under the control of a Responsible Welding Coordinator. It is
used to prepare joints for connection in the shop and on site, and for the attachment of other fixtures
and fittings. Different welding techniques are used for different activities within the fabrication factory.
(SteelConstruction.info, n.d.) Figure 3.1 shows the applications of welded connection for the two-beam
intersection at a welded joint.
Welded connection advantages (Williams, 2011)
 The process produces an airtight and watertight joint

 Splice plates may be eliminated
 Design changes are readily implemented in the field
 There is no reduction in area for bolt holes
 Connections to pipes and hollow structural sections are simplified

2.4 Related Literature

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2.

Welded connection advantages (Williams, 2011)

 The process produces an airtight and watertight joint

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