A

TECHNICAL REPORT

ON

STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME

UNDERTAKEN AT

FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF INDUSTIAL RESEARCH, OSHODI

F.I.I.R.O RD, PAPA AJAO LAGOS

BY

OMOMO DANIEL TAMARAUERIN

IDD/17/3868

SUBMITTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN,

SCHOOL OF ENVIROMENTAL TECHNOLOGY

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE

P.M.B 704, AKURE, ONDO STATE, NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFULMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH) IN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN

JULY 2023

1
 CERTIFICATION

(a) By Omomo Daniel Tamarauerin

This is to certify that this Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) report was

written and submitted by Omomo, Daniel Tamarauerin IDD/17/3868

Signature…………………………. Date………………

(b) By Dr. E.A ERHUANGA

I certify that the Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) report was written by

Omomo, Daniel Tamarauerin IDD/17/3868 of the Industrial Design Department, Federal

University of Technology, Akure, FUTA.

Dr. E.A ERHUANGA Signature: ………………………….. Date: …………………..

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who contributed to the success of my

SIWES program.

I am grateful for the importance of the SIWES scheme in providing practical industry

experience, bridging the gap between theory and practice.

I want to extend my heartfelt appreciation to my supervisors Eng. Zeberu, Eng. Austin and Eng.

Biola for their invaluable guidance and support throughout my placement. Their mentorship has

greatly contributed to my professional growth.

I am deeply thankful to the organization where I was assigned for providing me with a valuable

learning opportunity. The hands-on experience gained has been instrumental in enhancing my

understanding of the industry.

I also want to acknowledge my fellow SIWES colleagues for their collaboration and shared

experiences. Our interactions have made this journey more enriching.

Furthermore, I want to express my gratitude to my educational institution for their support and

coordination of the SIWES program. Their efforts have been instrumental in its success.

In conclusion, I am grateful for the SIWES program and the contributions of my supervisor, the

organization, colleagues, and educational institution. This experience has been invaluable in

shaping my professional development.

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 DEDICATION

I dedicate my SIWES experience to God's guidance and express gratitude to The Federal

Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi(F.I.I.RO) for the valuable hands-on experience. The

support and mentorship received have shaped my understanding of the industry. I am thankful

for the skills developed and the opportunity to work with advanced technologies. With God's

presence, I commit to making a positive impact in the IT industry, using my acquired knowledge

to serve others.

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 ABSTRACT

During my industrial attachment at the Federal Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi (FIIRO),

I gained practical experience and deepened my understanding in the field of product design and

development (ceramics). I received training in brake pad production, bentonite clay activation,

and 3D printing. This experience enhanced my knowledge and skills, providing valuable insights

into the practical applications of these areas. Overall, the industrial attachment at FIIRO proved

to be a valuable opportunity for hands-on learning and professional growth.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page

Certification…………………………………………………………………………………....2

Dedication……………………………………………………………………………………..3

Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………….…4

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………….5

Table of content………………………………………………………………………………6

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIWES

1.1 HISTORY OF SIWES………………………………………………………….….12

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF SIWES………………………………………………………….13

1.3 THE ROLE OF THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND…………………………….14

CHAPTER TWO: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF

INDUTRIAL RESAERCH, OSHODI (FIIRO)……………………………………………16

2.0 COMPANY PROFILE…………………………………………………………………16

2.1.1 Vision………………………………………………………………………...16

2.1.2 Mission……………………………………………………………………….17

2.1.3 Mandate…………………………………………………………………...….17

2.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF F.I.I.R.O……………………………….17

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 2.2.1. DEPARTMENTS…………………………………………………….….18

2.3. MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT AND METALLURGICAL DIVISION………21

2.3.1. FOUNDRY & METALLURGY…………………………………………22

2.3.2. MATERIALS PROCESSING/CERAMICS……………………………..23

2.3.3. ELECTROPLATING SECTION………………………………………...23

2.4 STAFF STRENGTH AND ORGANOGRAM…………………………………….25

CHAPTER THRE: DETAILS OF WORK DONE DURING INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

3.1 THE TRAINING PROGRAM……………………………………………….……..26

3.2 MATERIALS PROCESSING/ CERAMICS WORKSHOP……………………….27

3.2.1 MATERIAL PROCESSING……………………………………………….27

3.2.1.1 TYPES OF MATERIAL PROCESSING………………………29

3.2.2 CERAMICS………………………………………………………………...30

3.2.1 CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS………………………………….....31

3.2.2 NON-CRYSTALLINE CRAMICS………………………………..31

3.2.3 CERAMICS MADE WITH CLAY…………………………………………32

3.2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CERAMICS……………………………………...32

3.2.5 PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS…………………………………………....33

3.2.5.1 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS……………………...33

3.2.5.2 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS…………………....33

3.2.5.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS…………………..34

3.2.5.4 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS…………………….…34

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 3.2.6 PROCESSES OF CERAMICS SAMPLE PRODUCTION……………….34

3.2.7 CERAMICS FORMING TECHNOLOGY………………………………..35

3.2.8 MACHINES IN THE CERAMIC WORKSHOP…………………………35

3.2.8.1 GAS KILN………………………………………………………….36

3.2.8.2 HYDRAULIC PRESS………………………………………….......36

3.2.8.3 HAMMER MILLING MACHINE…………………………………37

3.2.8.4 BALL MILLING MACHINE………………………………………38

3.2.8.5 JAR MILLING MACHINE………………………………………....39

3.3 DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION OF BRAKE PADS……………………….40

3.3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………..40

3.3.1.1 Palm Kernel Shell as Brake Lining Ingredient……………………....42

3.3.2 Experimental materials……………………………………………………….43

3.3.2.1 Materials……………………………………………………………..43

3.3.3.2 Raw Material Preparation…………………………………………....44

3.4 ACID ACTIVATION OF BENTONITE CLAY FOR RECYCLED AUTOMOTIVE OIL

PURIFICATION…………………………………………………………………………..49

3.4.1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………....49

3.4.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS…………………………………………….49

3.4.3. CLAY ACID-ACTIVATION PROCESS……………………………………50

3.4.4. OIL PURIFICATION PROCESS USING ACTIVATED BENTONITE CLAY

3.5. 3D PRINTER

3.5.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………..53
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 3.5.2 FUCTIONALITY OF A 3D PRINTER………………………………………..53

3.5.3 MATERIAL EXTRUSION……………………………………………………53

3.5.4 PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGIES……………………………………….54

3.5.4.1 Tools and Technology used for 3D Printing…………………………54

3.5.5 APPLICATIONS………………………………………………………………56

CHAPTER FOUR:

4.1 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED AND MEASURES

TAKEN TO PROFER SOLUTION………………………………………………………..57

4.2 RELEVANCE OF THE TRAINING TO THE COURSE OF STUDY………………..57

4.3 CONTRIBUTIONS…………………………………………………………………….58

4.4 RECCOMMENDATION…………………………………………………………...….59

4.5 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………60

4.6 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………….61

9
 LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1. Organogram…………………………………………………………….25

Figure 2. Elemental composition analysis of PKS particles……………………..44

Figure 3. Formulation…………………………………………………………….46

Figure 4. Brake pads manufacturing equipment and their specifications……...…47

LIST OF PLATE

Plate 1. Ceramic Wares……………………………………………………………...31

Plate 2. Porcelain…………………………………………………………………….31

Plate 3. Gas Kiln……………………………………………………………………..36

Plate 4. Hydraulic Press………………………………………………………………37

Plate 5. Hammer milling machine…………………………………………………….38

Plate 6. Ball milling machine………………………………………………………….39

Plate 7. Jar milling Machine…………………………………………………………..40

Plate 8. Palm kernel shell……………………………………………………………..43

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Plate 9. Steel dust……………………………………………………………………..43

Plate 10. Graphite…………………………………………………………………….43

Plate 11. Silicon carbide……………………………………………………………...43

Plate 12. Resin…………………………………………………………………...…...43

Plate 13-15. Brake pad Formulation……………………………………………….....48

Plate 16-17. PHOTO OF THE PRODUCED SAMPLES (PRODUCTS)…………....48

Plate 18. Pure Bentonite………………………………………………………………49

Plate 19. Acid (H2So4)……………………………………………………………….49

Plate 20. Used engine oil to be purified………………………………………………49

Plate 21. Bentonite activation process………………………………………………..52

Plate 22. 3D printer…………………………………………………………………...55

Plate 23-24. Product manufactured using 3D printer…………………………….…..56

Plate 25-28. Contribution in SIWES………………………………………………...58

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO SIWES

The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a government initiative that was

established during the 1973/1974 session. Its primary objective is to address the concern of

inadequate practical experience among graduates, which has been a significant demand from

industrialists and organizational management. The creation of the SIWES scheme was aimed at

swiftly resolving this issue.

SIWES offers students the opportunity to broaden their knowledge and gain practical exposure in

various industries. It allows them to explore practical approaches to tasks and acquire experience

in handling real-life situations that they may not encounter within the confines of their

educational institutions.

The scheme operates through the collaboration of three key stakeholders: the students, the

universities/polytechnics, and the employers in the industry. It is funded by the federal

government of Nigeria and is jointly coordinated by the National Universities Commission

(NUC)/National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) and the Industrial Training Fund (ITF).

To prepare students for their industrial training, SIWES conducts orientation programs to

familiarize them with the fundamental aspects of practical training before they are employed by

participating organizations. Upon successful completion of the industrial training (IT) period,

students whose logbooks have been verified and approved by ITF officials are eligible to receive

SIWES severance allowances.

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Participation in SIWES has become a mandatory requirement for the award of diploma and

degree certificates in specific disciplines in most higher learning institutions across Nigeria. This

aligns with the government's education policy and underscores the importance of practical

training for students.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

The objectives of the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) are as follows:

i. Bridging the Gap: SIWES aims to provide students with the opportunity to apply their

theoretical knowledge in practical work situations, thereby bridging the gap between theory and

practice.

ii. Skill Acquisition: It provides tertiary institution students with the chance to acquire industrial

skills and gain experience related to their course of study.

iii. Exposure to Equipment and Tools: SIWES exposes students to work methods, techniques,

and equipment that may not be readily available within the university environment.

iv. Familiarization with Working Conditions: The scheme familiarizes students with the

working conditions they are likely to encounter after graduation, helping them better prepare for

their future careers.

v. Job Placement: By enhancing students' contacts and networking opportunities, SIWES aims

to facilitate an easier transition from university to the world of work and increase the chances of

future job placement.

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vi. Real-Life Challenges: SIWES exposes students to real-life work challenges, allowing them

to develop problem-solving skills and learn effective strategies for overcoming obstacles.

vii. Work Ethic Development: The scheme helps students develop a strong work ethic,

including discipline, punctuality, professionalism, and a sense of responsibility towards their

tasks and colleagues.

viii. Interpersonal Skills: SIWES provides students with opportunities to develop attitudes and

skills conducive to effective interpersonal relationships, such as teamwork, communication, and

collaboration.

ix. Employment Records/References: Through SIWES, students can build employment records

and obtain references that enhance their employment prospects in the future.

x. Career Exploration: SIWES allows students to test their aptitude for a particular career

before making permanent commitments, helping them make informed decisions about their

future paths.

1.3 THE ROLE OF THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND

The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) was established by Decree 47 of the 1971 constitution. Its

primary mandate is to generate a pool of locally trained manpower that is sufficient to meet the

needs of the economy and promote development. In the implementation of the Students

Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), the ITF plays several crucial roles.

Supervision of Students: The ITF is responsible for supervising students during their industrial

training period. This involves monitoring their progress, ensuring compliance with the program

requirements, and providing guidance and support throughout the training.

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Orientation Programs: The ITF organizes orientation programs for students before they

commence their industrial training. These programs aim to educate students about the objectives

and expectations of SIWES, familiarize them with workplace etiquette and safety protocols, and

prepare them for the practical aspects of their training.

Disbursement of Allowances: As part of the SIWES program, students who successfully

complete their industrial training and have their logbooks verified and approved by ITF officials

are eligible to receive a severance allowance. The ITF is responsible for disbursing these

allowances to the students, providing them with financial support and recognition for their

efforts.

Additionally, the ITF plays a broader role in promoting industrial training and development in

the country. It collaborates with various industries, educational institutions, and government

agencies to ensure effective implementation of SIWES. The ITF also works to enhance the

quality of training and improve the relevance of educational curricula to the needs of the

industries.

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 CHAPTER TWO

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE FEDERAL INDUSTRAIL INSTITUTE OF

RESEARCH, OSHODI (FIIRO)

2.1 COMPANY PROFILE

The Federal Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi (FIIRO) is a parastatal under the Federal

Ministry of Science and Technology. It was established in 1956 as a result of an economic

mission sent by the World Bank to Nigeria in 1953. The mission identified a lack of coordination

and direction in industrial research activities within the country. FIIRO was created with the

objective of accelerating industrialization in Nigeria.

FIIRO plays a crucial role in promoting entrepreneurship development by developing and

implementing technologies that support industrial growth. The institute has made significant

contributions to the Nigerian economy by sourcing alternative raw materials locally, reducing

dependence on imports and conserving foreign exchange. Additionally, FIIRO has focused on

improving food processing techniques to enhance the nutritional content of food and has

successfully fabricated various machines and equipment.

Dr. Jummai A. Tutuwa currently serves as Director General of FIIRO, assuming the position on

May 10, 2022. Under her leadership, the institute continues its mission to drive industrialization

in Nigeria and support economic development.

2.1.1 VISION STATEMENT

To be the foremost Centre for Science and Technology-based research and development for the

industrialization and socio-economic advancement of the nation.

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2.1.2 MISSION STATEMENT

To conduct and promote market-driven research and development (R&D) for the

industrialization and socio-economic development of the country.

2.1.3MANDATE

To assist in accelerating the industrialization of the Nigerian economy through finding utilization

for the country’s raw materials and upgrading indigenous production technologies specifically

to:

1. Identifying & characterizing local raw materials for use in industries.

2. Develop appropriate technologies; upgrading indigenous technologies in the area of

food and agro-allied processing and in various non-food us.

3. Develop Pilot scale operations.

4. Assists in the transfer, adaptation and utilization of these technologies by local

enterprises.

5. Undertake economic evaluation of Projects and consultancy services

6. To undertake the preparation, publication and dissemination of useful technical

information to industries and researchers.

2.2 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF F.I.I.R.O

The Institute has a governing board which oversees general policy implementation. Members are

appointed by the President and ratified by the National Assembly. The Director General assisted

by a management committee does the day-to-day management of the institute.

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DEPARTMENTS

The Institute operates through six departments and each department is made up of divisions,

sections and units. The departments are:

1. Production, Analytical and Laboratory Management.

2. Biotechnology.

3. Chemical, Fibre and Environmental Technology.

4. Planning, Technology Transfer, and Information Management.

5. Project Development and Design Department.

6. Food Technology.

PRODUCTION, ANALYTICAL AND LABORATORY MANAGEMENT

The PALM department, which stands for Production, Analytical, and Laboratory Management,

serves as a pivotal technical division within the Institute. It acts as a gateway for all Institute-

related activities, encompassing staff analyses, contract analyses, production of food products

developed by FIIRO, and laboratory management. The department's overarching vision is to

establish itself as the epitome of excellence by providing top-notch analytical services and

laboratory management support for research and development endeavors. Additionally, it aims to

serve as a role model in the production and commercialization of FIIRO research products. The

PALM department comprises five distinct divisions, namely:

1. Production Division.

18
 2. Analytical Research Division.

3. Laboratory Management Division.

4. Food Safety and Quality Management Division.

5. Analytical Marketing Division.

BIOTECHNOLOGY

The department's primary objective is to leverage industrial biotechnology for fostering health,

environmental cleanliness, and economic prosperity. It engages in market-oriented research and

development initiatives that tap into Nigeria's abundant natural resources and waste materials to

create nutritional applications, safeguard the environment, generate bioenergy, and cater to

industrial demands. The department specializes in utilizing microorganisms or their components

to produce, enhance, and preserve various food and beverage products such as beers, wines (both

alcoholic and non-alcoholic), and mushrooms, among others. Furthermore, it focuses on the

production of industrial chemicals, vitamins, and enzymes. Emphasis is also placed on utilizing

industrial and domestic waste to generate goods and services that benefit humanity. The three

divisions within the department are:

1. Enzyme Technology Division.

2. Molecular Biology & Genetics Division.

3. Waste Utilization & Fermentation Division.

CHEMICAL, FIBRE AND ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY

The Department of Chemical, Fibre, and Environmental Technology was established with the

objective of conducting exceptional scientific research and development (R&D) activities that

align with market demands and generate industry-driven outcomes. Its focus is on developing

cutting-edge process technologies and products in the fields of chemical and agro-allied

19
industrial sectors. The department strives to produce excellent patented technologies and

innovations. Specifically, it concentrates on areas such as pulp and paper, packaging, polymers,

textiles, and environmental pollution control. It aims to develop novel process technologies for

addressing environmental pollution challenges and creating pollution abatement and containment

devices and products. The department also offers technical assistance to industrial enterprises of

varying scales, including micro, small, medium, and large-scale industries. This is achieved

through collaborations, contract research, product and process monitoring, and quality

assessment. The CFET department encompasses five distinct divisions, which are:

1. Chemical Technology Division.

2. Environmental Technology Division.

3. Pulp and Paper Technology.

4. Polymer and Textiles Technology Division.

5. Packaging Technology Division.

PLANNING, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

The main purpose of this department is to establish efficient planning and management of

market-driven, cutting-edge research. Its primary objectives include promoting and highlighting

the research and development (R&D) initiatives carried out by FIIRO, facilitating the transfer of

resulting technologies to industries, protecting the Institute's intellectual property, and providing

scientific and technical information to industrialists, entrepreneurs, students, and other

stakeholders. These objectives are achieved through the cohesive coordination of a highly

skilled, motivated, and resourceful workforce. The department consists of four divisions, each

assigned distinct responsibilities that align with the department's overall objectives:

1. Planning Research & Statistics.

20
 2. Technology Transfer.

3. Library & Documentation.

4. Information & Communication Technology.

PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

The department was established with the specific mandate of fulfilling the crucial role of

providing essential prototype equipment and plant requirements. Its primary objective is to

transform laboratory research findings into investment-ready forms for potential investors,

entrepreneurs, and industrialists. The Project Development and Design Department plays a

significant role in designing and fabricating prototype equipment, establishing production

process lines and pilot plants, commercializing research outcomes, and undertaking materials

and metallurgical processing. Consequently, the department is actively involved in establishing

both industrial and plant production lines that serve as incubation centres for various developed

technologies. The divisions within the department are responsible for executing these tasks and

include:

1. Fabrication Technology Division.

2. Materials Development and Metallurgy Division.

3. Project and Process Development Division.

4. Prototype Equipment Design and Specifications Division.

5. Works and Services Division.

MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT AND METALLURGICAL DIVISION

The Material Development and Metallurgy Division plays a vital role within the Project

Development and Design Department. Its primary mandate revolves around conducting research

and development activities related to materials used as industrial intermediates, with a specific

21
focus on minerals processing, biodegradable and biomass materials, and Foundry technology.

The division's vision is to harness the extensive reserves of economic raw materials for

industrializing the national economy. To achieve this, its mission is to conduct research and

development initiatives aimed at advancing material technology and beneficiation processes to

support local industries. By focusing on these objectives, the division aims to contribute to the

sustainable development and growth of the industrial sector in the country.

The ongoing research projects in this division are;

a. Development of a Biopolymer composite material for food packaging: A Nano

technology process.

b. Development and production of Brake pad from Agro-waste.

c. Development and production of Nano clay for material properties enhancement.

This Division is made up to three SECTIONS; namely: -

a. Foundry & Metallurgy

b. Material Processing/Ceramics

c. Electroplating

FOUNDRY & METALLURGY SECTION

This section carries out the following activities: -

1. Production of various patterns for spare parts.

2. Casting of both ferrous and non-ferrous metal spare parts.

3. Casting of Aluminum, Copper, and Zinc ingots.

4. Various Heat Treatment Operations.

22
 5. Mechanical and Metallographic analysis.

6. Testing of Foundry properties of clay and sand.

7. Support research activities in the Institute.

8. Consultancy and Technical Services.

9. Training of I.T. students.

MATERIAL PROCESSING/CERAMICS

This section carries out the following activities:

1. Characterization of non-metallic minerals.

2. Develop a beneficiation process for non-metallic minerals.

3. Process and develop an intermediate chemical from minerals raw materials.

4. Develop and process minerals for ceramic glaze production. ‘

5. Consultancy services.

6. Training of I.T. students.

ELECTROPLATING SECTION

Electroplating section provides material finishing to metals and equipment. Hence, it covers the

following:

1. Electroplating of metal spare parts using Nickel, Chromium, Zinc, Copper, and Tin.

2. Plug refurbishing.

3. Surfactant development for cleaning, de rusting, degreasing.

23
 4. Analysis of electrolytes.

5. Consultancy and Technical Services.

FOOD TECHNOLOGY

The primary objective of the Department of Food Technology at the Federal Institute of

Industrial Research, Oshodi, Lagos, is to expedite the process of industrialization in Nigeria by

conducting research and development activities focused on the utilization, value addition,

processing, preservation, storage, packaging, and improvement of indigenous technologies and

novel food products. The department aims to enhance the shelf life of agricultural produce by

transforming them into intermediate and finished goods. Additionally, through its research and

development endeavors, the department aims to equip students with practical skills that enhance

their employability upon graduation.

The department specializes in the development of processing technologies for indigenous crops

and perishable foods. It also standardizes production techniques for traditional foods,

transforming them into various food forms suitable for adoption by entrepreneurs of different

scales, ranging from small to medium and large. Recognizing the utmost importance of ensuring

food and nutrition security for the Nigerian population, the department's focus includes the

promotion of food security, improved nutrition, and a significant reduction in post-harvest losses

of indigenous crops.

The divisions within the department include:

1. Product Development Division.

2. Nutrition and Toxicology Division.

3. Baking and Milling Division.

24
 4. Fruits and Vegetables Division

ORGANOGRAM

ORGANOGRAM OF THE INSTITUTE

FMST

GOVERNING BOARD

DG/CEO

SERVICOM FINANCE AND ACCOUNT

PENSION AUDIT

PUBLIC RELATION/PROTOCOL PROCUREMENT

DIRECTOR DIRECTOR DIRECTOR DIRECTOR DIRECTOR DIRECTOR DIRECTOR DIRECTOR

HUMAN BIOTECH FOOD PDD PRODUCTION PTTIM EXTENSION

RESOURCE IN FOOD CFET TECHNOLOGY & AND
MGT PROCESSING ANALYTICAL LINKAGES
PROJECT AND PLANNING
ROOTS AND PROCESS RESEARCH &
APPOINTMENT ENZYME CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT STATISTICS INDUSTRIAL
66 TUBERS
/ PROMOTION TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTION LINKAGE
PROCESSING
FABRICATION TECHNOLOGY
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER PATENTING
WELFARE/ WASTE FIBRE FRUITS AND ANALYTICAL
PENSION UTILIZATION AND TECHNOLOGY VEGETABLE SERVICES
FERMENTATION PROCESSING MATERIALS AND LIBRARY &
METALLURGY DOCUMENTATION ABUJA LIASON
TRAINING & PACKAGING LABORATORY SERVICES OFFICE
DEVELOPMENT FOOD AND TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT
BAKING AND
QUALITY PROTOTYPE
CONTROL MILLING KANO LIASON
EQUIPMENT DESIGN INFORMATION
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY AND SPECIFICATION OFFICE
TECHNOLOGY
TECHNOLOGY
MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY AND WORKS & SERVICES
GENETICS TECHNOECONOMIC
&
TECHNOPRENEUSHIP

Fig.1

25
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 DETAILS OF WORK DONE DURING INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

3.1 THE TRAINING PROGRAM

As a trainee in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, I have been assigned to the Project

Development and Design Department, specifically in the Materials Development and

Metallurgical division. The division is led by Dr. (Engr) Bankole Lateef Kolawole. Assisting Dr.

Kolawole is Engr. Hassan, Lateef Olakunle, who serves as the Deputy Director of the Project

Design and Development Department. The overall department is headed by Dr. Asiru Wahabi

Bolanle.

To support my training, Engineer Elakhame Z. Uwagbai, an industry-based supervisor, has been

assigned to me by Dr. Bolanle.

The Materials Development and Metallurgical Division is made up of the following sub-

divisions namely;

1. Foundry and Metallurgical workshop.

2. Materials processing/Ceramics workshop.

3. Electroplating workshop.

As part of my course requirement in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, I have been

specifically assigned to work in the materials processing/ceramic workshop. This assignment

focuses on gaining practical experience and knowledge in the processing of materials,

26
particularly ceramics. Throughout this training, I will be involved in various activities related to

materials processing and ceramic fabrication.

It's important to note that I haven't had the opportunity to visit the electroplating workshop as its

operations are typically dependent on research projects or specific requests from within the

institution. Therefore, my focus and activities have been primarily centred on the materials

processing and ceramic workshop.

3.2 MATERIALS PROCESSING/ CERAMICS WORKSHOP

3.2.1 MATERIAL PROCESSING

Materials processing refers to the set of steps or "unit operations" involved in transforming raw

materials into finished goods. These operations encompass a series of industrial processes that

utilize mechanical or chemical procedures and are typically carried out in large quantities or

batches.

The manual alteration of materials has been practiced since the early days of civilization, but it

underwent a significant transformation with the advent of automated equipment in the 18th

century. During the Industrial Revolution, the initial machinery developed primarily focused on

cutting and shaping products. However, process engineering technology, methods, and

equipment have since undergone substantial advancements, continuously enhancing their quality,

capabilities, and production yields.

During the manufacturing of a final product, by-products may be generated depending on the

specific processes employed. Some industrial processes yield hazardous by-products that require

special handling, while others can be utilized to generate additional revenue.

27
Materials processing encompasses a complex array of chemical, thermal, and physical processes

that involve preparing the starting material, shaping it, retaining its form, and refining its

structure and shape. The ultimate objective of materials processing is to develop the necessary

structural features (such as crystal structure, microstructure, size, and shape) for the product to

perform effectively in its intended application. Materials processing plays a central role in the

field of materials science and engineering and constitutes a vital step in the manufacturing

process.

The conversion of the starting material into the final product occurs through three stages: the

preparation of the starting material, the processing operation, and the post-processing

operation(s). The processing operations can be categorized into five main groups based on the

dominant state of matter involved in the process: melt, solid, powder, dispersion or solution, and

vapor. Each of these categories encompasses operations used to shape metals, ceramics, and

polymers, enabling the application of common scientific and engineering principles to various

types of materials.

Materials exist naturally in diverse forms and types, ranging from abundant to scarce quantities.

The primary categories of materials are organic and inorganic, and they can further be classified

as non-renewable or renewable. Regardless of their type, the basic processes involve extracting

these materials from natural sources as raw materials through activities such as mining,

harvesting, and regeneration (in the case of renewable materials only). To enable the utilization

of these raw materials for various applications that benefit humankind, further processing and

reprocessing are necessary to impart specific physical, chemical, and mechanical characteristics

to the resulting materials.

28
Different primary materials exhibit a wide range of characteristics, which may not inherently

make them suitable for every application. For instance, wrought iron is not suitable for use in

corrosive environments, and copper and aluminium are relatively soft for many applications.

However, through additional alloying processes, stainless steels have been developed for use in

harsh corrosive environments, and brass has been created by alloying copper with aluminium to

enhance its strength.

Similarly, pure iron is brittle and has low strength. By introducing varying levels of carbon, a

group of steels is produced with different degrees of ductility, strength, and hardness. Numerous

similar secondary processes exist to make raw materials suitable for most practical applications.

3.2.1.1 TYPES OF MATERIAL PROCESSING

The processes involved in manufacturing a desired product serve two primary functions: the

formation or alteration of materials. Parts or products are typically formed through methods such

as molding, casting, or the application of pressure. The physical state or composition of

commodities and products can be modified through various means, including chemical,

mechanical, and thermal operations.

Chemical engineering techniques are employed to modify the cellular structure or molecular

properties of materials at a microscopic level. Thermal processes, which involve the addition or

reduction of heat, are utilized to alter a wide range of materials, particularly metals. Mechanical

operations utilize specialized equipment to transform solid matter. Additional processing, such as

bonding, cutting, and finishing, may be necessary to provide the final products.

These processes can be applied to a variety of materials and applications including:

 Adhesives and Sealants

29
  Agricultural Chemicals

 Biomaterials

 Ceramics

 Composites

 Electronic Materials

 Glass

 Metals and Alloys

 Nanomaterials

 Paints, Inks and Coatings

 Personal Care Products

 Pharmaceuticals

 Plastics and Polymers

3.2.2 CERAMICS

The term "ceramic" originates from the Greek word "Keramos," which means "potter's clay."

Ceramics refer to inorganic, non-metallic materials that are often crystalline oxides, nitrides, or

carbides. Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, can also be classified as ceramics. Ceramic

materials exhibit characteristics such as brittleness, hardness, strength in compression, and

weakness in tension and shearing. They possess excellent resistance to chemical erosion, making
30
them suitable for use in acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics also have the ability to

withstand high temperatures, typically ranging from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C (1,800 °F to 3,000 °F).

However, glass is not typically considered a ceramic due to its amorphous (non-crystalline)

nature.

Plate 1.Ceramic Wares Plate 2. Porcelain

Glassmaking and ceramic production are interconnected processes. Traditional ceramics use clay

minerals like kaolinite, while modern ceramics incorporate materials like alumina, silicon

carbide, and tungsten carbide. These advanced ceramics possess excellent abrasion resistance,

making them valuable in applications such as mining equipment and body armour. They are also

used in industries like medicine and electronics.

3.2.1 Crystalline Ceramics

Crystalline ceramics present challenges in terms of processing and are typically addressed in one

of two ways. The first involves forming the ceramic directly in the desired shape through in situ

reactions. The second method involves shaping powders into the desired form and subsequently

sintering them to create a solid body. Various techniques are used for ceramic forming, including

31
manual shaping (such as throwing on a wheel), slip casting, tape casting (used for producing thin

ceramic capacitors), injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations.

3.2.2 Non crystalline Ceramics

Non-crystalline ceramics, often referred to as glass, are formed from melts. The shaping of glass

can occur when it is molten, through casting, or when it reaches a toffee-like viscosity, using

methods like blowing into a mold. If subjected to subsequent heat treatments that cause partial

crystallization, the resulting material is known as a glass ceramic. Glass ceramics are widely

employed as cook-tops and as composite materials for nuclear waste disposal.

3.2.3 CERAMICS MADE WITH CLAY

Ceramics made with clay are not as commonly used in modern ceramics, although some still

utilize clay as raw materials. The clay-based ceramics can be classified as follows:

a. Earthenware: fired at lower temperatures than other types.

b. Stoneware: vitreous or semi-vitreous.

c. Porcelain: which contains a high content of kaolin.

d. Bone china.

3.2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CERAMICS

Ceramics can be classified into three distinct material categories, each with unique properties due

to their crystalline nature:

a. Oxides: alumina, beryllia, ceria, zirconia

b. Non-oxides: carbide, boride, nitride,

32
 c. Silicide Composite materials: particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced, combinations

of oxides and nonoxides.

Each one of these classes can be developed into unique material properties because

ceramics tend to be crystalline.

3.2.5 PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

Ceramics possess chemical, electrical, magnetic, mechanical, physical and thermal

properties that distinguishes them from other materials such metals and plastics.

3.2.5.1 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

1. Ceramics are generally chemically inert and do not react with liquids, gases, alkaline

substances, or acids.

2. Ceramics have high melting points, and some ceramics can be used at temperatures

near or approaching their melting points.

3. Ceramics remain stable over a long period.

4. Ceramics are resistant to corrosion.

3.2.5.2 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

1. Certain ceramics conducts electricity for instance chromium oxide.

2. Some ceramics such as silicon carbide do not conduct electricity but might act as a

semiconductor.

33
 3. Some ceramics such as Aluminum oxide do not conduct electricity at all but can be

used as insulation devices in electric circuit.

4. Certain ceramics such as porcelain act as insulators at lower temperature but conduct

electricity at higher temperature.

5. Ceramics also possess superconducting properties.

3.2.5.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

1. Ceramics are extremely strong showing considerable stiffness under compression and

bending.

2. Ceramics have shear strength.

3. Ceramics possess elasticity and plasticity.

4. Ceramics are ductile.

3.2.5.4 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

1. Ceramics have resistance to thermal shock.

2. Ceramics have the ability to expand when heated.

3. Ceramics have the ability to conduct heat.

3.2.6 PROCESSES OF CERAMICS SAMPLE PRODUCTION

a. Crushing: this is a process where a material for instance kaolin, feldspar or quartz is

crushed into micro size or Nano size using a hammer milling machine or ball mill

machine respectively.

34
 b. Sieving: this is a process of separating grinded particles by size using a mesh. In the

ceramics workshop there are mesh of different sizes for different operations.

c. Mixing: this is the mixing of materials in different ratio to achieve a desired result.

d. Press molding: this is one of the techniques used in forming ceramic products in the

ceramic workshop; this technique is carried out using a mold pressed under a

hydraulic system a certain pressure.

e. Drying: this is the process of drying the molded ceramics product, this process is

carried out in an oven at a certain temperature.

f. Firing or sintering: this is the process of heating the ceramic product at a high

temperature using a furnace to achieve a rigid finished product.

3.2.7 CERAMICS FORMING TECHNOLOGY

1. EXTRUSION: Extrusion is a continuous process used to form ceramic products like

pipes, tiles, and bricks. The material is heated, forced through a shaped opening, and

then cut to the desired length after solidification.

2. SLIP CASTING: Slip casting is a technique used to create hollow ceramic objects.

Ceramic material in liquid form, called slip, is poured into a mold with porous walls.

Water is then drawn out through the porous walls, leaving a solid layer of ceramic

inside the mold. The excess slip is poured out, and the object is dried, finished, and

fired to achieve the final ceramic product.

3. PRESSING: Press molding or pressure molding is a technique where ceramic

material is poured into a mold, and hydraulic pressure is applied using a piston. This

pressure compacts the material and shapes it within the mold, resulting in the desired

ceramic product.
35
 4. INJECTION MOLDING: Injection molding is a technique used to create small,

intricate ceramic objects. A piston forces the ceramic material through a heated tube

into a mold, where it cools and hardens to the shape of the mold cavity

3.2.8 MACHINES IN THE CERAMIC WORKSHOP

The following are the machines found in the ceramic workshop. They include;

1. Gas kiln.

2. Hydraulic pressing machine.

3. Hammer milling machine.

4. Ball milling machine.

5. Jar milling machine.

6. Electric Furnace.

7. Metallurgical oven./electric oven

GAS KILN: is a thermally insulated chamber used to complete processes like hardening, drying,

or chemical changes in ceramics. It has been used for centuries to transform clay into pottery,

tiles, and bricks. In gas kiln firing, the atmosphere can be controlled, affecting the final outcome

of glazes and clay bodies.

36
 Plate 3. Gas Kiln

HYDRAULIC PRESS: A hydraulic press uses a hydraulic cylinder to generate force and is

utilized in manufacturing for operations like forging, molding, and metal forming. It offers

advantages such as the ability to create intricate shapes and material savings.

Plate 4. Hydraulic Press

37
HAMMER MILLING MACHINE: is a machine designed to shred or crush aggregate material

into smaller pieces using repeated blows from small hammers. There are two types of hammer

mill crushers, namely:

a. Up Running: Uses perforated screens or grate bars to reduce soft or hard materials.

The material to be reduced determines the rotor construction that can be adjustable

based on wear.

b. Down Running: Most suitable for fibrous materials due to the high concentration of

shearing action within in the unit.

Plate 5. Hammer milling machine

BALL MILLING MACHINE: A ball mill is a versatile grinder used for grinding, blending,

and mixing materials in various processes. It operates on the principle of impact and attrition,

reducing the size of materials as balls drop from the top to the bottom of a rotating cylindrical

38
shell. The mill is partially filled with balls made of steel, stainless steel, ceramic, or rubber. The

shell is lined with abrasion-resistant material like manganese steel or rubber for reduced wear.

Plate 6. Ball milling machine

JAR MILLING MACHINE: Jar mills are used for wet or dry grinding, mixing, and blending

of materials such as ores, chemicals, paints, ceramics, and glass. They offer different jar sizes to

accommodate various grinding conditions.

39
 Plate 7. Jar milling Machine

3.3 DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION OF BRAKE PADS FROM PALM KERNEL

SHELL COMPOSITES.

3.3. 1 INTRODUCTION

Brake pads are one of the most important safety and performance components in automobiles.

The major component in the brake pad is the lining materials, which are categorized as metallic,

semi-metallic, organic and carbon-based, depending on the composition of the constituent

elements. Typical formulations consist of more than 10 ingredients, and more than 300 materials

40
are in different brands [1]. These ingredients are classified into four broad groups: binders,

reinforcing fibres or structural materials, fillers, and frictional additives/modifiers, based on the

major function they perform apart from controlling friction and wear performance. The binder

holds the ingredients together, to maintain structural integrity of the brake lining under varying

mechanical and thermal stresses. The structural materials provide the structural reinforcement to

the composite matrix; fillers make up the free volume of the brake lining and friction modifiers

stabilize the coefficient of friction and wear rates. These components perform synergistically in

controlling friction and wear performance of the brake pad.

Asbestos had a few engineering properties that made it very suitable for inclusion in brake

linings, and was the most preferred filler material up till 1989 [2]. The use of asbestos is being

avoided due to its carcinogenic nature [1]. Therefore, a new asbestos free friction material and

brake pads has been developed.

Consequently, researchers have struggled to come up with an equally efficient alternative.

Barites, mica, cashew dust, fly ash, ceramic fibre are some of the materials that have been

considered for use as fillers [2], [3]. In this research work, the use of milled palm kernel shell

was contemplated on the basis of some of it engineering properties reported in the literature [4]

Although the use of asbestos for brake pads has not been banned, much of the brake pad industry

is moving away from asbestos brake pads because of cancers. Researches all over the world are

focusing on ways of utilizing either industrial or agricultural wastes as a source of raw materials

in the industry. These wastes utilization will not only be economical, but may also result to

foreign exchange savings and environmental control.

41
Palm kernel shell is the residue fiber remaining when kernel is being crack from the shell. Some

palm kernel shell is burned in the open air or left to settle in waste ponds. This way, the Palm

kernel processing industry's waste contributes significantly to greenhouse effect [5].

Palm Kernel Shell as Brake Lining Ingredient

Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) is recovered as by-product in palm oil production. Large quantities of

PKS are generated annually and only some fractions are used for fuel and other applications such

as palliative for un-tarred road and in producing activated carbon.

The unused PKS are dumped around the processing mill, constituting environmental and

economic liability for the mill. Although, PKS must be ground into fine particles to be suitable

for inclusion in brake lining, available information in the literature are on the ungrounded shell

particles.

Coefficients of friction of PKS on metal surfaces were in the range of 0.37-0.52 [4]. In contrast,

friction coefficient in the range of 0.30-0.70 is normally desirable when using brake lining

material [1]. It has been found [1] that incorporation of PKS in the production of structural light

weight concretes increased the mechanical strength. Thus, PKS appeared suitable for use as base

material in friction composites, because they are subjected to hard and variable braking forces.

[7] Reported that PKS did not change significantly in physical structure and weight, for

appreciable time duration, when exposed to organic solvent. It is also important that the friction

materials experience very little or no changes on contacting varying environmental conditions:

wet or dry weather, or hydraulic fluid spilling over.

The aim of this research is to develop an asbestos-free brake pad using readily available and non-

toxic palm kernel shell (PKS) as the friction material.

42
EXPERIMENTAL

Materials

The materials used in this research include phenolic resin (phenol formaldehyde), palm kernel

shell, steel dust, graphite, and silicon carbide. The compositional analysis of these materials is

presented in Table 1, and their distribution is illustrated in Figure 1.

Plate 8. Palm kernel shell Plate 9. Steel dust

Plate 10. Graphite Plate 11. Silicon carbide Plate 12. Resin

43
TABLE 1: ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION ANALYSIS OF PKS PARTICLES
S/NO Parameter Level Detected Unit
(Palm Kernel Shell)

1 Ba(mg/kg) ND Wt%

Br(mg/kg) 0.005 Wt%

3 Ca(mg/kg) 0.028 Wt%

4 Cu(mg/kg) 0.009 Wt%

5 Cr(mg/kg) 0.002 Wt%

6 Fe(mg/kg) 0.006 Wt%

7 K(mg/kg) 0.005 Wt%

8 Mn(mg/kg) 0.002 Wt%

9 Ni(mg/kg) ND Wt%

10 Se(mg/kg) 0.003 Wt%

11 Sr(mg/kg) ND Wt%

12 V(mg/kg) ND Wt%

13 Zn(mg/kg) 0.074 Wt%

Fig 2.

Raw Material Preparation

A 150 kg quantity of palm kernel shells was obtained from a local processing mill at Ota

community in Ogun state. The sample was cleaned and sun-dried to remove kernel, nuts,

extraneous materials and contaminating kernel oil. The shells was ground into powder using a

hammer mill (Model 000T, Puissance: 1.5KV, No 13634), ball milling machine (Model 87002
44
Limoges-France, A50……43) and then sieved into different sieve sizes of aperture 1mm,

710μm, 355μm, and 100μm. Using a set of BS 410 standard sieves (Endecotts Ltd., London) [8]

in the brake lining formulation.

Production of brake pad consists of a series of unit operations including mixing, cold and hot

pressing, cooling, post-curing and finishing [8]. The constituent ingredients, PKS, steel dust,

graphite, silicon carbide, and resin. Different composition and sieve grades (i.e. 1mm, 710μm,

355μm, and 100μm) of PKS, steel dust, graphite, silicon carbide powder and resin were added

together in the ratio shown in table.2. The combination were properly dry mixed in a mixer for

20 minutes (Model 89..2 Ridsdale & Co ltd, Middlesbrough.Eng.) until a homogenous

component was formed and transferred into a mould for cold pressed with a Hydraulic press

(Model Pi00ehType, 100T-Capacity, Serial No-38280) at 80KN/cm2 and then conveyed into

electric oven (Model Memmert, Western Germany) at a temperature of 150oC after which it was

hot pressed at 100KN/cm2 pressure for 2 minutes. After removing from hot mould, the brake pad

was cured in an oven at a temperature of 120oC for 8 hours [9], [10]. The produced samples are

shown in Figure 2.

45
FORMULATION

S/N Ingredients A B C D E

1. PKS 35 40 45 50 55

2. Resin 20 20 20 20 20

3. Steel dust 15 15 15 15 15

4. Graphite 10 10 10 10 10

5. Silicon carbide 20 15 10 5 0

(SiC).

Fig.3

46
BRAKE PADS MANUFACTURING EQUIPMENT AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS

S/N Equipment Model Cylindrical Ball Feed size Size

Release
speed loading (t) (мм) (mm)
(R/min)

1 Hammer milling PC Ф400×300

machine

2 Pulverizing Ф900×1800 42 1.4 ≤20 0.075-0.89

machine

3 Sieve shaker Ro-Tap Test

machine

4 Plastic Axpert Plastic

Digital Weighing
Scale
5 Electrical oven 9 model sizes
(32 to 1060
litres volume)

6 Slow (1- 25Mpa 1260x1150mm; 1200mm

Brake Lining 6mm/s);
Factory Making Fast 1400x1300mm;
Machine for Hot
Press (80mm/s)
1600x1500mm

7 30~300 110lbs 24" x 3" x 12" 8" (200mm)

Brake Pads CNC rpm (50kg)
Plain Cylindrical
Grinders

8 Paint booth 80 volt 4 tubes – Inside access Class

machine Nova Verta motors,
Prestige 1 Division 2
Series Paint
Booth

9 Mixing machine Up to 10 5 to 11.5 ft

tons

10 Paint dry
machine

11 Auto rivet 250mm

making machine

Fig 4

47
 Plate 13-15. Brake pad Formulation

Plate 16-17. PHOTO OF THE PRODUCED SAMPLES (PRODUCTS)

48
3.4 ACID ACTIVATION OF BENTONITE CLAY FOR RECYCLED AUTOMOTIVE

OIL PURIFICATION

3.4.1 INTRODUCTION

Bentonite clay is a highly absorbent clay with therapeutic properties and versatile applications. It

is formed through the weathering of volcanic ash and is known for its ability to absorb and retain

water. In Nigeria, it is commonly referred to as "NZU or NDOM" in Efik and is found in several

states.

The purification of used engine oil is crucial to remove contaminants and extend its usefulness.

Proper purification reduces waste, resource consumption, and environmental pollution.

3.4.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

For this study, the required materials, such as bentonite clay and sulfuric acid, were obtained

from the ceramic workshop at FIIRO (Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi). The

interns involved in the study were responsible for sourcing used engine oils, which were used as

part of the research process.

Plate 18. Pure Bentonite Plate 19. Acid (H2So4) Plate 20. Used engine oil to be purified

49
3.4.3 CLAY ACID-ACTIVATION PROCESS

Bentonite clay activation involves a chemical treatment with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid to

enhance its absorbent properties. This process improves the clay's surface properties for various

industrial applications such as oil clarification and wastewater treatment. The acid activation

process for clay typically involves the following steps:

1. Washing the clay with distilled water for 30 minutes to eliminate impurities like sand,

branches, or roots.

2. Drying the clay and placing it in a non-reactive container, such as a plastic bowl or

glass jar.

3. Mixing the washed clay with the activating solution by slowly adding the acid while

continuously stirring. The activating solution should be sufficient to achieve a paste-like

consistency.

4. Allowing the slurry to react for several hours, leading to structural changes and the

release of metallic ions from the clay's lattice structure. This reaction enhances the clay's

adsorptive properties.

5. Washing the activated clay with water to remove residual acid and impurities. The

mixture is thoroughly stirred and left to settle, after which the clear water is decanted. This

process is repeated until the water runs clear.

6. Optionally, to further neutralize the clay, it can be reacted with a weak base like

sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). However, this step was omitted.

7. Spreading the clay on a flat surface for drying, ensuring the removal of moisture. Once

dried, the activated bentonite clay is stored in an airtight container to prevent moisture

absorption.

50
3.4.4 OIL PURIFICATION PROCESS USING ACTIVATED BENTONITE CLAY

The process of oil purification using activated bentonite clay, also known as oil bleaching,

involves utilizing the adsorption properties of activated bentonite clay to remove impurities,

color compounds, and undesired substances from oils. Here are the steps involved in the manual

oil purification process employed by FIIRO (Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi):

1. Equipment preparation: Gather the necessary equipment, including a large

container or tank for oil storage, a mixing vessel, a heating source (if required), a stirring utensil,

and filtration equipment such as filter papers or a filter press.

2. Bentonite activation: Activate the bentonite clay beforehand to enhance its

adsorption capabilities and enable effective removal of impurities from the oil.

3. Addition of activated bentonite clay: Slowly add the measured amount of activated

bentonite clay to the oil while continuously stirring. Ensure thorough mixing to ensure contact

between the clay and impurities present in the oil.

4. Stirring and contact time: Continue stirring the mixture to maintain contact

between the clay and the oil. The duration of contact time can vary, typically ranging from 15

minutes to several hours. During this period, the clay will adsorb impurities, colour compounds,

and other undesirable substances from the oil.

5. Settling the mixture: Allow the clay-oil mixture to settle for a sufficient period,

allowing the clay particles to settle at the bottom of the container.

6. Separation of purified oil: Carefully decant or siphon off the clarified oil from the

settled clay at the container's bottom. Take care not to disturb the settled clay to prevent

reintroducing impurities into the oil.

51
 7. Oil filtration: To further remove any remaining clay particles or impurities, pass the

oil through a filtration system using filter papers. This step helps achieve a clearer and purer final

product.

8. Storage of purified oil: Transfer the filtered, purified oil to clean, dry containers

suitable for storage. Ensure the containers are tightly sealed to prevent moisture and

contaminants from entering the oil.

Plate 21. Bentonite activation process

In conclusion, it is essential to note that the specific parameters and procedures for manual oil

purification using activated bentonite may vary depending on the oil type and the level of

impurities. This project not only contributes to environmental protection but also turns waste into

a valuable resource, leading to significant economic benefits.

52
3.5. 3D PRINTER

3.5.1 INTRODUCTION

3D printing is a process where a digital model created using computer-aided design software

(CAD) is turned into a physical three-dimensional object by adding material a layer at a time.

There are many methods of melting or softening the material to produce the layers. Whilst the

technology has been around for 30 years, it is only in the last 5 years, and the rise of desktop 3D

printers, that people have become aware of its game changing potential across all industries.

3.5.2 FUNTIONALITY OF A 3D PRINTER

It all starts with making a virtual design of the object you want to create. This virtual design is

made in a CAD (Computer Aided Design) file using a 3D modelling program (for the creation of

a very new object) or with the use of a 3D scanner (to copy an existing object). A 3D scanner

makes a 3D digital copy of an object. There are also lots of online file repositories where you

can download existing 3D files that will help get you started.

The 3D printing process turns an object into many, tiny little slices, then builds it from the

bottom-up, slice by slice. The layers then build up to form a solid object. The process of

building objects in this way is also referred to as Additive Manufacturing.

3.5.3 MATERIAL EXTRUSION

The most commonly used technology in this process is Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) The

FFF technology works by using a plastic filament or metal wire, which is unwound from a coil to

supply material to an extrusion nozzle, which can turn the flow on and off. The nozzle is heated

to melt the material and can be moved in both horizontal and vertical directions by a numerically

controlled mechanism, directly controlled by a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software

53
package. The object is produced by extruding melted material to form layers as the material

hardens immediately after extrusion from the nozzle. This technology was historically most

widely used with two plastic filament material types: ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) and

PLA (Polylactic acid) but many other materials are now available ranging in properties from

recycled, wood filled, conductive, flexible, dissolvable, chemical resistant, biological and even

food! The development of materials has become a huge area of growth with more applications

becoming possible thanks to the advancements.

3.5.4 PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGIES

Not all 3D printers use the same technology. There are several ways to print and all those

available are additive, differing mainly in the way layers are built to create the final object.

Some methods use melting or softening material to produce the layers. Selective laser sintering

(SLS) and fused deposition modelling (FDM) are the most common technologies using this way

of 3D printing. Another method is when we talk about curing a photo-reactive resin with a UV

laser or another similar power source one layer at a time. The most common technology using

this method is called stereo lithography (SLA)

3.5.4.1 Tools and Technology used for 3D Printing.

Different Software packages can aid in each different stage of the design process; from
CAD
design, to STL repair and preparation.
Some of the best software for CAD modeling include:
1. Solidworks
2. Rhinoceros
3. Fusion 360
4. Onshape
5. TinkerCAD
54
STL repair softwares include:
1. Netfabb
2. Meshmixer
Some of the popular slicing softwares are:
1. Cura
2. Simplify3D
Different Software packages can aid in each different stage of the design process; from
CAD
design, to STL repair and preparation.
Some of the best software for CAD modeling include:
1. Solidworks
2. Rhinoceros
3. Fusion 360
4. Onshape
5. TinkerCAD
STL repair softwares include:
1. Netfabb
2. Meshmixer
Some of the popular slicing softwares are:
1. Cura
2. Simplify3D
Different Software packages can aid in each different stage of the design process; from
CAD
design, to STL repair and preparation.
Some of the best software for CAD modeling include:
1. Solidworks
2. Rhinoceros
3. Fusion 360
4. Onshape
5. TinkerCAD
STL repair softwares include:
1. Netfabb
2. Meshmixer
Some of the popular slicing softwares are:
1. Cura
2. Simplify3D
Different Software packages can aid in each different stage of the design process; from
CAD
design, to STL repair and preparation.
Some of the best software for CAD modeling include:
1. Solidworks
2. Rhinoceros
3. Fusion 360
4. Onshape
5. TinkerCAD
STL repair softwares include:
55
1. Netfabb
2. Meshmixer
Some of the popular slicing softwares are:
1. Cura
2. Simplify3D
Tools and Technology used for 3D Printing
Different Software packages can aid in each different stage of the design process; from
CAD
design, to STL repair and preparation.
Some of the best software for CAD modeling include:
1. Solidworks
2. Rhinoceros
3. Fusion 360
4. Onshape
5. TinkerCAD
STL repair softwares include:
1. Netfabb
2. Meshmixer
Some of the popular slicing softwares are:
1. Cura
2. Simplify3D
Different Software packages can aid in each different stage of the design process; from

CAD design, to STL repair and preparation.

Some of the best software for CAD modeling include:

1. Solidworks

2. Rhinoceros

3. Fusion 360

4. Onshape

5. TinkerCAD

STL repair softwares include:

1. Netfabb

2. Meshmixer

Some of the popular slicing softwares are:

1. Cura
56
 2. Simplify3D

Plate 22. 3D printer

Plate 23-24. Product manufactured using 3D printer

3.5.5 APPLICATIONS

57
3D Printing encompasses may forms of technologies and materials as 3D printing is being used

in almost all industries. A few examples are:

 Construction: 10 one-story houses can be printed in a day.

 Medicine: Hearing aids, Organs, Body parts, Tissues, Blood vessels, Teeth,

Prosthetics, Bionics, Braces, eyewear

 Manufacturing: Automobile parts, Cars

 Domestic Usage: Jewelry, Toys, cutlery, Furniture

 Clothing: Dresses, Shoes

 Archaeology: Reconstructing fossils, bones, body parts and ancient artifacts

 Academia: Molecular Models, Gears, Robots

CHAPTER FOUR:

4.1 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED AND MEASURES TAKEN TO PROFER

SOLUTION

 Insufficient power supply: Power outages during experiments can result in equipment

damage and inaccurate results. Additionally, the lack of power and fuel shortages

sometimes hinder the progress of work for the day. In such situations, I utilize the time to

conduct online research and expand my knowledge.

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  Adapting to experiments in different disciplines: Occasionally, we had the opportunity

to work in departments other than ceramics, requiring us to adjust to their specific

disciplines. In these instances, I prioritize following all safety rules to minimize

workshop hazards.

 Financial constraints: The financial challenges associated with my job made it difficult

for me to commute from my distant residence to the industry. However, I successfully

overcame this hurdle by seeking financial assistance from my family members, enabling

me to participate in the SIWES program, which turned out to be a

significant achievement.

4.2 RELEVANCE OF THE TRAINING TO THE COURSE OF STUDY

The knowledge I acquired during my experience was closely associated with the following

courses:

 Ceramic Material and Processing (IDD 401): This course provided a foundation in

understanding ceramic materials and their processing techniques.

 Industrial Ceramics III (IDD 437): This course focused on advanced topics related to

industrial ceramics, further enhancing my understanding of their properties, applications,

and manufacturing processes.

 Ceramic Workshop Practice (IDD 445): This practical course allowed me to gain

hands-on experience in working with ceramics in a workshop setting, honing my skills in

handling materials and using various techniques.

4.3 CONTRIBUTIONS

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During my SIWES program at the Federal Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi, I

enthusiastically participated in all the daily projects and tasks. Through this experience, I can

confidently affirm that I have gained valuable insights into the practical application of various

operations, principles, and activities that were taught in the classroom. This hands-on exposure

has undeniably fulfilled the purpose and objectives of the Students' Industrial Work

Experience Scheme (SIWES).

Plate 25-28. Contribution in SIWES

4.4 RECCOMMENDATION

 Improved placement process:

There is a need to establish a platform that facilitates easier and faster placements for

students. This would address the issue of students experiencing delays in securing

placements, which often results in their training periods being shortened or accepting

positions in irrelevant fields.

 Comprehensive exposure to relevant fields:

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 It is important to ensure that students are exposed to all aspects of their respective disciplines

during their training. This includes preventing instances where students are exposed to only a

limited aspect of their field or irrelevant disciplines. It would be beneficial to enforce a

mandate that requires companies to provide students with comprehensive exposure to their

relevant field of study.

 Equipment operation training for students:

To enhance the technical proficiency of students, it is recommended that they receive proper

training on how to operate the equipment and machines in the laboratory. Currently, there

may be limitations where students are not allowed to handle or operate certain equipment.

Allowing students to handle equipment after receiving adequate guidance and instruction

would contribute to their overall technical development.

 Financial support:

Providing adequate funds for students is crucial to ensure full participation in the program,

particularly for those who face financial constraints. Accessible funding options should be

made available to financially impaired students, enabling them to fully engage in the program

without financial burdens limiting their involvement.

4.5 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, my personal experience with the Students' Industrial Work Experience Scheme

(SIWES) has been immensely rewarding. Engaging in SIWES at the Federal Institute of

Industrial Research, Oshodi has allowed me to apply classroom knowledge to real-world

industrial practices. The program has enhanced my understanding, sharpened my technical skills,

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and provided valuable industry exposure. Overall, SIWES has been a transformative experience,

shaping my career aspirations and equipping me with practical skills for the future.

4.6 REFERENCES

1. Oyeniyi, A.A (2012). Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) and the

Incidence of Occupational Misfit in Nigeria, Industrial Training Fund (ITF),

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED533330.pdf (access 15/11/18)

2. V. S. Aigbodion., U. Akadike (development of asbestos - free brake pad using bagasse).

Tribology in industry, Volume 32, No. 1, 2010.

3. Mohanty, S., Y.P. Chugh, 2007. Development of fly ash- based automotive brake

lining. Tribol Int, 40: 1217-24.

4. Chan, D., G.W. Stachowiak, 2004. Review of automotive brake friction materials. J

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 Automob Eng Proc Inst Mech Eng Part D, 218.

5. (Koya et al., 2004), Seperation theory for palm kernel and shell mixture on a spinning

disc.

6. Mathur, R.B. Thiyagarajan, P. and Dhami, T.L. (2004). Controlling the hardness and

Tribological Behaviour of Non- asbestos Brake Lining Materials for Automobiles.

Journal of Carbon Science, vol. 5, No. 1, 6- 11.

7. W. Österle A.I. Dmitriev, Functionality of conventional brake friction materials –

Perceptions from findings observed at different length scales.

8. Introduction to 3D Printing | CREATE Education Project

9. https://3dprinting.com/what-is-3d-printing/

10.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/

291975129_The_Impact_and_Application_of_3D_Printing_Technology/

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