Observatory - Chapter 13

23083_Chapitre13a.
qxd:Observatory4 6/25/09 12:17 PM Page 424
2001 Installation of the robotic

arm Canadarm2 on the
International Space Station
1961 Commercialization of
the first industrial robot
for an assembly line
1948 Invention of Velcro
1925 Invention of the

snow blower
Invention of the
1893 diesel engine
1889 Invention of the
bicycle derailleur
1879 Invention of
the roller chain
1859 Invention of the first working

internal combustion engine
H umans have always strived to create objects that will
improve their quality of life. At first, they built only very
simple tools to meet their immediate needs. Gradually, they
perfected their techniques, and individual artisans became
Construction of the
first power elevator specialized in particular fields. Manufacturing objects re-
1829
1825 Inauguration of the first mained the work of skilled craftsmen for a long time, but
railway in the world
1816 eventually technological advances led to machine tools, pro-
Invention of the “draisine”
(nicknamed a hobbyhorse), pelling humanity into the Industrial Age. Today, although
the forerunner of the bicycle
technical objects are increasingly sophisticated, their design
is still founded on certain basic principles. To understand
1602 Invention of the first rails
for guiding wagons how these objects work, we must study their parts. How are
the parts connected? How are their movements controlled?
Can their motion be transferred to other parts of the object?
CIRCA –200 Invention of gears
Can the motion change in nature or speed? These are the
questions we will address in this chapter.
CIRCA –3500 Invention of the wheel
23083_Chapitre13a.qxd:Observatory4 6/25/09 12:17 PM Page 425
E T EC HN O L O
TH GI
C
AL
WO
13
RLD
Mechanical
engineering
CONTENTS
1. WHAT IS MECHANICAL 3.2 Adhesion and 4.3 Speed changes in motion

ENGINEERING? ........................ 426 friction of parts ........................ 433 transmission systems............. 442
4.4 Torque .................................................. 444
2. LINKING IN 4. MOTION TRANSMISSION
TECHNICAL OBJECTS ........... 427 SYSTEMS ..................................... 435 5. MOTION TRANSFORMATION
2.1 Characteristics of links ................ 427 4.1 Characteristics of SYSTEMS ..................................... 445
motion in transmission 5.1 Characteristics of motion in
2.2 Degrees of freedom
systems ........................................ 436 transformation systems ....... 446
of movement ............................. 428
4.2 Construction considerations 5.2 Construction considerations
3. GUIDING CONTROLS ................... 431 for motion transmission for motion transformation
3.1 Types of guiding ............................ 431 systems ....................................... 438 systems ......................................... 447
425
ST
EST
AST 1 What is mechanical
engineering?
Among the fields of study in science and technology, one branch focuses
particularly on the analysis and execution of technological projects, such as
building bridges, roads, bicycles, cars, televisions, Engineering comes from the
etc. This branch is called engineering . Latin ingenium, meaning
“talent” or “ability.”
Engineering is divided into various areas of spe-
cialization, including civil engineering, which deals with infrastructure such
as roads, bridges and overpasses; computer engineering, which covers com-
puter systems; and electrical engineering, which concentrates on electrical
circuits. This chapter is on mechanical engineering, a branch that focuses
mainly on objects whose working depends on moving parts.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING is a branch of engineering that

focuses on the design, production, analysis, working and
improvement of technical objects with moving parts.
13.1 A turbocharger
relies on many
moving parts to
work, so it is a
suitable object of
study for mechanical
engineers.
Mechanical engineering must take into account all aspects of motion in an

object, namely, the guiding, transmission and transformation of that motion
as well as changes in its speed. Before discussing these subjects, however, we
must understand how the parts of an object are connected and how free they
are to move.
426 CHAPTER 13
ST
EST
AST 2 Linking in
technical objects 9
As soon as a technical object contains two or more parts, an engineer must CONCEPT REVIEW
find a way to hold them together—to link them. Any part, such as a nail, or Basic mechanical functions
any fluid, such as glue, that holds together a technical object performs a (links, guiding control)
mechanical function called linking. The part or fluid is referred to as a LINKING Types of motion
COMPONENT. A technical object may involve more than one type of link.
In mechanics, a COMPONENT is a part or fluid that

performs a mechanical function. 1907
1990
LINKING is the mechanical function performed by
any component that connects different parts of a
technical object.
George
de Mestral
One everyday example

of linking can be seen
in the Velcro strips used
to fasten shoes. George
de Mestral, a Swiss
engineer, invented
Velcro in the early
1940s. The story goes
that he was inspired by
the burrs stuck to his
dog’s fur and his own
jacket after a walk.
13.2 In these natural gas pipes, many parts are connected with nuts and
screws, which thus perform the mechanical function of linking.
ST
EST
AST
2.1 CHARACTERISTICS
OF LINKS
Technical objects may be held together in many different ways. Despite the
multitude of possibilities, every link displays four basic characteristics: direct
or indirect, rigid or flexible, removable or non-removable, and complete or
partial. These characteristics are described in Table 13.3 (page 428).
Mechanical engineering 427

13.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF LINKs
Direct Indirect
A link is direct when two parts hold together without A link is indirect when the parts require a linking component
a linking component. to hold them together.
Rigid Flexible
A link is rigid when the linking component or the surfaces A link is flexible when the linking component or the surfaces
of the linked parts are rigid. of the linked parts can be deformed. Springs and rubber are
often used in flexible links.
Removable Non-removable
A link is removable when the linked parts can be separated A link is non-removable when separating the linked parts
without damaging either their surfaces or the linking damages their surfaces or the linking component.
component (if present). Nuts and screws, for example,
are used in removable links.
Complete Partial
A link is complete when it prevents the linked parts from A link is partial when at least one part can move
moving independently of one another. independently of the other parts.
Frame
Wheel
Tire
Wheel
LINK BETWEEN THE TIRE AND THE WHEEL LINK BETWEEN A WHEEL AND THE FRAME
Characteristics: direct, flexible, removable, complete Characteristics: indirect, rigid, removable, partial
13.4 Characteristics of two different links
EST
AST 2.2 DEGREES OF FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT
In a technical object, linking limits the possibility of independent motion of
one part in relation to another. As we saw in the previous section, a complete
link—for example, between the bicycle tire and wheel in Figure 13.4—
totally restricts the motion of one part in relation to the other. The tire will
always follow the motion of the wheel.
In a partial link, however, as in the rollerblade wheel and frame, the possi-
bility of independent movement of one part in relation to the other is only
partly restricted. The wheel can turn even if the frame is immobile.
428 CHAPTER 13
Figure 13.5 shows the six possibilities of independent motion: three transla-
tional motions and three rotational motions, in relation to the three axes
commonly used to define dimensions (x, y and z).
y
Ry Possibilities Notation
Translational Translation from left to right or from Tx
Ty motion right to left
Translation from top to bottom or from Ty
Tx bottom to top
x
Translation from front to back or from Tz
Tz Rx
back to front
Rotational Rotation about the x axis Rx
motion
Rz Rotation about the y axis Ry
z
Rotation about the z axis Rz
13.5 The six possibilities of independent motion
13.6 The blade of this

y retractable utility
Tx knife has only one
independent motion:
x a bidirectional
z translation along
the x axis.
13.7 This filing cabinet

drawer also has only
one independent
y motion: a bidirectional
translation along
the z axis.
When the possibilities of independent motion are analyzed for a linked part,
the resulting description is its degree of freedom of movement. A part may

therefore have a maximum of six degrees of freedom, corresponding to the

six possibilities of independent motion. Figures 13.8 and 13.9 illustrate the
degrees of freedom of two different parts.
The DEGREES OF FREEDOM are the set of independent move-

ments that are possible for a given part in a technical object.
y y
Ry Ty
Ry
z x z
13.8 The door connected to the wall 13.9 To pump soap from this dispenser,
has only one degree of freedom we can turn and press the spout.
because the only independent The spout thus has two degrees
motion it can have is a rotation of freedom: one translation along
about the y axis. the y axis and one rotation about
the same axis.
TOYOTA PRODUCES ROBOTIC LEG

The Toyota group, known mainly as degrees of freedom of its foot to
an automobile manufacturer, is also propel itself forward.
at the forefront in the field of robot- “Movements of the leg and foot
ics. The company’s engineers have are difficult to robotize,” a Toyota
developed a robotic leg that can spokesperson explained. “Developing
jump up to four centimetres in the air the leg required a series of proto-
and land on its foot. The action may types.” The company hopes to inte-
seem simple for humans, but it is grate this type of leg into more com-
actually a complex motion whose plex robots that will walk exactly
reproduction represents a break- like humans.
through in humanoid robotics.
Source: Adapted from Agence France-
The one-metre-high autonomous leg Presse, “La jambe robotisée de Toyota,”
is mounted on a foot with jointed Le Soleil, September 14, 2006, Affaires,
p. 50. [Translation]
toes. The leg can hop along using the
430 CHAPTER 13
ST
EST
AST 3 Guiding controls
In many technical objects, the function of certain components is to force
moving parts to follow a specific trajectory. These components are said to
act as guiding controls.
GUIDING is the mechanical function performed by

any component that controls the motion of one or
more moving parts.
As in the example of Figure 13.10, many pieces of furniture

contain slides for opening and closing drawers.The slides guide
the motion of the drawers. Since the slides perform a guiding
function, they are considered guiding components or controls.
A GUIDING COMPONENT or CONTROL is a com-

ponent whose mechanical function is to guide the
motion of moving parts.
In technical objects, there are three main forms of guiding:

translational, rotational and helical. Let’s take a closer look at
these three types. 13.10 The slides on the sides of this drawer
perform a guiding function. They are
therefore guiding controls.
ST
EST
AST
3.1 TYPES OF GUIDING
When a guiding control allows only the translational motion of a part, the
guiding is described as translational. Drawer slides and other grooved com-
ponents are particularly suited to this type of guiding.
TRANSLATIONAL GUIDING ensures the straight translational

motion of a moving part.
13.11 Grooves on either side of this hung window ensure translational guiding when
the window is opened and closed.

When a guiding control allows only the rotational motion of a part, 1811
the guiding is described as rotational. Cylindrical components are 1861
particularly suited to this type of guiding.
ROTATIONAL GUIDING ensures the rotational motion

of a moving part.
Elisha
Graves Otis
Elevator cars are among

the many parts that are
subjected to translational
guiding. Before a certain
Fork
modification by Elisha
Graves Otis, an
Axle cap American mechanic,
Hub people were reluctant
to trust these machines
to carry them from floor
to floor in a building.
In 1852, Otis invented
a device that locks the
elevator car in place if
the supporting cable
13.12 An axle attached to the fork guides the wheel hub in a rotational motion. breaks. His invention was
among the reasons for
When a guiding control allows for a rotational motion combined the increased popularity
of skyscrapers.
with a translational motion along the same axis of a part, the
guiding is described as helical. Threaded components are espe-
cially suitable for this type of guiding.
HELICAL GUIDING ensures the translational motion of

a moving part while it rotates about the same axis.
C-clamp frame Jaw
Threaded shank
13.13 Threads inside the frame of the C-clamp control the helical guiding
of the threaded shank.
432 CHAPTER 13
EST
AST 3.2 ADHESION AND
FRICTION OF PARTS
10
When a car stops on the way up a hill, the tires keep the vehicle on the road
and prevent it from sliding.The phenomenon that holds the tires on the road is
called adhesion. Without adhesion between the tires and the road, the car
would start to slide as soon as it stopped on a slope. Adhesion decreases
when roads are icy, often causing car accidents.
ADHESION is the phenomenon by which two surfaces tend to

remain in contact with each other without slipping.
The strength of adhesion between two surfaces depends mainly on five factors:
the nature of the materials in contact. For example, adhesion between
rubber and asphalt differs from that between steel and asphalt.
the presence of a lubricant. Adhesion is usually
reduced by the presence of a lubricant. For ex-
ample, a tire will not adhere well to the road if
there is an oil spot on the asphalt.
temperature. Adhesion between two surfaces
tends to diminish with colder temperatures. For
example, the colder the weather, the weaker the
adhesion of a tire to the road.
the state of the surfaces in contact. Usually, the
rougher a surface, the better its adhesion to
another surface. This explains why the adhesion
of a tire to asphalt decreases with wear.
the perpendicular FORCE exerted by one surface
on another. Adhesion increases as this force in-
creases. For example, it is more difficult to pull a
loaded sleigh than an empty one.
A moving part in a technical object is usually guided
by another part. Surfaces of the moving part and
the guiding component thus slip over one another.
However, adhesion tends to make the parts hold
together, so an opposing force forms, resisting the
slipping movement. This force is called friction. The 13.14 If the soles of these boots did not adhere to the
greater the adhesion between two parts, the greater ground properly, the hiker would slip as he would
on an icy surface in winter.
the friction when they move against each other.
In mechanics, FRICTION is a force that resists the slipping of

one moving part over another.

23083_Chapitre13b.qxd:Observatory4 6/25/09 12:18 PM Page 434
One of the main means of reducing fric-

tion between parts is to apply a lubricant
so that the surfaces in contact can slip Piston
more easily over one another. The
mechanical function of these substances
is called lubrication. Oils, such as the
motor oils used in combustion engines,
are examples of lubricants.
LUBRICATION is the mechani- Cylinder surface

cal function performed by any
component that reduces friction
between two parts.
13.15 As the piston moves back and forth inside the guiding cylinder, its
outer surface slides over the inner surface of the cylinder, causing
friction.
TIRE AND TRACK:

A STICKY BUSINESS?
The obsession of racing teams teams are allowed to do business
In Formula One racing, victory hinges
about tires eventually became so with only one tire manufacturer.
on adhesion. The team engineers
can think of nothing else. Between acute that the FIA (Fédération inter- Source: Adapted from Luc Domenjoz, “Entre
Grand Prix races, they spend count- nationale de l’automobile) decided to la gomme at la piste, c’est la magie noire,”
tighten the regulations. Since 2008, La Presse, June 25, 2006, p. 58. [Translation]
less days assessing tires, testing the
bands of natural or synthetic rubber
where the tire meets the track. A
softer rubber, with greater adhesion,
can help a car gain a second or more
per lap.
Let’s picture exactly what is happen-
ing: at 300 km/h, the wheels are
turning so fast that a single point on
the tire tread touches the track for
only two thousandths of a second,
40 times per second. In each of
these brief instants, the tread must
adhere to the track. If we could
observe this process under a micro-
scope, we would see tire molecules
literally catch on the uneven surface
of the asphalt. The car can thus
adhere to the track and make turns.
A Formula One racing car in a turn
434 CHAPTER 13
13.16 Examples of lubricants
Lubricant type Examples

Liquid Water, oil (vegetable, animal and mineral)
Semisolid Suet, Vaseline, animal fat, vegetable fat
Solid Graphite, paraffin
Another method of reducing friction is polishing. Under a microscope, the

surfaces of most materials prove to have minuscule ridges that cause adhe-
sion and friction since they tend to catch on the surface of another part
when they move against it. When a surface is polished, some of these tiny
ridges are eliminated, reducing friction.
x 130
13.17 The illustration on the left shows a self-adhesive label as seen by the naked eye.
On the right, a magnified view of part of the sticky side of the same label shows
its roughness—a surface covered in uneven ridges.
ST
EST
AST 4 Motion transmission
systems 11
In many technical objects, it is useful to transmit the motion of one part

CONCEPT REVIEW
to one or more other parts. Components that accomplish this transfer in a
technical object perform the mechanical function of motion transmission. System (overall function,
inputs, processes,
outputs, control)
MOTION TRANSMISSION is the mechanical function of relaying Components of a system
a motion from one part to another without altering the nature Function, components
of the motion. and use of motion
transmission systems
(friction gears, pulleys
For example, in the bicycle illustrated in Figure 13.19 (page 436), the rota- and belt, gear assembly,
tional motion applied by the cyclist’s legs to the crankset is transferred to the sprockets and chain, worm
rear wheel by a set of three components: a sprocket linked to the crankset, a and worm gear)
sprocket linked to the rear wheel, and a chain. Since the three components
all contribute to the same function—transmitting motion—they form a
motion transmission system.

A MOTION TRANSMISSION SYSTEM is a set of compo-

nents that perform the function of transmitting motion.
As shown in Table 13.18, any mechanical system contains a driver

(component) and at least one driven component. In addition, some
systems, such as the motion transmission system in a bicycle, also Intermediate
contain an intermediate component. component
13.18 TYPES OF components IN A MECHANICAL SYSTEM
Type of component Description

Driven
Driver component Component that receives the force required component
to activate the system
Driven component Component that receives the motion and
transfers it to another part
Driver
Intermediate component Component located between the driver and
component
driven components. Not all systems contain
an intermediate component.
13.19 The motion transmission system

ST in a bicycle contains a chain and
EST
AST
4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTION sprockets.
IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
In mechanical engineering, motion transmission systems are often applied to
technical objects. The most common systems are:
gear trains
chain and sprocket systems
worm and worm gear systems
friction gear systems
belt and pulley systems
While all these systems transmit rotational motion, they differ in their spe-
cific characteristics. First, as shown in Figure 13.21 (page 437), the direction
of rotation of the various components is sometimes identical throughout the
entire system and sometimes different. Figure 13.20 illustrates the two direc-
tions of possible rotation.
13.20 The two directions of

rotational motion are
described as clockwise
and counterclockwise.
Clockwise Counterclockwise
436 CHAPTER 13
Second, reversing the system may not always be possible. In mechanical engi-
neering, a system is described as reversible when a driven component can
become a driver, and vice versa. Among the systems in Figure 13.21 below,
only the worm and worm gear is irreversible.
13.21 Characteristics of motion in the

gear trains main motion transmission systems
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
OF COMPONENTS
Alternates from one gear to another.
REVERSIBILITY
Yes
PEDALS TO PUSH
Did you know that the “drai-
sine” (nicknamed a hobby-
CHAIN AND SPROCKET SYSTEMS horse), the forerunner of the
DIRECTION OF ROTATION modern bicycle, did not even
OF COMPONENTS have pedals? Its motion was
Depending on the configuration, generated by the cyclist’s feet
identical only for sprockets touching
pushing against the ground.
the same side of the chain
The first pedal bicycle was
REVERSIBILITY invented in 1839, but it still
Yes did not involve rotary motion.
The cyclist’s feet pushing on
the pedals produced a back-
Worm AND WORM GEAR SYSTEMS and-forth motion that acti-
DIRECTION OF ROTATION vated rods attached to the rear
OF COMPONENTS whe el. Var iou s me cha nic al
Varies with the direction of the systems were tested until the
threads on the worm screw shaft. arri val, in 188 0, of bic ycle s
REVERSIBILITY with chain and sprocket trans-
No mission systems, which are
still in use today.
FRICTION GEAR SYSTEMS

OF COMPONENTS
Alternates from one gear to another.
REVERSIBILITY
Yes
BELT AND PULLEY SYSTEMS

OF COMPONENTS
Depending on the configuration,
identical only for pulleys touching
the same side of the belt
REVERSIBILITY
Yes

ST
EST
AST
4.2 CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS FOR
MOTION TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Engineers must take various elements into account when building motion
transmission systems, depending on the type of system they wish to develop.
Let’s look at the main elements that engineers must consider as they design
the more common motion transmission systems.
ST
EST gear trains
AST
Gear trains consist of at least two gears that meet and mesh with each other.
The systems are used to transmit motion between two or more closely posi-
tioned parts.
Particular attention is given to certain elements when building a gear train.
These elements are presented in Table 13.22.
13.22 ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUILDING A gear train
Element Description
Gear teeth The teeth of all the gears in the system must be identical: they must have the same shape and
direction and be equally spaced. Figure 13.23 illustrates the two main types of teeth (straight
and helical) in gear trains.
Gear type In a gear train, the rotational axis of the gears can be positioned in different ways.
As shown in Figure 13.24 (page 439), when rotational axes are parallel, straight gears
are commonly used. When the axes are perpendicular, bevel gears are preferred.
Gear size The higher the number of teeth, the lower the speed of rotation. Consequently (since gear
teeth are all identical in gear trains), the larger the diameter of a gear, the slower its rotation.
Helical teeth
Straight teeth
13.23 The two main types of teeth in gear trains. In gears with straight teeth, the teeth
grooves are parallel to the rotational axis. In gears with helical teeth, the grooves are
not parallel to the axis. Gears with straight teeth are noisier than gears with helical
teeth, but more efficient.
438 CHAPTER 13
–287
–212
Straight
gears Archimedes
Bevel gears
This Ancient Greek

scientist is widely
considered the father
of mechanics. He
assembled gear trains
13.24 In the gear train of a watch, the rotational axes of the gears are parallel, in machines of war to
so straight gears are used. In a hand drill, the rotational axes of the gears defend his homeland.
are perpendicular, so bevel gears are preferred. He is also credited with
the invention of the
screw and the nut as
ST
well as with many other
EST
AST
CHAIN AND SPROCKET SYSTEMS
contributions to various
branches of science.
Like gear trains, chain and sprocket systems consist of at least two
gears. However, the gears do not mesh; they are connected by a
chain, and they are referred to as sprockets. Since sprocket teeth do
not meet directly but mesh with a chain, chain and sprocket sys-
tems are used to transmit motion between two or more distant
parts. The main elements to consider when building a chain and
sprocket system are presented in Figure 13.25.
13.25 The main elements to consider

when building a chain and
sprocket system
Sprocket
A The teeth on the system sprockets

must be identical.
B The chain links must mesh easily

with the sprocket teeth.
C The system requires frequent

Chain lubrication to avoid the rapid
wear of the teeth and chain.
D The smaller a sprocket, the faster

it turns.

ST
EST
AST
Worm AND WORM GEAR SYSTEMS
Worm and worm gear systems consist of a single worm (screw) whose rota-
tional motion is transmitted to one or more worm gears. The worm is also
called an endless screw because it can drive the worm gear indefinitely. The
elements to consider when building a worm and worm gear system are
described in Figure 13.26.
Worm A The groove of the worm

must fit the gear teeth so
that they can mesh.
B The driver (to which the
force is applied) must be
the worm.
Worm gear
13.26 The main elements
to consider when
building a worm and
worm gear system
ST
EST
AST
FRICTION GEAR SYSTEMS
Friction gear systems are similar to gear trains except that the friction gears
do not have teeth. Instead, motion is transmitted by friction between the
gears. Another similarity is that friction gear systems are also used to trans-
mit a rotational motion between two or more closely positioned parts.
Since friction gears do not require teeth, the gear systems are more eco-
nomical and less complicated to produce than gear trains. However, friction
gear systems are also less efficient than gear trains because the gears can slip.
Table 13.28 (page 441) describes the main elements to consider when build-
ing a friction gear system.
13.27 Various gear types. Straight gears are in red, bevel gears are in blue,
and the gear in green is spherical.
440 CHAPTER 13
13.28 ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUILDING A FRICTION GEAR SYSTEM
Element Description
Gear type As shown in Figure 13.27 (page 440), the three main types
of friction gears are straight, bevel and spherical. The three
types may be positioned along parallel, perpendicular or
other rotational axes.
Gear size In a friction gear system, the larger the diameter of a gear,
the slower its rotation.
Adhesion of materials For a friction gear system to be efficient, friction between
gears must be high. For this reason, the gear rims must be
made of materials that adhere well to one another.
ST
EST
AST
BELT AND PULLEY SYSTEMS
Belt and pulley systems are similar to chain and sprocket systems. However,
the toothless gears are referred to as pulleys, and they are connected by a belt
instead of a chain. Like chain and sprocket systems, belt and pulley systems
are used to transmit a rotational motion between two or more distant parts.
The main elements to consider when building a belt and pulley system are
described in Figure 13.29.
A Pulleys must contain a

groove where the belt
can fit. The groove must
be smooth to prevent
damage to the belt.
B The belt must adhere

to the pulleys to avoid
slipping as much
as possible.
Pulley C The smaller a pulley,
the faster it turns.
Belt

to consider when
building a belt and
pulley system

ST
EST
AST
4.3 SPEED CHANGES IN MOTION
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
The systems we have just discussed relay motion from a driver to one or more CONCEPT REVIEW
driven components without altering the nature of the motion. However, as Speed changes (AST)
Figure 13.30 below shows, the systems can change the speed of the motion
during its transmission.
A SPEED CHANGE occurs in a motion transmission system

when the driver does not turn at the same speed as the driven
component or components.
Let’s see how the main motion transmission systems effect changes in speed.
ST
EST SPEED CHANGES IN Worm AND WORM GEAR SYSTEMS
AST
CHANGING GEARS
Worm and worm gear systems are the system of choice for Several decades separate the
dramatically reducing the speed of a rotational motion during invention of the first bicycle
transmission. As illustrated in Figure 13.30, for each full turn of the and the launch of the first
worm, the worm gear moves a distance equivalent to the width of derailleur. In the 1890s,
only one tooth. The greater the number of teeth on the gear, the racing cyclists had to turn
greater the decrease in speed. their rear wheels to change
speeds. Then, in the early
20th century, the modern-day
derailleur appeared on the
market. It was, and remains, a
mechanism for changing
speed on a bike by shifting
the chain from one sprocket
to another. 18
Position after a full

Starting position turn of the worm 13.30 Speed change in a worm and worm
gear system
ST
EST
AST
SPEED CHANGES IN OTHER MOTION TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
In the other motion transmission systems we have studied, speed changes

occur when the gear diameters vary. Since the gear teeth must all be iden-
tical in both gear trains and chain and sprocket systems, the gear diameter
varies with the number of teeth. Speed changes in these two types of systems
442 CHAPTER 13
therefore depend on the number of teeth on the gears or sprockets.

Table 13.31 explains how rotational speed can vary in these two systems as
well as in friction gear and belt and pulley systems.
13.31 SPEED CHANGES IN MULTIPLE-gear MOTION TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Speed change Friction gear systems Gear trains

Belt and pulley systems Chain and sprocket systems
Increase Motion is transmitted from one gear or pulley Motion is transmitted from one gear or sprocket
to a gear or pulley of smaller diameter. to another with fewer teeth.
Decrease Motion is transmitted from one gear or pulley Motion is transmitted from one gear or sprocket
to a gear or pulley of larger diameter. to another with more teeth.
No change Motion is transmitted between two gears or pulleys Motion is transmitted between two gears or
of the same diameter. sprockets with the same number of teeth.
It is often useful to know the ratio of speed increases or decreases in motion

transmission systems. The ratio is equivalent to the ratio between the gear
diameters or between the numbers of teeth on each gear.
13.32 In this gear train,

the rotational speed
of the driven gear is
10 teeth
twice the speed of
20 teeth the driver gear.
Driven gear
Driver gear
20 teeth
Speed ratio: =2
10 teeth
13.33 In this belt and pulley

system, the rotational
speed of pulley B is
three times slower
than the speed of
pulley A.
5 cm 1
Speed ratio: =
15 cm 3

23083_Chapitre13c.qxd:Observatory4 6/25/09 12:23 PM Page 444
Speed changes
ENVIRONMENT EXTRA
+
in wind turbines
In Québec, wind turbines are becoming an
increasingly popular means to generate electricity.
Wind energy makes the blades of the turbine
spin. This rotational motion is transmitted to the
generator, which transforms the wind energy into
electrical energy. The motion transmission system
is illustrated opposite.
With winds of 50 to 60 km/h, the rotational speed

of the blades of Hydro-Québec wind turbines is
about 20 to 30 revolutions per minute. To produce
an electric current equivalent to current from other A. Rotor blades F. Yaw drive
sources in the Hydro-Québec network, rotational B. Low-speed shaft G. Electronic controller
speeds have to reach about 1800 revolutions per C. Gearbox H. Wind vane
D. High-speed shaft I. Anemometer
minute. A gear train, located between the blades
E. Generator J. Tower
and the generator, is responsible for increasing the
rotational speed. Principal components of a wind turbine
AST 4.4 TORQUE

To produce a rotational motion about an axis, two forces of equal strength
but applied in opposite directions are required. These two forces are referred
to as torque. Figure 13.34 explains how torque is applied.
F2 F1
Rotational
axis F1 F2
13.34 Torque applied to the left wheel causes a clockwise rotation, while torque applied
to the right wheel causes a counterclockwise rotation.
444 CHAPTER 13
TORQUE involves two forces of equal strength but

applied in opposite directions, which cause a compo-
nent to rotate about an axis.
In motion transmission systems, when torque increases the rota-

tional speed of components, it is called engine torque.When torque
reduces or stops the rotational motion of components, it is called
resisting torque.
ENGINE TORQUE increases the rotational speed of

components in mechanical systems.
RESISTING TORQUE slows or stops the rotation of

components in mechanical systems.
To operate a motion transmission system or to increase the

rotational speed of its components, the engine torque must
therefore be greater than the resisting torque. For example,
when a cyclist rides up a hill, the engine torque applied by the
cyclist’s legs must be greater than all the forces behind the
resisting torque, including ground friction, air resistance and
gravitational force.
13.35 In this logging truck, the engine
generates the forces responsible for
engine torque, and the truck can
accelerate. The weight of the logs
13.36 ROTATIONAL SPEED CHANGES CAUSED BY STRENGTH contributes to the resisting torque.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGINE TORQUE AND RESISTING TORQUE
Comparison of torque strength Effect on speed of components

Engine torque = resisting torque No change
Engine torque > resisting torque Increased speed
Engine torque < resisting torque Reduced speed
ST
EST
AST 5 Motion transformation
systems 12
The systems we have studied to this point are systems that transmit motion
CONCEPT REVIEW
without altering its nature. In many technical objects, however, it is often
useful to modify a motion while transferring it. These cases call for motion Function, components
and use of motion
transformation systems. transformation systems
(screw gear systems, cams,
MOTION TRANSFORMATION is the mechanical function of relay- connecting rods, cranks,
ing a motion from one part to another while altering the nature slides, slider-crank
mechanisms, rack and
of the motion. pinion systems)

ST
EST
AST
5.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTION
IN TRANSFORMATION SYSTEMS
The most common motion transformation systems in technical objects are
described below.
13.37 Characteristics of
RACK AND PINION SYSTEMS motion in the main
POSSIBLE TRANSFORMATIONS motion transformation
systems
Rotation ➞ Translation
or Translation ➞ Rotation
REVERSIBILITY
Yes
SCREW GEAR SYSTEMS, TYPE I

POSSIBLE TRANSFORMATION
REVERSIBILITY
No
SCREW GEAR SYSTEMS, TYPE II

REVERSIBILITY
No
CAM AND FOLLOWER SYSTEMS

REVERSIBILITY
No
SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISMS
POSSIBLE TRANSFORMATIONS
or Translation ➞ Rotation
REVERSIBILITY
Yes
446 CHAPTER 13
Figure 13.37 (page 446) illustrates the movement of parts in each of

these systems and the motion transformations that the systems can
perform.When a motion transformation system can be used to con-
vert rotational motion into translational motion and vice versa, then
the system is reversible.
ST
EST
AST
5.2 CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
FOR MOTION TRANSFORMATION
SYSTEMS
Engineers must consider various factors when building motion
transformation systems, depending on the type of system they
are designing. Let’s look at the main elements to consider when
designing the most common motion transformation systems.
ST
EST RACK AND PINION SYSTEMS
AST 13.38 The windmill, forerunner of
the modern wind turbine, is
Rack and pinion systems contain at least one gear, called a pinion, sometimes equipped with a
and one straight bar with teeth, called a rack. motion transformation system.
A The teeth on the

rack and on the pinion
must be identical.
Rack
B The system requires
frequent lubrication
to prevent wear.
Pinion
C The greater the number
of teeth on the pinion,
the slower its rotation.
13.39 The main elements to consider when building a rack and pinion system

ST
EST
AST
SCREW GEAR SYSTEMS
There are two types of screw gear systems that can transform motion. In the
first type, the screw is the driver, and its rotational motion is transformed
into the translational motion of the nut. An example of this type of system
is found in jacks for lifting cars.
In the second type of system, the nut is the driver, and its rotational motion
is transformed into the translational motion of the screw. This type of
system is used in pipe wrenches. Figure 13.40 describes the elements to
consider when building screw gear systems.
Type 1 Type 2
A In the first system type, the
nut must be connected to
the screw in such a way
that the nut cannot rotate.
Nut B In both system types, the

Screw threads of the screws and
nuts must match.
C In the second system

type, the nut must be
fixed in such a way that
its only possible motion
Nut is rotational.
Screw
13.40 The main elements to consider when building screw gear systems
ST
EST
AST
CAM AND FOLLOWER SYSTEMS AND ECCENTRICS
Cam and follower systems transform the rotational motion of a cam into
the reciprocating translational motion of a follower—in other words, a
back-and-forth movement like that of a sewing machine needle. Figure
13.41 describes the main elements to consider when building cam and
follower systems.

Follower A The follower must to consider when
be guided in its building cam and
translational motion. follower systems
B The shape of the cam

Return determines how the
spring follower will move.
C A device such as a
Cam return spring is usually
necessary to keep the
follower in continual
contact with the cam.
Rotational axis
448 CHAPTER 13
Special cams called eccentrics are sometimes used

Eccentric comes from the
in this type of system. Figure 13.42 shows that Latin eccentricus, meaning
the rotational axis of cams is centred, while in “not having the same centre.”
eccentrics, the rotational axis is off-centre.
13.42 Outlines of some

: Rotational axis
cams and eccentrics
Cams Eccentrics
ST
EST
AST
SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISMS
1858
1913
Slider-crank mechanisms are used in internal combustion engines,
for example, to transform the translational motion of the pistons
into the rotational motion of the crank, causing the wheels to turn.
Figure 13.43 describes the main elements to consider when build- Rudolph
ing slider-crank mechanisms. Diesel
Diesel engines are

Cylinder among the technical
objects that contain a
Piston slider-crank mechanism.
The invention was
named after German
Connecting
engineer Rudolph
rod bushings Diesel, who designed
Connecting rod the first engine of
this type, in which
combustion occurs not
Crank by firing a spark plug
but by compressing a
mixture of air and
vapourized oil.
A The connecting rod contains two bushings to attach it to the crank

and piston.
B The cylinder must guide the part moving in translation.
C The system requires frequent lubrication.
13.43 The main elements to consider when building slider-crank mechanisms

ST 1, 2, 4, 7–13, 15–17,
AST 1–17 and A–E.
A, C and E.
EST 1–13, 15–17 and A–E. SE None.
1 What is mechanical 3 Guiding controls (pp. 431–435)
engineering? (p. 426)

4. Look at the three objects below.
1. Name the branch of science and technology Handle
that focuses specifically on the study of
2
technical objects with moving parts. Nut
1 Rivet
2 Linking in technical objects (pp. 427–430) Lever 1
2. Look at the bicycle below.

Lever 2
Brake Ruler
housing Bolt
3
Square
head
Head
Brake a) For each of the three
tube
lever objects, name the type
Crossbar of guiding involved.
Tire b) Identify the guiding component
Welding in each object.
5. In each of the following statements, what

Wheel factor causes the strength of the adhesion
between two surfaces to vary?
a) Nonslip stair treads are installed in
a) Name the four characteristics of the a staircase to prevent accidents.
link between the tires and their
b) Cross-country skis usually glide better
respective wheels. Explain each
in colder weather.
characteristic.
c) To avoid injury, it is best not to wear
b) Name the four characteristics of the link
leather-soled shoes when playing
between the brake housing and lever.
sports in a gym.
Explain each characteristic.
d) Each spring, Yuri oils his bicycle chain
c) Name the characteristics of the link
to protect it from premature wear.
between the crossbar and the head tube.
Explain each characteristic.
6. In gymnastics competitions—for example,
in the high bar event—athletes cover their
3. How many degrees of freedom does the
hands with powder.
front wheel of the bicycle in question 2 have?
Explain your answer. a) What is the mechanical function
of the powder?
b) How is the powder useful during this event?
450 CHAPTER 13
9. Among the motion transmission systems

4 Motion transmission below, identify those whose rotational
systems (pp. 435–445)
motions are correctly illustrated.
7. The motion transmission a) b)
system opposite is used
to direct the chute of a
snow blower.
a) What is this type of
motion transmission
system called? c) d)
b) Name the driver component in this system.
What colour is it in the illustration?
c) Name the driven component in this system.
What colour is it in the illustration?
d) Does the system contain an intermediate
component? If so, what is it called?
e) If the snow blower user decides to 10. Look at the mechanism
turn the chute manually, the motion opposite.
transmission system could be damaged. a) Which type of
Explain why. motion transmission
system is used in
8. Antonia is asked to build a gear train using this technical object?
two of the gears illustrated below. b) Which type of gear
a) Which gears should she choose for is used in this system?
her system?
b) Which characteristic of the gears would 11. Based on the information provided,
motivate her choice? calculate the ratio of the gear speeds
for each of the motion transmission
systems below.
a)
A B C
b)

12. Look at the two worm and worm gear

systems below.
5 Motion transformation
systems (pp. 445–449)
a) b)
15. Look at the motion transformation
system below.
In which system will the rotational speed be

more greatly reduced? Explain your answer.
13. In the chain and sprocket system below, a) What is this type of motion
the rotational speed of the driver sprocket
transformation system called?
is 60 revolutions per minute. Based on the
information provided by the illustration, b) Which of the two gears will turn faster?
calculate the rotational speed of the other Explain your answer.
sprocket. Express your answer in revolutions
per minute. 16. A tensioner is used to tighten the wire or
rope of a clothesline, as in the illustration
below. Which type of motion transformation
system is at work here?
Driver sprocket
14. The object below is a hand drill. By turning 17. Look at the motion transformation
the crank, a person can use the drill to bore systems below.
holes.
A B C D
a) What are these motion transformation

a) What colour is the gear that receives the
systems called?
engine torque when the drill is used?
b) Which of the four systems involves an
b) Given that steel is harder than spruce
eccentric? Explain your answer.
wood, will the resisting torque be
stronger when drilling a hole in a piece c) What does the spring do in these
of steel or in a piece of spruce? Explain systems?
your answer. d) In which of the four systems will the rod
rise the highest?
452 CHAPTER 13
review questions
A. Look at the bottle of correction fluid opposite.
a) Name the characteristics of the link between the cap
and the brush stem.
b) Name the characteristics of the link between the cap Bottle
and the bottle.
c) Which part acts as a guiding control in this object?
d) Which type of guiding is involved?
e) What characteristic of the guiding component controls
the guiding?
Cap Brush
B. Referring to the correction fluid bottle in question A, stem
how many degrees of freedom do the following parts have?
a) the cap when screwed on the bottle
b) the brush stem when attached to the cap
C. Glue sticks are among the most popular types of glue. In the tube,
the glue stick is attached to a nut. Twisting the screw at the base
of the tube will make the glue stick move up or down.
a) What is the usual mechanical function of glue in technical objects?
b) Which part guides the glue stick motion, and which type of
guiding is involved?
c) Is the system for raising or lowering the glue stick a motion
transmission system or a motion transformation system? Identify
the type of system at work.
d) Name the four characteristics of the link between the cap
and the tube.
D. Referring to the glue stick in question C, answer the following questions.

a) How many degrees of freedom does the nut in the tube have?
Describe them.
b) How many degrees of freedom does the cap have when it is placed
on the tube? Describe them.
c) Explain why it is important for there to be adhesion between glue
and parts to be glued.
E. Prepare your own summary of Chapter 13 by building a concept map.

HOW TO BUILD
A CONCEPT MAP

HYBRID CARS
I n the 19th century, the invention of

the automobile was welcomed as an
important improvement to the human
environment. Gone were the days of
picking up piles of horse manure that
stank, carried disease and posed a
constant, disagreeable risk to unwary
pedestrians. Barely 100 years later,
we now realize that cars present an
even greater environmental problem.
The gases they emit contribute signif-
icantly to global warming. In Canada,
transportation alone is responsible for
approximately 25 percent of green-
house gas (GHG) emissions, which
increased by 27 percent between
1990 and 2004.
CHAPTER 13
ALTERNATIVE FUELLING
By the end of the 20th century, automobile manufac-
turers were trying to find solutions to this problem.
Most vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles and trucks,
run on an internal combustion engine, which trans-
forms the thermal energy released by fuel combus-
tion into mechanical energy that drives the wheels.To
reduce GHG emissions from motor vehicles, engi-
neers turned to other energy sources. In hybrid cars,
an electric motor takes over from the conventional
combustion engine at certain times.
The first hybrid car appeared on the Japanese market
in 1997, signalling a change in the automotive indus-
try. From the low-performance, high-cost vehicles of
their early days, hybrid cars have now become near-
equals to their traditional counterparts, and engineers
continue to improve the technology.
Different hybrid vehicles work in different ways,
Hybrid cars, especially compact ones, represent one
but they all make use of two power sources. At high solution to the ongoing problem of increasing pollution
speeds, on the highway, a hybrid car runs on its from transportation, which contributes significantly to
combustion engine. At the same time, it recharges the global warming.
battery of the electric motor, recovering and storing
the surplus energy. If the car accelerates abruptly, both industrialization in China. Eliminating GHG emissions
engines work simultaneously, ensuring performance from cars is an uphill struggle, and hybrid vehicles will
that is at least equal to that of a gas-powered car. The not solve the problem completely. In addition, hybrid
electric motor functions alone at speeds of 50 km/h SUVs emit even more GHGs than small gas-powered
or less and for starting and stopping. Hybrid cars are cars, so another approach would be to reduce the size
thus ideal for city driving, reducing GHG emissions of vehicles. This, however, is not the current trend in
by 50 percent, compared to a 10-percent reduction North America.
for highway driving.
Many automobile manufacturers are presently study-
ing the possibility of commercializing, by 2012,
RENEWABLE ENERGY FOR CARS
rechargeable hybrid models, which could travel up to
Despite government subsidies, hybrid cars are still 60 km on a single charge. The cars would be
expensive—more expensive than their conventional recharged at home overnight and ready to go back to
counterparts. Prices are expected to drop, but mean- work the next morning. Engineers hope one day to
while the overall number of cars around the world is eliminate gas engines entirely and replace them with
rapidly increasing. Experts predict that their number motors that run exclusively on renewable energy
will have doubled by 2025, due primarily to massive sources such as electricity.
1. Why is the mechanical energy from an electric motor considered “greener” than energy
from a combustion engine? Give at least two reasons.
2. How can you counteract the harmful effects of combustion engines when you choose
a means of transportation? Give several examples.

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23083_Chapitre13a.

qxd:Observatory4 6/25/09 12:17 PM Page 424

2001 Installation of the robotic

1925 Invention of the

1859 Invention of the first working

1. WHAT IS MECHANICAL 3.2 Adhesion and 4.3 Speed changes in motion

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING is a branch of engineering that

Mechanical engineering must take into account all aspects of motion in an

In mechanics, a COMPONENT is a part or fluid that

One everyday example

Mechanical engineering 427

13.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF LINKs

13.4 Characteristics of two different links

13.5 The six possibilities of independent motion

13.6 The blade of this

13.7 This filing cabinet

Mechanical engineering 429

therefore have a maximum of six degrees of freedom, corresponding to the

The DEGREES OF FREEDOM are the set of independent move-

TOYOTA PRODUCES ROBOTIC LEG

GUIDING is the mechanical function performed by

As in the example of Figure 13.10, many pieces of furniture

A GUIDING COMPONENT or CONTROL is a com-

In technical objects, there are three main forms of guiding:

TRANSLATIONAL GUIDING ensures the straight translational

Mechanical engineering 431

ROTATIONAL GUIDING ensures the rotational motion

Elevator cars are among

HELICAL GUIDING ensures the translational motion of

C-clamp frame Jaw

ADHESION is the phenomenon by which two surfaces tend to

In mechanics, FRICTION is a force that resists the slipping of

Mechanical engineering 433

One of the main means of reducing fric-

LUBRICATION is the mechani- Cylinder surface

TIRE AND TRACK:

13.16 Examples of lubricants

Lubricant type Examples

Another method of reducing friction is polishing. Under a microscope, the

In many technical objects, it is useful to transmit the motion of one part

Mechanical engineering 435

A MOTION TRANSMISSION SYSTEM is a set of compo-

As shown in Table 13.18, any mechanical system contains a driver

13.18 TYPES OF components IN A MECHANICAL SYSTEM

Type of component Description

13.19 The motion transmission system

13.20 The two directions of

13.21 Characteristics of motion in the

FRICTION GEAR SYSTEMS

BELT AND PULLEY SYSTEMS

Mechanical engineering 437

13.22 ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUILDING A gear train

This Ancient Greek

13.25 The main elements to consider

A The teeth on the system sprockets

B The chain links must mesh easily

C The system requires frequent

D The smaller a sprocket, the faster

Mechanical engineering 439

Worm A The groove of the worm