MICRONUTRIENTS

Eric Mbindo Njunju

Bsc; Msc
Micronutrients
•Vitamins
•Minerals
Vitamins are defined as small organic molecules present in diet which
are required in small amounts. Most of the vitamins are not
synthesized in the body and hence they must be supplied in the diet.
However, few vitamins are synthesized in the body. Though most of
them are present in diet as such, some are present as precursors. The
precursor forms of vitamins are called provitamins. In the body these
provitamins are converted to vitamins.
Vitamins are divided into two groups: Fat soluble and water soluble
vitamins.
Fat Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins A, D, E and K. They have some common properties.
1. Fat soluble.
2. Require bile salts for absorption.
3. Stored in liver.
4. Stable to normal cooking conditions.
Water Soluble Vitamins
Members of vitamin B complex and Vitamin C.
Common properties:
1. Water solubility.
2. Except Vitamin B12, others are not stored.
3. Unstable to normal cooking conditions.
4. Excreted in urine.
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN A
Chemistry
Vitamin A refers to a group of compounds which exhibit Vitamin A activity. They
are retinol (Vitamin A alcohol), retinal (Vitamin A aldehyde) and retinoic acid (Vitamin A
acid). They are also referred as retinoids. Retinal and Retinoic acid are formed from retinol.
Further retinal and retinol are inter convertible. But retinoic acid cannot be converted to
either retinal or retinol.
The three forms of Vitamin A are derivatives of a 20 carbon compound which is composed
of β−ionine ring (methyl substituted cyclohexenyl ring) and side chain containing two
isoprene units with four conjugated double bonds. Due to the presence of double bonds in
isoprenoid side chain, vitamin A exhibits cis-trans (geometric) isomerism (Fig).
Due to the presence of 4 double bonds vitamin A can be oxidized by air or light slowly.
In nature, vitamin A occurs in two forms. In the foods of animal origin it
is present as retinol esters. In plant foods it is present in provitamin
form which is known as carotenes.
There are three types of carotenes present in plants. They are α-
carotenes, β-carotenes and γ-carotenes. These carotenes are called
carotenoids. β-carotenes are most potent source of retinol because
one molecule of β-carotene yields two molecules of Vitamin A in vivo
(Fig). However α, γ-carotenes can yield only one molecule of vitamin A.
Fig: Structures of vit. A. Geometric isomers of vit A are also shown
Fig: Conversion of β-carotene to retinal
Absorption of Vitamin A
In the intestine, pancreatic esterase hydrolyzes retinol esters present in the diet to
retinol and free fatty acid in presence of bile salts. Retinol is absorbed by mucosal
cells. β-carotenes are also absorbed by mucosal cells. A dioxygenase present in the
intestinal mucosal cells cleaves most of the β-carotene of dietary origin to two
molecules of retinal in presence of oxygen. The conversion of β-carotene is limited.
Six μg of β-carotene is converted to 1μg of retinal. Retinal formed is reduced to
retinol by NAD(P)H dependent reductase present in mucosal cells of intestine. The
reaction is a reversible one. Retinal can be oxidized to retinoic acid by using NAD+
or FAD as hydrogen acceptor. Retinoic acid formed is absorbed through portal
venous system and transported to target cells after binding with albumin. A part of
β-carotene absorbed does not undergo conversion to retinal and it is associated
with lipoproteins and transported to target tissues where it is converted to retinal
Fig: Absorption and fate of dietary vit A. FFA : Free fatty acid. PA : Palmitic acid
In the mucosal cells of intestine the retinol generated from animal and
plant sources is esterified with fatty acids and incorporated into
chylomicrons which enter blood stream via lymph. In the circulation
chylomicron remnants formed from chylomicrons contain virtually all
retinyl esters. These chylomicron remnants are taken up by the liver. In
the liver, retinyl esters are liberated from chylomicron remnants and
are hydrolysed to retinol and free fatty acid. Retinyl ester is
resynthesized in liver with palmitic acid and stored as lipoglycoprotein
in lipocytes of liver
Transport of Vitamin A
Under normal conditions retinyl esters are constantly broken down and resynthesized in the
liver. Free retinol formed in the liver is transported to target cells by way of protein
complex. It is a multistage process. In hepatocyte retinol combines with apo retinol binding
protein (APRB) to form holo retinol binding protein (HRBP) which is a binary complex. This
binary complex is processed by golgi complex and it is secreted (Fig). In the plasma
the binary complex combines with pre-albumin to form ternary complex which reaches target
cells. The ternary complex then binds to specific receptor on cell membrane of target tissues
and retinol is released into cell. In target cells some of the retinol is converted to retinal
and retinoic acid. Within cells retinol and retinoic acid combine with cellular retinol
binding protein (CRBP) and cellular retinoic acid binding protein (CRABP) respectively. Then
these complexes enter the nucleus to exert their action
Functions of Vitamin A
Three major retinoids: retinal, retinol and retinoic acid have unique
functions.
1. Retinal is required for normal and color vision.
2. Retinol is required for reproduction and growth. Retinol supports
spermatogenesis, oogenesis and placental development.
3. Retinol is required for differentiation and function as steroid
hormone.
Fig: Transport of vit A from liver to target cells. RE : Receptor
4. Retinoic acid is required for the synthesis of glycoproteins or mucopolysaccharides. Retinoyl
phosphate act as glycosyl carrier.
5. Retinoic acid also acts as a steroid hormone. It also promotes growth and differentiation but only
to some extent.
6. Retinol and retinoic acid are involved in regulation of gene expression.
7. Vitamin A has several other important functions which are not yet clear. Some of them are given
below.
(a) Vitamin A is required for integrity of epithelial cells of gastro-intestinal tract, skin, respiratory
tract and urinary tract and salivary glands.
(b) Vitamin A is required for maintenance of nervous tissue particularly myelin sheath formation.
(c) Vitamin A is required for tooth formation and bone growth.
(d) Cancer. Retinoids are found to prevent chemical carcinogenesis. Synthetic retinoids are found to
prevent breast cancer and bladder cancer. β-carotenes function as antioxidants (Free radical
scavenger). They eliminate reactive oxygen species.
(f) Acne and psoriasis. Vitamin A is useful in treatment of skin disorders like acne and psoriasis
Retinal and vision
Rods and cones present in the retina are responsible for normal and colour vision. Rods are
responsible for vision in dim light where as cones are responsible for visual acuity and color
vision. The rods contain visual pigment rhodopsin which is made up of 11-cis retinal and
opsin a glycoprotein. Rhodopsin is an integral membrane glycoprotein. 11-cis retinal is
attached to apoprotein opsin through ε-amino group of lysine. When photon (light) strikes,
it undergoes conversion to all trans retinol. At the same time apoprotein dissociates as
opsin. The conversion of rhodopsin to opsin and all trans retinal occurs through several
intermediates whose life span ranges from picoseconds to a minute. So in the first stage of
visual process a light signal is converted into atomic motion. In the next stage this atomic
motion is converted into nerve impulse.
Symptoms of Vitamin A deficiency
1. Night blindness. In early stages of Vitamin A deficiency the affected individual is
not able to see clearly in dim light or night due to block in the resynthesis of
rhodopsin. In the later stage of deficiency the affected individual cannot see or
read in dim light. Thus loss of night vision (night blindness) is the major initial
symptom of Vitamin A deficiency. Night blindness in adults or in preschool children
is common in some areas where intake of vitamin A is low.
If the night blindness is not treated, it progresses to xerophthalmia in which
conjunctival and corneal epithelium of the eye is keratinised. Due to keratinisation
of epithelium, conjunctiva is dry, thickens, wrinkled and pigmented. This condition
is called xerosis conjunctiva. Further in affected children of below 6 years age
Bitot’s spots a triangular shaped white plaques on conjunctiva are seen. Due to
keratinisation of epithelium, cornea is dry and gives dull appearance (xerosis
cornea).
When xerosis of conjuctiva and cornea is not treated it leads to keratomalacia which is
characterized by degenerated corneal epithelium. Finally permanent blindness results from
corneal perforation or ulceration and scarring.
2. Growth of bone and formation of tooth are defective. Thick and long bones are formed.
3. Nerve growth also affected. Degeneration of myelin sheath occurs.
4. Keratinisation of mucous secreting epithelial cells (hyperkeratosis) lining respiratory tract
and reproductive tract occurs. Mucous secretion by salivary and lacrymal glands is also
affected.
5. Deposition of keratin in skin (xeroderma) gives rise to characteristic toad skin
appearance.
6. Reproductive disorders like testicular degeneration, resorption of foetus or foetal
malformation are observed.
7. Degenerative changes in kidneys.
Vit. A deficiency anemia
Anemia due to Vitamin A deficiency. Prevalence of Vitamin A deficiency
anemia is high in populations of developing countries. Vitamin A
appears to be involved in pathogenesis of anemia through diverse
biological mechanisms like:
(a) Growth and differentiation of erythrocytes.
(b) Proliferation of immune cells.
(c) Mobilization of iron stores.
Vit. A supplementation reduces severity of anemia.
Sources
(a) Animal sources. As mentioned earlier it is present as retinol esters in animal foods.
Marine fish oils like halibut liver oil, cod liver oil and shark liver oils are excellent sources.
Liver of sheep or goat or pig is also excellent source. Butter, egg, and milk are good
sources. Freshwater fish contain Vitamin A2 (dehydroretinol) which is only 40% active.
(b) Plant sources. In plant foods, vitamin A is present as carotenes. Plant oil like red palm
oil is excellent source. Other plant sources are Leafy vegetables. Amarnath leaves,
coriander leaves, curry leaves, drumstick leaves, spinach and cabbage are good sources.
Yellow vegetables like carrot, pumpkin and sweet potatoes and other vegetables like bottle
gouard, drum sticks and ripe tomatoes also contain appreciable amounts of vitamin A.
Fruits. Yellow pigmented fruits papaya, mango, jackfruit, banana and oranges also contain
vitamin A in good amounts
Daily requirement (RDA)
Adults (men and women). 750 μg of retinol or 3 mg of carotene (2500
I.U)
(International units, 1 I.U = 0.3 μg of retinol)
Vit A toxicity (Hyper vitaminosis)
It occurs when mega doses of Vitamin A (about 10-20 times of RDA) are
taken or other vitamin A containing preparations are taken. Signs and
symptoms of vitamin A toxicity are weakness, headache, muscle
stiffness, increased intracranial pressure and hypertension. Fortunately
symptoms disappear within a week after stopping excess intake.
Antagonists of Vit A
Some chemically unrelated compounds are found to antagonize
vitamin A in experimental animals. Some are citral, sodium benzoate
and monobromobenzene.
Thank you