 Define sensors and actuators. What is the fundamental difference between them?

o Sensors are devices that detect physical parameters such as temperature, light, or
gas concentration. They convert these parameters into measurable output signals.
Actuators, on the other hand, are components within a machine responsible for
physical movement or actuation of other parts. The fundamental difference lies in
their functionality: sensors sense physical parameters, while actuators act upon
them.
 Explain the significance of micro and nano-scale sensors in modern technology.
o Micro and nano-scale sensors offer several advantages such as smaller size,
higher sensitivity, and lower power consumption. They enable the development of
miniaturized devices for various applications, including medical implants,
environmental monitoring, and consumer electronics. Additionally, these sensors
facilitate advancements in fields like nanotechnology and molecular
manufacturing.
 How do gas sensors and VOC sensors work? Provide examples of volatile organic
compounds.
o Gas sensors detect specific gases in the environment by measuring changes in
resistance, capacitance, or other electrical properties when exposed to the gas.
VOC (Volatile Organic Compound) sensors specifically detect organic
compounds that easily evaporate into the air at room temperature. Examples of
VOCs include ethanol (found in alcoholic beverages), acetone (used in nail polish
remover), and methanol (found in antifreeze).
 Discuss the importance of sensor selection based on application requirements.
o Sensor selection is crucial for ensuring optimal performance in a given
application. Factors such as accuracy, sensitivity, response time, and
environmental conditions must be considered. For example, selecting the
appropriate gas sensor for monitoring air quality requires consideration of the
target gases, detection limits, and operating temperature range.
 What role does molecular manufacturing play in developing sensors and actuators?
o Molecular manufacturing enables the precise deposition of materials at the atomic
level, leading to the development of advanced sensors and actuators. This
technology allows for the creation of nano-scale components with enhanced
properties, contributing to the miniaturization and performance improvement of
sensing devices.
 Explain the process of fabricating sensors using lithography.
o Lithography is a manufacturing technique used to create patterns on a substrate
surface. In sensor fabrication, lithography is employed to define the sensor's
structure and features at micro or nano-scale levels. This process involves coating
 the substrate with a photosensitive material (photoresist), exposing it to light
through a mask with the desired pattern, and then etching or depositing materials
to form the sensor structure.
 How do sensors contribute to preventing drunk driving incidents?
o Sensors, particularly ethanol sensors, can be used to detect alcohol levels in a
person's breath. By integrating such sensors into breathalyzer devices, law
enforcement agencies can accurately measure blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
levels in individuals suspected of drunk driving. This technology helps enforce
laws against impaired driving and promotes road safety.
 Describe the American National Standards Institute's definition of a sensor.
o The American National Standards Institute defines a sensor as a device that
provides a usable output in response to a specific measurand. In other words,
sensors acquire physical parameters from the environment and convert them into
signals suitable for processing or analysis.
 What are some examples of physical parameters that sensors can detect?
o Sensors can detect various physical parameters, including temperature, light
intensity, gas concentration, pressure, humidity, motion, and sound. These
parameters are essential for monitoring environmental conditions, controlling
processes, and gathering data for analysis.
 How does a cantilever relate to mechanical sensors?
o A cantilever is a type of mechanical structure resembling a diving board or a
beam anchored at one end. In sensor applications, cantilevers can be used as
sensing elements, where changes in mechanical deflection or resonance frequency
indicate the presence of specific analytes. Cantilever-based sensors are commonly
used in atomic force microscopy and chemical sensing applications.

 What are the three main parameters to consider when choosing a sensor?
o When choosing a sensor, one must consider environmental factors (such as temperature and
humidity), economic factors (cost and availability), and sensor characteristics (including
response time, accuracy, and sensitivity).
 Explain the application areas of accelerometers and provide examples of their use.
o Accelerometers are used to measure acceleration along a single axis and find applications in
vibration analysis, blast detection, impact monitoring (e.g., airbags), and motion detection (e.g.,
in washing machines and heart monitors).
 How do light sensors work, and what are the components of a light sensor?
o Light sensors detect light intensity using components such as photoconductors (e.g.,
photodiodes) or photoresistors. These sensors find applications in cameras, infrared detectors,
and ambient lighting control systems.
 Discuss the importance of temperature sensors in various applications. Provide examples.
o Temperature sensors are essential for monitoring temperature in chemical plants, engines,
computers, and medical devices. They can be based on various physical phenomena like
resistance, capacitance, or thermoelectric effects.
 Explain the working principle of magnetic field sensors and their applications.
o Magnetic field sensors operate based on the Hall effect, where the Hall voltage is proportional to
the magnetic field strength. These sensors are used in power steering, security systems, and
current measurements on transmission lines.
 What is the role of ultrasonic sensors, and how do they operate?
o Ultrasonic sensors are used for position measurements and operate by emitting sound waves in
the range of 2 to 13 megahertz. They find applications in sonar and radar systems for distance
measurement.
 Describe the function of a photo gate and provide examples of its applications.
o Photo gates are used in counting applications and motion detection. They consist of an infrared
transmitter and receiver placed at opposite ends, recording the time at which light is blocked by
an object passing through.
 How do CO2 gas sensors measure CO2 levels in an environment?
o CO2 gas sensors measure the level of CO2 in an environment by monitoring the infrared
radiation absorbed by CO2 molecules. The level is typically measured in parts per million (ppm),
and variations in absorption indicate changes in CO2 concentration.
 Define direct and indirect sensors, providing examples of each.
o Direct sensors directly convert a non-electrical stimulus into an electrical signal (e.g., a
thermocouple for temperature measurement), while indirect sensors require multiple conversion
steps (e.g., a fiber optic displacement sensor).
 Discuss the significance of understanding sensor technologies in research and development.
o Understanding sensor technologies is crucial for developing innovative solutions in various
fields, including healthcare, automotive, and electronics. Sensors play a vital role in data
collection, monitoring, and control systems, driving advancements in research and development
initiatives.

Lec 2

 Why is silicon commonly used as a substrate material for sensor fabrication?

o Silicon is preferred for sensor fabrication due to its semiconductor properties, abundance, and
compatibility with microfabrication techniques. It offers excellent electrical and mechanical
properties, making it suitable for integrating sensors with electronic circuits.
 Explain the importance of clean room environments in sensor fabrication processes.
o Clean room environments are essential to prevent contamination during sensor fabrication.
Impurities can adversely affect sensor performance, especially in nanoscale technologies. Clean
rooms with controlled particle levels ensure the quality and reliability of sensor components.
 Describe the fabrication process of silicon wafers using the Czochralski and Float-zone
techniques.
o The Czochralski technique involves melting polycrystalline silicon in a crucible and pulling a
single crystal silicon boule from the melt. The Float-zone technique uses a similar process but
involves passing a floating zone of high temperature across a polycrystalline rod to create a
single crystal.
 How can the resistance of a micro heater be determined? Discuss the factors that influence
its resistance.
o The resistance of a micro heater can be determined using the equation: �=���×�R=ρW×TL ,
where �ρ is the resistivity of the material, �L is the length of the coil, �W is the width of the
coil, and �T is the thickness of the material. Factors influencing resistance include material
choice, dimensions, and temperature.
 What are the applications of micro heaters in sensor technology? Provide examples.
o Micro heaters are used in various sensor applications such as microfluidics, electronic noses, and
smart actuators. They provide controlled heating for chemical reactions, temperature sensing, and
actuation in MEMS devices.
 Why is it essential to maintain purity during the fabrication of sensor components?
o Maintaining purity during fabrication ensures the reliability and performance of sensor
components. Contaminants can affect electrical properties, interfere with sensor signals, and lead
to device failure. Clean room environments minimize impurities, ensuring high-quality sensor
fabrication.
 Discuss the significance of material selection in designing sensor components such as micro
heaters.
o Material selection is crucial in designing sensor components to achieve desired electrical,
mechanical, and thermal properties. Different materials have varying resistivity, thermal
conductivity, and compatibility with fabrication processes. Choosing the right material ensures
optimal sensor performance and reliability.
 How does the width and length of a micro heater coil affect its resistance?
o The width and length of a micro heater coil directly influence its resistance. Increasing the length
of the coil increases resistance, while increasing the width decreases resistance. These
dimensions are crucial for designing micro heaters with specific resistance values.
 Explain the concept of resistivity and its role in determining the resistance of sensor
components.
o Resistivity is a material property that quantifies its resistance to electrical current flow. It
determines the resistance of sensor components based on their dimensions and material
 composition. Materials with higher resistivity have higher resistance, affecting the performance
of sensor devices.
 Why are micro heaters crucial in microfluidics and electronic nose applications? Provide
explanations.
o Micro heaters play a vital role in microfluidic systems by providing precise temperature control
for chemical reactions, sample analysis, and fluid manipulation. In electronic nose applications,
micro heaters facilitate the detection of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by controlling the
temperature of sensor arrays, enhancing sensitivity and selectivity.

 What are the main types of substrates used in sensor fabrication? Explain their significance.
o Answer: Substrates like silicon, glass, germanium, and polymers are used in sensor fabrication.
Silicon, being a semiconductor, is widely used due to its compatibility with microfabrication
processes.
 Describe the process of thermal oxidation and its role in sensor fabrication.
o Answer: Thermal oxidation is used to grow silicon dioxide layers on silicon wafers. It plays a
crucial role in creating insulating layers necessary for sensor fabrication, preventing direct
contact between metal components and semiconductors.
 Explain the importance of optimizing force in catheter ablation procedures for treating atrial
fibrillation.
o Answer: Optimizing force ensures effective tissue burning without causing damage or
recurrence. Too much force can lead to excessive tissue damage, while insufficient force may
result in treatment failure.
 Discuss the principle behind micro cantilevers embedded with piezoresistive sensors for tissue
stiffness assessment.
o Answer: Micro cantilevers with embedded piezoresistive sensors bend in response to tissue
stiffness variations, causing changes in resistance. This principle enables the measurement of
tissue mechanical properties, crucial for diagnosing conditions like breast cancer.
 How do physical vapor deposition techniques contribute to sensor fabrication? Provide examples.
o Answer: Physical vapor deposition techniques like thermal evaporation, electron beam
evaporation, and sputtering are used to deposit metals onto substrates, enabling the creation of
conductive elements in sensors. For instance, they are crucial for depositing metal layers in
microheaters and interdigitated electrodes.

Lec 3
Potential Exam Questions:

 What are the primary sensors discussed in the module, and what are their applications in the
medical domain?
o Answer: The sensors discussed include micro heaters, interdigitated electrodes, force sensors
(e.g., piezoelectric and piezoresistive), and piezoresistive cantilevers. They find applications in
maintaining cell viability, impedance measurements, optimizing force during medical
procedures, and assessing tissue mechanical properties, particularly in cancer diagnosis.
 Explain the importance of interdigitated electrodes and micro heaters in sensor fabrication for
medical applications.
o Answer: Interdigitated electrodes enable impedance measurements of materials, including cells,
while micro heaters maintain optimal temperatures for cell viability during experiments or
medical procedures. Both components are essential for designing sensors tailored for medical
applications.
 How do force sensors contribute to catheter ablation procedures, and why is optimizing force
crucial?
o Answer: Force sensors, such as piezoelectric and piezoresistive sensors, measure force during
catheter ablation procedures to optimize force application. Optimizing force is crucial to prevent
tissue damage, as excessive force can lead to tissue burns, while insufficient force may result in
treatment failure.
 Discuss the principle behind piezoresistive cantilevers and their application in assessing tissue
mechanical properties.
o Answer: Piezoresistive cantilevers measure changes in resistance due to cantilever bending when
force is applied, providing insights into tissue mechanical properties like elasticity. They are used
to differentiate between normal and cancerous tissues based on their mechanical properties.
 How do characterization techniques like FESEM aid in analyzing tissue properties, particularly in
cancer diagnosis?
o Answer: FESEM allows for the visualization and analysis of tissue structures and topographies,
revealing differences in properties like roughness between normal and cancerous tissues. This
information assists in understanding tissue changes associated with diseases like cancer.
 How does tissue roughness impact electrical resistance, and how can it be utilized for
cancer diagnosis?
o Answer: Differences in tissue roughness between normal and cancerous tissues
affect electrical resistance, allowing for impedance measurements with
interdigitated electrodes. Changes in impedance indicate alterations in tissue
properties, aiding in cancer diagnosis.
 Describe the fabrication process of interdigitated electrodes on silicon substrates. What
role does silicon dioxide play in this process?
o Answer: Interdigitated electrodes are fabricated using physical vapor deposition
(PVD) to deposit metals and photolithography for patterning. Silicon dioxide
serves as an insulating layer on silicon substrates to prevent electrical shorting
during metal deposition.
  How do piezoresistive sensors measure tissue elasticity, and what technique is used to
enhance sensor sensitivity?
o Answer: Piezoresistive sensors integrated with interdigitated electrodes measure
changes in resistance due to tissue deformation caused by applied forces. Bulk
micromachining techniques, such as etching, create diaphragms to enhance sensor
sensitivity.
 Explain the principle behind measuring tissue thermal conductivity using micro heaters
and thermistors.
o Answer: Micro heaters integrated into sensor chips heat tissues, while thermistors
at the indenter measure temperature changes. By analyzing temperature
differentials, the thermal conductivity of tissues can be assessed, providing
insights into disease progression.
 What potential application is anticipated in the next module, and how does it expand the
scope of sensor technology in healthcare?
o Answer: The next module anticipates exploring microfluidic sensors for rapid
drug screening. These sensors offer new avenues for healthcare applications by
providing efficient and high-throughput methods for drug screening.

Lec 4

 Explain the concept of microfluidic systems for drug screening. How do microfluidic chips
integrate impedance sensors to assess drug efficacy?
o Answer: Microfluidic systems utilize microfluidic chips to assess drug efficacy by loading cells
onto interdigitated electrode-based sensors within microfluidic channels. Impedance changes
caused by cell death upon drug exposure are measured to determine the efficacy of different
drugs.
 Discuss the significance of dynamic systems in drug screening and how microfluidic chips
address this aspect.
o Answer: Dynamic systems, such as drug diffusion in the body, play a crucial role in assessing
drug efficacy. Microfluidic chips provide a more realistic platform by mimicking dynamic
physiological conditions, allowing researchers to monitor real-time drug responses in a
controlled environment.
 Describe the fabrication process of microfluidic chips for drug screening applications. How are
interdigitated electrodes and microfluidic channels integrated into these chips?
o Answer: The fabrication process involves designing masks for creating molds, patterning
interdigitated electrodes using photolithography, and forming microfluidic channels using soft
lithography. Interdigitated electrodes are patterned on the chip's surface, while microfluidic
channels are created to enable the flow of cells and drugs.
 What is antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST), and why is it important in healthcare? How can
sensors be used for rapid AST, and what challenges do they address?
o Answer: AST involves assessing bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics, which is crucial for
effective treatment. Sensors for rapid AST capture bacterial samples and assess their
susceptibility to antibiotics, addressing the growing concern of antibiotic resistance by providing
timely and accurate information for antibiotic selection and treatment planning.
 Explain the concept of resistance in bacterial infections and its implications for antibiotic
treatment. How can sensors aid in identifying antibiotic-resistant bacteria?
o Answer: Resistance in bacterial infections refers to the ability of bacteria to withstand the effects
of antibiotics, making treatment ineffective. Sensors can identify antibiotic-resistant bacteria by
assessing their response to antibiotics, allowing for tailored treatment strategies based on
bacterial susceptibility profiles.

Lec 5

 What is angiogenesis, and why is it significant in cancer research?

o Angiogenesis is the process of new blood vessel formation, crucial for supplying nutrients to
growing tissues. In cancer, angiogenesis supports tumor growth by providing additional energy
and resources for cell proliferation.
 How can microfluidic chips be used to study angiogenesis?
o Microfluidic chips can simulate the microenvironment of tissues and facilitate the observation of
vessel formation in cancerous tissues. By analyzing vessel growth in response to different drug
treatments, researchers can identify potential anti-angiogenic therapies.
 Explain the functioning of the flexible MEMS sensor in measuring tissue properties.
o The flexible MEMS sensor utilizes strain gauges and gold pads to measure both electrical and
mechanical properties of tissues. Changes in tissue resistance and stiffness, detected by the
sensor, provide insights into tissue elasticity and mechanical behavior.
 Why is a dynamic microfluidic chip preferred for evaluating immunotherapy drugs?
o A dynamic microfluidic chip allows continuous monitoring of drug effects on patient-derived
cells, mimicking the dynamic nature of the human body. This enables researchers to assess drug
efficacy in real-time and tailor treatment plans for individual patients.
 How does the microfluidic chip for immunotherapy assist in personalized treatment
selection?
o By analyzing the response of patient-derived cells to different immunotherapy drugs, the
microfluidic chip helps identify the most effective treatment for individual patients. This
personalized approach enhances treatment outcomes and minimizes adverse effects.
 What role does the electronic nose play in disease detection, and how does it work?
o The electronic nose aims to detect diseases non-invasively by analyzing breath signatures. By
identifying specific volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in exhaled breath, the electronic nose
 can indicate the presence of certain diseases, offering a promising diagnostic tool for early
detection and monitoring.

Lec 12

Q1: What are the key steps involved in the photolithography process? A1: The photolithography
process includes substrate preparation, spin coating of photoresist, soft baking, mask alignment
and exposure, development, hard baking, and inspection.

Q2: Differentiate between positive and negative photoresists. A2: Positive photoresists become
stronger in areas exposed to UV light, while negative photoresists become weaker in exposed
areas.
Q3: Explain the concept of sacrificial layers in surface micromachining. A3: Sacrificial layers
are temporary layers used in surface micromachining to facilitate the fabrication of structures.
They are later removed to allow movement of structural layers, resulting in the desired
microstructure.

Q4: What are the advantages of surface micromachining over bulk micromachining? A4: Surface
micromachining allows for higher integration density and lower per-die cost compared to bulk
micromachining. It also enables the creation of complex structures on the substrate's surface
without the need for bulk material removal.

Q5: Describe the process flow for fabricating a micro heater using photolithography. A5: The
process involves substrate preparation, deposition of a metal layer, spin coating of positive
photoresist, soft baking, mask alignment and exposure with a bright field mas

Lec 13

 What are the three types of wafer bonding techniques mentioned in the module?
o Answer: The three types of wafer bonding techniques are direct bonding, anodic bonding, and
intermediate layer bonding.
 How does DRIE enable high aspect ratio etches in silicon substrates?
o Answer: DRIE involves etching silicon using reactive gases like fluorine and SF6, along with
polymer deposition to smoothen the sidewalls. This process allows for precise and deep etching
with vertical sidewalls, suitable for creating microstructures in silicon.
 Describe the fabrication process of a microfluidic device using soft lithography.
o Answer: The process involves preparing a silicon wafer, coating it with photoresist, patterning
using photolithography, etching the silicon using DRIE, creating a PDMS mold, and bonding
 PDMS with glass using oxygen plasma treatment. This results in a microfluidic channel structure
suitable for fluid flow experiments.
 Why is silicon dioxide used as a masking layer in DRIE?
o Answer: Silicon dioxide acts as a masking layer in DRIE because it has a much lower etch rate
compared to silicon when exposed to reactive gases. This property allows precise etching of
silicon while protecting certain areas defined by the silicon dioxide mask.
 What role does oxygen plasma treatment play in PDMS-glass bonding?
o Answer: Oxygen plasma treatment is used to activate the surfaces of PDMS and glass, enhancing
their adhesion properties. When subjected to oxygen plasma, the surfaces become chemically
reactive, facilitating strong bonding between PDMS and glass when pressed together.

Lec 14
 Question: Explain the process of fabricating a strain gauge using photolithography techniques.
Answer: Fabricating a strain gauge involves several steps:
o Start with an oxidized silicon wafer.
o Deposit strain gauge material using techniques like physical vapor deposition (PVD) or chemical
vapor deposition (CVD).
o Spin-coat positive photoresist on the wafer and perform a soft bake.
o Use a bright field mask for UV exposure, followed by developing the photoresist to create the
desired pattern.
o Perform a hard bake, then etch the strain gauge material using an appropriate etchant.
o Strip off the remaining photoresist using acetone to reveal the strain gauge pattern.
 Question: Discuss the importance of controlling etch rates and temperatures during silicon
etching in MEMS fabrication. Answer: Controlling etch rates and temperatures is crucial for
achieving precise dimensions in MEMS fabrication. The etch rate determines the rate at which
silicon is removed during etching processes, impacting the final device's dimensions.
Temperature influences etch rates, with higher temperatures generally resulting in faster etching.
By optimizing etch rates and temperatures, manufacturers can ensure accurate and uniform
etching, critical for achieving desired device specifications.
 Question: Describe the operation and applications of MEMS-based sensors in smartphones.
Answer: MEMS-based sensors in smartphones serve various functions, including motion sensing,
environmental monitoring, and user interaction. Accelerometers detect motion and orientation
changes, enabling features like screen rotation and gesture controls. Gyroscopes measure angular
velocity, enhancing image stabilization and gaming experiences. Additionally, MEMS-based
sensors like microphones, pressure sensors, and ambient light sensors contribute to smartphone
functionalities such as voice commands, altitude measurement, and automatic screen brightness
adjustment.
 Question: Explain the concept of bulk micromachining in MEMS fabrication and its application
in diaphragm formation. Answer: Bulk micromachining is a MEMS fabrication technique that
involves etching silicon substrates to create three-dimensional structures. In diaphragm
formation, bulk micromachining is used to etch silicon substrates, leaving behind thin membranes
that can flex in response to external stimuli. By controlling etch rates and using appropriate
etchants like KOH or TMAH for wet etching or SF6 and CF4 for dry etching, manufacturers can
precisely shape diaphragms for various sensor applications.
 Question: Discuss the role of MEMS technology in biomedical applications and provide
examples. Answer: MEMS technology plays a significant role in biomedical applications,
enabling miniaturized sensors and devices for healthcare monitoring and diagnostics. Examples
include:
o Pacemakers: MEMS sensors monitor heart rhythms and adjust pacing accordingly.
o Implantable coronary pressure measurements: MEMS pressure sensors monitor blood flow in
coronary arteries.
o Retinal prosthesis: MEMS-based devices restore vision in individuals with retinal degenerative
diseases.
o Glucose monitoring devices: MEMS sensors measure glucose levels in diabetic patients, offering
real-time monitoring and management.