PRINCIPLE OF 3 Ø ALTERNATOR

By

Melkior, U. F

1
 Principle of Operation
• The operation of a synchronous generator is based on Faraday's law
of electromagnetic induction, and in an ac synchronous generator
the generation of emf's is by relative motion of conductors and
magnetic flux.
• These machines can be used as either motors or generators but their
predominant use is in generation.

There are a number of sources of energy used to turn the turbines:-

(a) Gas (b) Steam

(c) Combined cycle (d) Nuclear
(e) Hydro (f) Wind
(g) Wave (h) Photovoltaic
2
Principle of Operation

Multiple
Pole
Rotor 3
 Principle of Operation
•In constructing a •There are two categories of Synchronous
synchronous machine a point machines:
to note is that the stator is (a) those with salient or projecting poles
fixed and the poles rotate. (b) those with cylindrical rotors
2-pole Cylindrical Rotor A Cylindrical Rotor

4
 Principle of Operation

4-Pole Salient Rotor A Salient Pole Rotor 5

Principle of Operation
Its characteristic feature is that the
armature rotates through a stationary
magnetic field, and the generated AC
is brought to the load by means of
slip rings and brushes.

The revolving-armature alternator is

found only in alternators of small
power rating and is not generally
used. This is because a rotating
armature requires slip rings and
brushes to conduct the current from
the armature to the load.
6
Principle of Operation
The revolving-field type alternator
has a stationary armature and a
rotating magnetic field.

The generated voltage can be

connected directly to the load
without having to pass across the
slip rings and brushes.

The voltage applied to generate the

rotating field is a small DC voltage
(called a “field excitation” voltage)
7
Single Phase Alternator
A single-phase alternator has all the
armature conductors connected in series

The stator is two pole. The winding is

wound in two distinct pole groups, both
poles being wound in the same direction
around the stator frame.

The rotor also consists of two pole groups,

adjacent poles being of opposite polarity.

8
 Single Phase Alternator
The two poles of the stator
winding are connected to each
other so that the AC voltages
are in phase, so they add.

As the rotor (field) turns, its poles will induce AC voltages in

the stator (armature) windings. Since one rotor pole is in the
same position relative to a stator pole as any other rotor pole,
both the stator poles are cut by equal amounts of magnetic lines
of force at any time. As a result, the voltages induced in the two
poles of the stator winding have the same amplitude or value at
any given instant. 9
 Three Phase Alternator
The three-phase alternator has VB
three single-phase windings
spaced so that the voltage
induced in any one is phase- 120O VA
120O
displaced by 120 degrees from 120O
the other two.

V
A B C VC
O
L The voltage waveforms
T generated across each phase
A are drawn on a graph phase-
G displaced 120 degrees from
E each other.
10
 Three Phase Alternator
•The three phases are independent of each other.

•One point from each winding can be connected to form a neutral

and thus make a wye connection.
•The voltage from this point to any one of the line leads will be the
phase voltage. The line voltage across any two line leads is the vector
sum of the individual phase voltages. The line voltage is 1.73, (3 ),
times the phase voltage.
•Since the windings form only one path for current flow between
phases, the line and phase currents are equal.

11
 Three Phase Alternator

•A three-phase stator can also be connected so that the phases form a

“delta” connection.

•In the delta connection the line voltages are equal to the phase
voltages, but the line currents will be equal to the vector sum of the
phase currents.

•Since the phases are 120 degrees out of phase, the line current will
be 1.73, (3 ), times the phase current. Both "wye" and the "delta"
connections are used in alternators.
12
Three Phase Stator Connection

A
A

B C B
C

Three Phase
Three Phase STAR
Connected
DELTA Connected
13
 Three Phase Alternator
•The frequency of the AC generated by an alternator depends upon
the number of poles and the speed of the rotor

•When a rotor has rotated through an angle so that two adjacent

rotor poles (a north and a south) have passed one winding, the
voltage induced in that one winding will have varied through a
complete cycle of 360 electrical degrees.

•A two pole machine must rotate at twice the speed of a four-pole

machine to generate the same frequency.
•The magnitude of the voltage generated by an alternator can be
varied by adjusting the current on the rotor which changes the
strength of the magnetic field.
14
 Three Phase Alternator
•A two pole alternator produces one electrical cycle for each complete
mechanical rotation.
•A four pole alternator will produce two electrical cycles for each
mechanical rotation because two north and two south poles move by
each winding on the stator for one complete revolution of the rotor.

f = (nRotor)(p/2)/60 = (nRotorp)/120
where nRotor is the speed of the rotor in revolutions per minute,
p is the number of poles
f is the electrical line frequency produced by the alternator.

The speed of the rotor must be divided by 60 to change from

revolutions per minute to revolutions per second. 15
Three Phase Alternator

16
 Three Phase Alternator
•In an alternator the output voltage varies with the load.

•There are two voltage drops.{ IR & IXL }

•The IXL drop is due to the inductive reactance of the armature
windings.
•Both the IR drop and the IXL drop decrease the output voltage as the
load increases.

•The change in voltage from no-load to full-load is called the “voltage

regulation” of an alternator.
•A constant voltage output from an alternator is maintained by
varying the field strength as required by changes in load.
17
 OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

ZZ
Field Regulator FL Zs V
Armature
Ea a.c. Circuit
DC F
Source Zs Ea Zs
Z Ea
L
A
Field Current

To obtain the open circuit characteristics the machine is driven at

rated speed without the load. Readings of the line-to-line voltage are
taken for various values of field current. The voltage, except in very
low voltage machines, is stepped down by the means of a potential
transformer. 18
 OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

Armature Phase
Voltage/V

Field Current/A
If not for the magnetic saturation of the iron, the open
circuit characteristics would be linear as represented
by the air gap line 19
 OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

On open circuit IL = Ia = 0

Vt = E - ILZs
where Zs = Ra + jXs
and Xs = XL + Xar
On open circuit Vt = E

Alternating current produces a flux which is proportional to IL

(reduces the total flux).

This is called the armature reactance effect represented by Xar

On open circuit Xar = 0.

20
 SHORT CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
a.c.
A
ZZ
Armature
Field Regulator
FL Zs

short circuit
Ea Circuit
DC F
Source Zs Ea Zs
Z Ea
L
A
Field Current

The three terminals of the armature are short circuited

The machine is driven at approximately synchronous rated speed and
measurements of armature short circuit currents are made for various
values of field currents usually up to and above rated armature
current. 21
 SHORT CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

On short-circuit the machine runs

Short Circuit Current(Is.c) /A

at it synchronous speed (n = ns)

and IL = IFL

For s/c Vt = 0,
Therefore E / IL = Zs
and Isc = IL = E / Zs

Field Current (If)/A

In conventional synchronous machines the short circuit characteristics
is practically linear because the iron is unsaturated up to rated
armature current 22
 LOAD CONDITIONS

A
ZZ a.c. Load
Field Regulator

FL Zs
Ea V a.c. Bank
DC F
Source Zs Ea Zs
Z Ea
Armature Delta/Star
L Circuit
A Connected
Field Current

The machine is introduced to normal working conditions

23
 Per Phase Equivalent Circuit

Ra => armature resistance per phase

XL => leakage reactance.

24
Power flow out of a Synchronous Machine

Generator power
flow => out

Motor power flow

=> in
25
 Power flow out of a Synchronous Machine

 = Load angles
Eδ  Vt 0  I L  . jX s

In practical synchronous machines, except for small ones,

Xs >> Ra so we could assume that Zs = jXs in the analysis.
Therefore we get E = Vt + jILXs 26
 Power flow out of a Synchronous Machine

Power = VIcos

Considering the diagram h = ILXscos = Esin

Therefore ILXscos = Esin 27

 Power flow out of a Synchronous Machine

For maximum power sin = 1

Therefore  = 90

In which case
28
 The induced voltage in a 3-phase set of coils

In three coils, each of NC turns, placed around the rotor magnetic field,
the induced in each coil will have the same magnitude and phases
differing by 1200:

eaa ' (t )  NCm cos mt

ebb ' (t )  NCm cos mt 120
ecc ' (t )  NCm cos mt 
240
Peak voltage:

Emax  NCm Emax  2 NC f

2
RMS voltage: EA  NC f  2 NC f
2
 Internal generated voltage of a synchronous
generator
The magnitude of internal generated voltage induced in a given stator is

EA  2 NC f  K
where K is a constant representing the construction of the machine,  is flux in it
and  is its rotation speed.

Since flux in the

machine depends
on the field current
through it, the
internal generated
voltage is a
function of the
rotor field current.
Magnetization curve (open-circuit characteristic) of a
synchronous machine
 Equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator

The internally generated voltage in a single phase of a

synchronous machine EA is not usually the voltage appearing
at its terminals. It equals to the output voltage V only when
there is no armature current in the machine. The reasons
that the armature voltage EA is not equal to the output voltage
V are:
1. Distortion of the air-gap magnetic field caused by the
current flowing in the stator (armature reaction); Self-
2. inductance of the armature coils; Resistance of the
3. armature coils;
 Equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator

Armature reaction:

• When the rotor of a

synchronous generator is
spinning, a voltage EA is
induced in its stator.
• When a load is connected, a Lagging
current starts flowing load
creating a magnetic field in
machine’s stator.
• This stator magnetic field BS
adds to the rotor (main)
magnetic field BR affecting
the total magnetic field and,
therefore, the phase
voltage.
 Equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator

The load current IA will create a stator magnetic field BS, which will
produce the armature reaction voltage Estat. Therefore, the phase voltage
will be

V  EA  Estat
The net magnetic flux will be

Bnet  BR  BS
Rotor field Stator field
 Equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator
Since the armature reaction voltage lags the
current by 90 degrees, it can be modeled by

Estat   jXI A
The phase voltage is then
V  EA  jXI A
However, in addition to armature reactance effect, the stator coil
has a self-inductance LA (XA is the corresponding reactance) and
the stator has resistance RA. The phase voltage is thus

V  EA  jXI A  jX A I A  RI A
 Equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator

Often, armature reactance and self-

inductance are combined into the
synchronous reactance of the machine:

XS  X  XA
Therefore, the phase voltage is

V  EA  jX S I A  RI A

The equivalent circuit of a 3-phase

synchronous generator is shown.

The adjustable resistor Radj controls

the field current and, therefore, the
rotor magnetic field.
 Equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator

A synchronous generator can be Y- or -connected:

The terminal voltage will be

VT  3V  for Y VT  V  for 
 Equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator

Since – for balanced loads – the three phases of a synchronous

generator are identical except for phase angles, per-phase
equivalent circuits are often used.
 Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator
(similar to that of a transformer)
Since the voltages in a synchronous generator are AC voltages, they are
usually expressed as phasors. A vector plot of voltages and currents within
one phase is called a phasor diagram.

A phasor diagram of a synchronous

generator with a unity power factor
(resistive load)

Lagging power factor (inductive load): a

larger than for leading PF internal
generated voltage EA is needed to form
the same phase voltage.

Leading power factor (capacitive load).

 The Synchronous generator operating alone

The behavior of a synchronous generator varies greatly under

load depending on the power factor of the load and on
whether the generator is working alone or in parallel with other
synchronous generators.

Although most of the synchronous generators in the world

operate as parts of large power systems, we start our
discussion assuming that the synchronous generator works
alone.

Unless otherwise stated, the speed of the generator is

assumed constant.
 The Synchronous generator operating alone

A increase in the load is an

increase in the real and/or
reactive power drawn from the
generator.

Since the field resistor is unaffected, the field current is constant and, therefore, the
flux  is constant too. Since the speed is assumed as constant, the magnitude of
the internal generated voltage is constant also.
Assuming the same power factor of the load, change in load will change the
magnitude of the armature current IA. However, the angle will be the same (for a
constant PF). Thus, the armature reaction voltage jXSIA will be larger for the
increased load. Since the magnitude of the internal generated voltage is constant
EA  V  jX S I A
Armature reaction voltage vector will “move parallel” to its initial position.
 The Synchronous generator operating alone

Increase load effect on generators with

Leading PF

Lagging PF

Unity PF
 The Synchronous generator operating alone

Generally, when a load on a synchronous generator is added, the following

changes can be observed:

1. For lagging (inductive) loads, the phase (and terminal) voltage

decreases significantly.
2. For unity power factor (purely resistive) loads, the phase (and
terminal) voltage decreases slightly.
3. For leading (capacitive) loads, the phase (and terminal) voltage rises.

Effects of adding loads can be described by the voltage regulation:

Vnl  V fl
VR  100%
V fl
Where Vnl is the no-load voltage of the generator and Vfl is its full-load voltage.
 The Synchronous generator operating alone
• A synchronous generator operating at a lagging power factor has a fairly large
positive voltage regulation.
• A synchronous generator operating at a unity power factor has a small positive
voltage regulation.
• A synchronous generator operating at a leading power factor often has a
negative voltage regulation.
Normally, a constant terminal voltage supplied by a generator is desired. Since the
armature reactance cannot be controlled, an obvious approach to adjust the
terminal voltage is by controlling the internal generated voltage EA = K. This
may be done by changing flux in the machine while varying the value of the field
resistance RF, which is summarized:
1. Decreasing the field resistance increases the field current in the generator.
2. An increase in the field current increases the flux in the machine.
3. An increased flux leads to the increase in the internal generated voltage.
4. An increase in the internal generated voltage increases the terminal voltage of
the generator.
 Power and torque in synchronous generators

A synchronous generator needs to be connected to a prime mover whose speed is

reasonably constant (to ensure constant frequency of the generated voltage) for
various loads.
The applied mechanical power
Pin   appm
is partially converted to electricity
Pconv   ind m  3EA I A cos 
Where  is the angle between
EA and IA.

The power-flow diagram of a

synchronous generator.
 Power and torque in synchronous generators

The real output power of the synchronous generator is

Pout  3VT I L cos   3V I A cos 

The reactive output power of the synchronous generator is

Qout  3VT I L sin   3V I A sin 

Recall that the power factor angle  is the angle between V and IA and not the
angle between EA and IA.
In real synchronous machines of any size, the
armature resistance RA << XS and, therefore,
the armature resistance can be ignored. Thus, a
simplified phasor diagram indicates that

EA sin 
I A cos 
XS
 Power and torque in synchronous generators

Then the real output power of the synchronous generator can be approximated as

3VEA sin 
Pout 
XS
We observe that electrical losses are assumed to be zero since the resistance is
neglected. Therefore:
Pconv  Pout
Here  is the power angle of the machine – the angle between V and EA. This is
Different from the power factor angle/
The maximum power can be supplied by the generator when  = 900:

3VEA
Pmax 
XS
 Generator P-f Curve

• All generators are driven by a prime mover, such as a

steam, gas, water, wind turbines, diesel engines, etc.
• Regardless the power source, most of prime movers tend to
slow down with increasing the load.
• The speed drop (SD) of a prime mover is defined as:

• Most prime movers have a speed drop from 2% to 4%.

Most governors have a mechanism to adjust the turbine’s
no-load speed (set-point adjustment).
Generator P-f Curve
 Generator Q-V Curve
• A similar relationship can be derived for the reactive power Q and
terminal voltage VT.
– When supplying a lagging load to a synchronous generator, its
terminal voltage decreases.
– When adding a leading load to a synchronous generator, its terminal
voltage increases.

• Both the frequency-power and terminal voltage vs. reactive

power characteristics are important for parallel operations of
generators.
 Example
A generator with no-load frequency of 61.0 Hz and a slope of 1 MW/Hz is
connected to Load 1 consuming 1 MW of real power at 0.8 PF lagging.
Load 2 (that to be connected to the generator) consumes a real power of
0.8 MW at 0.707 PF lagging.

1. Find the operating frequency of the system before the switch is

closed. (ans. 60 Hz)
2. Find the operating frequency of the system after the switch is closed.
(ans. 59.2 Hz)
3.
What action could an operator take to restore the system frequency
to 60 Hz after both loads are connected to the generator? (ans.
increase the governor no-load set point by 0.8 Hz)
 Generator Operating Alone

• When a generator is operating alone supplying

the load:
– The real and reactive powers are the amounts
demanded by the load.
– The governor of the generator controls the
operating frequency of the system.
– The field current controls the terminal voltage of
the power system.
 Generators connected in parallel
• Most of synchronous generators are operating in parallel
with other synchronous generators to supply power to the
same power system.
• Obvious advantages of this arrangement are:
– Several generators can supply a bigger load;
– A failure of a single generator does not result in a total
power loss to the load, thus increasing reliability of the
power system;
– Individual generators may be removed from the power
system for maintenance without shutting down the load;
– A single generator not operating at near full load might
be quite inefficient. While having several generators in
parallel, it is possible to turn off some, and operate the
rest at near full-load condition.
 Conditions required for paralleling generators

• Closing the switch arbitrarily can cause severe damage. If

voltages are not the same (magnitude, frequency, phase,
the
sequence) in both lines, a very large current will flow when
• switch is this,
To avoid closed.
the following conditions must be met:
– The rms line voltages of the two generators must be equal.
– The two generators must have the same phase sequence.
– The phase angles of two “a” phases must be equal.
– The frequency of the oncoming generator must be slightly higher
than the frequency of the running system.
 Steps for paralleling generators (3-light bulb method)

1. Adjust the field current of the oncoming generator to make its terminal
voltage equal to the line voltage of the system (use a voltmeter).
2. Compare the phase sequences of the oncoming generator and the
running system by examining the three light bulbs. If all three bulbs get
bright and dark together, both generators have the same phase
sequences. If not, two of the conductors must be altered.
3. The frequency of the oncoming generator is adjusted to be slightly
higher than the system’s frequency.
4. When all three lights go out, the voltage across them is zero and,
therefore, machines are in phase. This is the time to close the switch.
 Synchronizing a generator with the utility grid
• When a synchronous generator is added to a power system, that
system is so large that one additional generator does not cause
observable changes to the system.
• An infinite bus is a power system that is so large that its voltage
and frequency do not vary regardless of how much real and
reactive power is drawn from or supplied to it (i.e., the power-
frequency and reactive power-voltage characteristics are
horizontal:
 Synchronizing a generator with the utility grid

• Consider adding a generator to an

infinite bus supplying a load.
• The frequency and terminal
voltage of all machines must be
the same.
• Therefore, their power-frequency
and reactive power-voltage
characteristics can be plotted
with a common vertical axis.
 Synchronizing a generator with the utility grid
I, (Hz)
If the no-load frequency of the oncoming
generator is slightly higher than the
system's frequency, the generator will be
"floating" on the line supplying a small
amount of real power and or no
little
reactive power.
P(kW) Pa P(kW)

/, (Hz)
If the no-load frequency of the oncoming
generator is slightly lower than the
system's frequency, the generator will
supply a negative power to the system:
the generator actually consumes energy
acting as a motor!
Many generators have circuitry ,. (kW)
P(ltW)
Pc<O
automatically disconnecting them from the
(c:oo.sumin
line when they start consuming energy. g)
 Parallel operation with the utility grid
• If an attempt is made to
increase the speed of the
generator after it is connected
to the infinite bus, the system
frequency cannot change and
the power supplied by the
generator increases.

• Note an increase in power

(with Vt and EA staying
constant), results in an
increase in the power angle δ.
 Parallel operation with the utility grid

• Adjusting the field current of the machine, it is

possible to make it to make the generator supply or
consume reactive power Q.

• Summarizing, when the generator is operating in

parallel to an infinite bus:
– The frequency and terminal voltage of the generator
are controlled by the system to which it is connected.
– The governor set points of the generator control the
real power supplied by the generator to the system.
– The generator’s field current controls the reactive
power supplied by the generator to the system.
 Parallel operation of generators of similar size

• Unlike the case of an infinite bus,

the slope of the frequency-power
curve of G1 is of the same order of
magnitude as that of G2.
• The power-frequency diagram right
after G2 is connected to the system
is shown to the right.
• As indicated previously, in order for
G2 to come in as a generator, its
frequency should be slightly higher
than that of G1.
 Parallel operation of generators of similar size

• Note that the sum of the real and

reactive powers supplied by the two
generators must equal the real and
reactive powers demanded by the load:

• If the speed of G2 is increased, its

power-frequency diagram shifts
upwards. This will in turn
– increase the real power supplied by G2
– reduce the real power supplied by G1
– increase the system frequency.
– To bring the frequency down, the speed
of G2 must be reduced.
 Example
Two generators are set to supply the same load. G1 has a no-load
frequency of 61.5 Hz and a slope sp1 of 1 MW/Hz. G2 has a no-load
frequency of 61.0 Hz and a slope sp2 of 1 MW/Hz. The two generators are
supplying a real load of 2.5 MW at 0.8 PF lagging.
a) System frequency? Ans. 60 Hz
b) Power generated by G1 and G2? Ans. 1.5 MW and 1 MW
c) An additional load of 1 MW is added, find the system frequency and the
generator powers? Ans. 59.5 Hz, 2 MW, and 1.5 MW
d) Repeat c) after the no-load frequency of G2 is increased by 0.5 Hz? Ans. 59.75
Hz, 1.75 MW and 1.75 MW.
 Parallel operation of generators of similar size

• Similarly, an increase in the field

current of G1 will result in
– An increase of the reactive power
supplied G1,
– A reduction of the reactive power
supplied G2.
– An Increase of the system terminal
voltage.
– To bring the voltage down, the field
current of G1 must be reduced.
 Synchronous Generator Rating

• The purpose of ratings is to protect the machine from damage.

Typical ratings of synchronous machines are voltage, speed,
apparent power (kVA), power factor, field current and service
factor.
– The rated frequency of a synchronous machine depends on the
power system to which it is connected. Once the operation
frequency is determined, only one rotational speed in possible for
the given number of poles.
– For a given design, the rated voltage is limited by the flux that is
capped by the field current. The rated voltage is also limited by
the windings insulation breakdown limit.
– The maximum acceptable armature current sets the apparent
power rating for a generator. The power factor of the armature
current is irrelevant for heating the armature windings.
Synchronous Generator Real and Reactive Power

P  Vt I a cos
Q  Vt I a sin


Vt
P Ei sin 
Xd
Vt
Q {Ei cos   Vt }
Xd
 Generator Loading Capability Diagram

- -- -----
- , x. -
1 9

,
.

J Leading power fac:-.o<

P-

n
Generator Loading Capability
Generator Loading Capability Curve