INTRODUCTION

This part deals primarily with concrete formed with the common binding
agent of Portland cement and a loose mass consisting of sand
and gravel. With minor variations, this is the material used mostly for
structural concrete—to produce building structures, pavements, and
foundations. For common structural uses, the tensile strength weakness
of the concrete is modified by the addition of steel reinforcing
rods (round bars); when this occurs, the construction is described as
reinforced concrete.
Concrete made from natural materials was used by ancient builders
thousands of years ago. Modern concrete, made with industrially
produced cement, was developed in the early part of the nineteenth
century when the process for producing Portland cement was
developed. Because of its lack of tensile strength, however, concrete
was used principally for crude, massive structures—foundations,
bridge piers, and heavy walls.
In the mid- to late-nineteenth century, several builders experimented
with the technique of inserting iron or steel rods into relatively thin
structures of concrete to enhance their ability to resist tensile forces.
This was the beginning of what we now know as reinforced concrete.
From ancient times until now, there has been a steady accumulation
of experience derived from experiments, research, and—most
recently—intense development of commercial products. As a result,
there is now available to the designer an immense variety of products
under the general classification of concrete, although the range is
somewhat smaller if structural usage is required.
Strength of Concrete
◦ resistance to compressive stress
◦ the common practice is to specify a desired limiting capacity of compressive stress, designated as
f‘c , to design a concrete mix to achieve that limit, and to test samples of cast and hardened
concrete to verify its true capacity for compression.
◦ For design work, the capacity of concrete for all purposes is established as some percentage of f ‘c .
◦ Attainment of a quality of concrete to achieve a particular level of compressive resistance generally also
serves to certify various other properties, such as hardness, density, and durability. Choice for the desired
strength is typically based on the form of construction.
◦ For most purposes a strength of 3000–5000 psi [21–34 MPa] for f ’c is usually adequate. However, strengths
of 20,000 psi [135 MPa] and higher have recently been achieved for lower columns in very tall structures.
As it makes up the major bulk of the finished concrete, the aggregate
is of primary importance for stress resistance. It must be hard and
durable and must be graded in size so that small particles fill the voids
between larger ones, producing a dense mass before the cement and
water are added. The weight of concrete is usually determined primarily
by the density of the aggregate.
The other major factor for concrete strength is the amount of water
used for mixing. The basic idea is to use as little water as possible,
as an excess will water down the water–cement mixture and produce
very weak, porous concrete. However, this must be balanced against
the need for a wet mix that can be easily placed in forms and finished.
A lot of skill and some science is involved in producing an ideal mix.
Stiffness of Concrete

◦ the stiffness of concrete is measured by the modulus of elasticity , designated E in 𝒍𝒃/𝒊𝒏𝟐 or MPA
◦ This modulus is established by tests and is the ratio of stress to strain.
◦ The magnitude of elasticity for concrete, Ec, depends on the weight of the concrete and its
strength. For values of unit weight between 90 and 155 lb/ft³ or pcf [1440 and 2480 kg/m³], the
value of Ec is determined as..
◦ The unit weight for ordinary stone–aggregate concrete is usually assumed to be an average of 145 pcf [2323
kg/m ³]. Substituting this value for w in the equation, an average concrete modulus of Ec = 57000 𝒇′ 𝒄.
◦ For metric units, with stress measured in MPa, the expression becomes Ec = 4730 𝒇′ 𝒄.
◦ Distribution of stresses and strains in reinforced concrete is dependent on the concrete modulus,
the steel modulus being a constant. In the design of reinforced concrete members the term n is
employed. This is the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete.

𝐸𝑠
n= ; and Es is taken as 29000ksi or 200,000Mpa
𝐸𝑐
 Creep
When subjected to long-duration stress at a high level, concrete has
a tendency to creep, a phenomenon in which strain increases over
time under constant stress. This has effects on deflections and on the
distributions of stresses between the concrete and reinforcing. Some of
the implications of this for design are discussed in dealing with design
of beams and columns.
 Cement
The cement used most extensively in building construction is Portland cement.
Reinforcement
The steel used in reinforced concrete consists of round bars, mostly
of the deformed type, with lugs or projections on their surfaces. The
surface deformations help to develop a greater bond between the steel
bars and the enclosing concrete mass.
Purpose of Reinforcement

◦ Increase compressive resistance since the ratio of magnitudes of strength of the two materials is
quite high; thus the steel displaces a much weaker material and the member gains significant
strength.
◦ reduce the failure of the concrete due to tensile stresses.
◦ Temperature variations may also induce tension in many situations. To provide for these latter
actions, a minimum amount of reinforcing is used in surface-type members such as walls and
paving slabs, even when no structural action is visualized.
 Stress–Strain Considerations
The most common grades of steel used for ordinary reinforcing bars are Grade 40 and Grade 60, having yield
strengths of 40 ksi [276 MPa] and 60 ksi [414 MPa], respectively.
The steel continues to resist stress in its plastic range and then gains a second, higher, strength before
failure. Thus, the failure induced by yielding is only a first-stage response and a second level of
resistance is reserved.
 Cover
Ample concrete protection, called cover, must be provided for the steel reinforcement. This is important to
protect the steel from rusting and to be sure that it is well engaged by the mass of concrete. Cover is measured as
the distance from the outside face of the concrete to the edge of the reinforcing bar. Code minimum requirements
for cover are 3/4 in. [19 mm] for walls and slabs and 1.5 in. [38 mm] for beams and columns. Additional
distance of cover is required for extra fire protection or for special conditions of exposure of the concrete surface
to weather or by contact with the ground.
Spacing of Bars
Where multiple bars are used in concrete members (which is the common situation), there are both upper and
lower limits for the spacing of the bars. Lower limits are intended to facilitate the flow of wet concrete during
casting and to permit adequate development of the concrete-to-steel stress transfers for individual bars.
Maximum spacing is generally intended to assure that there is some steel that relates to a concrete mass of
limited size; that is, there is not too extensive a mass of concrete with no reinforcement. For relatively thin walls
and slabs, there is also a concern of scale of spacing related to the thickness of the concrete.
Amount of Reinforcement

For structural members the amount of reinforcement is determined from structural computations as that required
for the tension force in the member. This amount (in total cross-sectional area of the steel) is provided by some
combination of bars. In various situations, however, there is a minimum amount of reinforcement that is
desirable, which may on occasion exceed the amount determined by computation. Minimum reinforcement may
be specified as a minimum number of bars or as a minimum amount, the latter usually based on the amount of
the cross-sectional area of the concrete member. These requirements are discussed in the sections that deal with
the design of the various types of structural members.
Standard Reinforcing Bars

In early concrete work reinforcing bars took various shapes. A problem that emerged was the proper
bonding of the steel bars within the concrete mass, due to the tendency of the bars to slip or pull out
of the concrete.
In order to anchor the bars in the concrete, various methods were used to produce something other
than the usual smooth surfaces on bars. After much experimentation and testing, a single set of bars
was developed with surface deformations consisting of ridges. These deformed bars were produced in
graduated sizes with bars identified by a single number see Table 13.1
GENERAL APPLICATION OF STRENGTH METHODS
The design strength of individual concrete members is determined by the application of assumptions and
requirements given in the code and is further modified by the use of a strength reduction factor φ as follows:

Strength Reduction Factor

BEAMS: ULTIMATE STRENGTH METHOD

The primary concerns for beams relate to their necessary resistance to bending and shear and some
limitations on their deflection. For simplification of the work it is necessary to consider the actions of
a beam at a specific location, but it should be borne in mind that this action must be integrated with
all the other effects on the beam throughout its length.
When a member is subjected to bending,
such as the beam shown in Figure 13.1a,
internal resistances of two basic kinds are
generally required. Internal actions are
“seen” by visualizing a cut section, such
as that taken at X–X in Figure 13.1a.
Removing the portion of the beam to the
left of the cut section, its free-body
actions are as shown in Figure 13.1b.
At the cut section, consideration of static
equilibrium requires the development of
the internal shear force (V in the figure)
and the internal resisting moment
(represented by the force couple: C and T
in the figure).
If a beam consists of a simple rectangular
concrete section with tension
reinforcement only, as shown in Figure
13.1c, the force C is considered to be
developed by compressive stresses in the
concrete—indicated by the shaded area
above the neutral axis.
The tension force, however, is considered
to be developed by the steel alone,
ignoring the tensile resistance of the
concrete. For low-stress conditions the
latter is not true, but at a greater level of
stress the tension-weak concrete will
indeed crack, virtually leaving the steel
unassisted, as assumed.
At moderate levels of stress, the resisting
moment is visualized as shown in Figure
13.2a, with a linear variation of
compressive stress. from zero at the
neutral axis to a maximum value of fc at
the edge of the section. As stress levels
increase, however, the nonlinear stress–
strain character of the concrete becomes
more significant, and it become
necessary to acknowledge a more
realistic form for the compressive stress
variation, such as that shown in Figure
13.2b.
As stress levels approach the limit of the
concrete, the compression becomes
vested in an almost constant magnitude
of unit stress, concentrated near the top
of the section. For strength design, in
which the moment capacity is expressed
at the ultimate limit, it is common to
assume the form of stress distribution
shown in Figure 13.2c, with the limit for
the concrete stress set at 0.85 times f’c .
Expressions for the moment capacity
derived from this assumed distribution
compare reasonably with the response of
beams tested to failure in laboratory
experiments.
Response of the steel reinforcement is
more simply visualized and expressed.
Since the steel area in tension is
concentrated at a small location with
respect to the size of the beam, the stress
in the bars is considered to be a constant.
Thus, at any level of stress the total value
of the internal tension force may be
expressed as’

and for the practical limit of T,

The following is a presentation of the
formulas and procedures used in the
strength method. The discussion is
limited to a rectangular beam section
with tension reinforcement only.
Referring to Figure 13.3, the following
are defined:
The rectangular stress block is based on
the assumption that a concrete stress of
0.85f ‘c is uniformly distributed over the
compression zone, which has dimensions
equal to the beam width b and the
distance a, which locates a line parallel
to and above the neutral axis.
The value of a is determined from the
expression a = β1 × c, where β1 (beta
one) is a factor that varies with the
compressive strength of the concrete, and
c is the distance from the extreme fiber to
the neutral axis. For concrete having f ‘c
equal to or less than 4000 psi [27.6
MPa], the ACI Code (Ref. 10) gives a
maximum value for a =0.85c.
f’c ≤ 27.6 Mpa ; a =0.85c.
With the rectangular stress block, the
magnitude of the compressive force is
expressed as
and it acts at a distance of a/2 from the
top of the beam. The arm of the resisting
force couple then becomes d − (a/2), and
the developed resisting moment as
governed by the concrete is
and it acts at a distance of a/2 from the
top of the beam. The arm of the resisting
force couple then becomes d − (a/2), and
the developed resisting moment as
governed by the concrete is
With T expressed as As × fy , the
developed moment as governed by the
reinforcement is
A formula for the dimension a of the
stress block can be derived by equating
the compression and tension forces; thus
By expressing the area of steel in terms
of a percentage p, the formula for a may
be modified as follows:
◦ A useful reference is the so-called balanced section, which occurs when use of the
exact amount of reinforcement results in the simultaneous development of the limiting
stresses in the concrete and steel. The balanced section for strength design is
visualized in terms of strain rather than stress. The limit for a balanced section is
expressed in the form of the percentage of steel required to produce balanced
conditions. The formula for this percentage is
◦ in which f ′c and f y are in units of ksi. Returning to the formula for the developed resisting
moment as expressed in terms of the steel, a useful formula may be derived as follows:
With the reduction factor applied, the design moment for a section is limited to nine-tenths of the
theoretical resisting moment. Values for the balanced section factors (𝜌, R, and a/d) are given in
Table 13.2 for various combinations of f ′c and f y. The balanced section is not necessarily a
practical one for design. In most cases it is desirable to have the steel reinforcing yield first,
therefore creating ductile failure of the member.
◦ In the design of concrete beams, there are two situations that commonly occur.
The first occurs when the beam is entirely undetermined; that is, the concrete
dimensions and the reinforcement are unknown. The second occurs when the
concrete dimensions are given, and the required reinforcement for a specific
bending moment must be determined. The following examples illustrate the
use of the formulas just developed for each of these problems.
Example 1. The service load bending moments on a beam are 58 kip-ft for dead
load and 38 kip-ft for live load. The beam is 10 in. wide, f ′c is 3000 psi, and f y is
60 ksi. Determine the depth of the beam and the tensile reinforcing required.
Solution: The first step is to determine the required moment using
the load factors. Thus,
Mu = 1.2(MDL) + 1.6(MLL) = 1.2(58) + 1.6(38) = 130 kip-ft
With the capacity reduction of 0.90 applied, the desired moment
capacity of the section is determined as
The reinforcement ratio as given in Table 13.2 is 𝜌 = 0.0252. The required area of reinforcement
for this section may thus be determined from the relationship…
While there is nothing especially desirable about a balanced section, it does represent the beam
section with the least depth if tension reinforcing only is used. Therefore, proceed to find the
required balanced section for this example. To determine the required effective depth, d, use
equation (13.3.6); thus,
Although they are not given in this example, there are often some considerations other than
flexural behavior alone that influence the choice of specific dimensions for a beam. These may
include:
1. Design for shear
2. Coordination of the depths of a set of beams in a framing system
3. Coordination of the beam dimensions and placement of reinforcement in adjacent beam spans
4. Coordination of beam dimensions with supporting columns
5. Limiting beam depth to provide overhead clearance beneath the structure
If the beam is of the ordinary form shown in Figure. 13.4, the specified dimension is usually that
given as h. Assuming the use of a No.3 U-stirrup, a cover of 1.5 in., and an average-size
reinforcing bar of 1 in. diameter (No. 8 bar), the design dimension d will be less than h
by 2.375 in. Lacking other considerations, the overall required depth of the beam (h) will be
15.175 in. Next select a set of reinforcing bars to obtain this area. For the purpose of the example,
select bars all of a single size (see Table 13.1); the number required will be as follows:
In real design situations there are always
various additional considerations that influence
the choice of the reinforcing bars. One general
desire is that of having the bars in a single
layer, as this keeps the centroid of the steel as
close as possible to the edge (bottom in this
case) of the member, giving the greatest value
for d with a given height (h) of a concrete
section. With the section as shown in Figure
13.5, a beam width of 10 in. will yield a net
width of 6.25 in.
inside the No. 3 stirrups, determined as the
outside width of 10 in. less 2 (1.5-in. cover)
and 2 (0.375-in. stirrup diameter). Applying the
code criteria for minimum spacing for this
situation, the required width for the various bar
combinations can be determined. Minimum
space required between bars is one bar
diameter or a minimum of 1 in. (See discussion
in Section. 13.1.) Two examples for this are
shown in Figure 13.5. It will be found that
none of the choices will fit this beam width.
Thus, the beam width must be increased or two
layers of bars must be used.
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