Number systems

MATHEMATICS
Number systems 1
A number system is a method of writing numerals to represent numbers.

The most common system for number representation is the decimal. Everybody is using it. It’s so
common than most people must believe that is the only one. It’s used in finances, engineering, and
biology, almost everywhere we see and use numbers.
If someone is asking you to think at a number for sure you’ll think at a decimal number. If you think at a
binary or hexadecimal one, you must have an extreme passion for arithmetic or software/programming.
As the name is saying the decimal number system is using 10 symbols/characters. In Latin language 10 is
“decem” so decimal might be linked to the Latin word.

As you can see there are 10 symbols from 0 to 9. With these symbols we can construct all the numbers in
the decimal system.

All the numbers in the decimal system can be constructed by using the above mentioned symbols (0 … 9)
multiplied with the power of 10. The power of ten gives us ones, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on.

The example below breaks down the decimal number 67049 into powers of 10 multiplied with numbers
between 0 and 9. This is just to show that any number in the decimal system can be decomposed into a
sum of terms made of from the product of the power of 10 and the symbols 0 … 9.

We can keep in mind these characteristics of the decimal numbers system:

▪ it’s using 10 symbols
▪ can be decomposed in factors containing powers of 10
▪ it’s the most common number representation system

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Binary (base 2)
Another number representation system is the binary one. As the name suggests and by analogy with the
decimal system we can say that the binary system is using only 2 symbols/characters.

The binary system is used wherever you want to store information in electronic format. All the computers
that you know, intelligent devices, everything that has to do with electronics and microcontrollers use the
binary system.
In electronics (digital) all the operations are done using two levels of voltage: high and low. Each level of
voltage is assigned to a value/symbol: HIGH for 1 and LOW for 0. For a microcontroller which is
supplied with +5V the 1 (high) will be represented by +5 V and the 0 (low) by 0 V.
Roughly we can say that the binary system is used because it can be translated in electronic signal.
All the decimal numbers we can think of can be represented into binary symbols. We do this by using a
sum between terms of the power of 2 multiplied with 0 or 1.

As example we’ll use the number 149 (decimal representation) and transform it into binary
representation. We could use any number but if it’s too big it would end up into a long string of zeros and
ones.

As you can see the decimal number 149 is represented in binary system by a series of zeros and ones
(10010101). Usually to distinguish between a decimal or binary number we must specify the base to which
we are referring to. The base is described as a subscript after the last character of the number.

By specifying the base of the number we eliminate the probability of confusion, because the same
representation (e.g. 11) can mean different things for different bases.

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Number systems
Another way to avoid confusion is to use a special notation (prefix) for binary numbers. This is
because 1100 can represent eleven hundreds in decimal system or the decimal twelve represented in
binary system. So if want to specify a binary number we use the prefix 0b. Example: 0b1100

Briefly the characteristics of a binary system are:

▪ it’s using 2 symbols
▪ can be decomposed in factors containing powers of 2
▪ it’s used in computers, microcontrollers.

Octal (base 8)
All the numbers in the octal system are represented using 8 symbols/characters, from 0 to 7. The reason of
using the octal system instead of the decimal one can be various. One of them is that instead of using our
fingers for counting, we use the spaces between fingers.
Humans have 4 spaces between the fingers of one hand; in total we’ll have 8 spaces, for both hands. In
this case it makes sense to use an octal number representation system instead of a decimal one. The
drawback is that higher numbers will require more characters compared to the decimal one.

To transform a decimal represented number into an octal system we split it into terms containing the
power of 8:

As an example we are going to represent the decimal number 67049 in octal base:

Hexadecimal (base 16)

The hexadecimal number representation system is using 16 symbols/characters to define numbers.
It’s used in computer science mostly because can represent bigger decimal numbers with fewer
characters.

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Number systems
Compared with decimal system it’s also using numeric symbols from 0 to 9. Additionally it’s using
alphanumeric characters from A to F for values between 10 and 15.

To represent a decimal number in hexadecimal format we split the decimal number into a sum of terms.
Each term is a product between a hexadecimal symbol and a power of 16.

The representation of the decimal number 67049 in hexadecimal format is 105E9. Similar to the binary
system a common practice is to use the prefix “0x” in order to distinguish from the decimal notation.

Example : Convert (68)10 to binary

Here we keep on dividing the number by 2 recursively till it reduces to zero. Then we write the
remainders in reverse order.
68/2 = 34 remainder is 0
34/ 2 = 17 remainder is 0
17 / 2 = 8 remainder is 1
8 / 2 = 4 remainder is 0
4 / 2 = 2 remainder is 0
2 / 2 = 1 remainder is 0
1 / 2 = 0 remainder is 1

We stop here as the number has been reduced to zero and collect the remainders in reverse order. Answer
= 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Note: the answer is read from bottom (MSB, most significant bit) to top (LSB least significant
bit) as (1000100)2 .

Example : Convert (177)10 to octal.

177 / 8 = 22 remainder is 1
22 / 8 = 2 remainder is 6
2 / 8 = 0 remainder is 2
Answer = 2 6 1

Example : Convert (4768)10 to hexadecimal.

4768 / 16 = 298 remainder 0
298 / 16 = 18 remainder 10 (A)
18 / 16 = 1 remainder 2
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Number systems
1 / 16 = 0 remainder 1
Answer: 1 2 A 0

Natural Numbers: It is the simplest subset of the set of all numbers. Counting Numbers are known as
Natural Numbers. N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 .....}
As seen over here, it is obvious that 1 is the smallest natural number. But is there something called the
biggest natural number? Is it possible that the set of natural numbers is finite? Let us find out.

Problem: Prove that there are infinite Natural Numbers in this world.
Proof: Assume that the set of natural numbers is finite. Then, there will be the largest number among the
elements in this finite set. Let this be ‘M’. By definition, N = {1, 2, 3 ..... M}
But, as M is a natural number, even the number M+1 is a natural number. And M+1 > M.
Hence, we come across a contradiction that M is the largest natural number. Thus, our assumption that
the set of natural numbers is finite is wrong.
It is interesting to note that, even though any element that you pick from the set of natural numbers is
finite, the total number of elements in the whole set is infinite.

Prime Numbers and Composite Numbers:

A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that can only be divided by 1 and itself and hence
leaves no remainder.
Ex: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 etc
Every natural number which is neither 1 nor a prime number is called a composite number.
Ex: 4, 6, 8, 9 etc

Whole Numbers: All natural numbers, along with the 0 form the set of whole numbers.
W = {0, 1, 2, 3....}

Integers: All natural numbers, 0 and the negative of all natural numbers form the set of integers.
Z = {.... -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3....}
As we know that there exists no biggest natural number i.e. biggest integer, it is also evident that there
exists no number which is the smallest integer.

Even and Odd Numbers:

Every integer which is divisible by 2 is called an even number.
E = {.....-4, -2, 0, 2, 4.....}
Every integer which is not divisible by 2 is called an odd number.
O = {....-3, -1, 1, 3....}
Comparing the set of integers and natural numbers, it looks as if the set of integers has more elements
than the set of all natural numbers. However, we must remember that since we are dealing with infinite
sets here, we cannot compare the number of elements in this set.

Activity:
Prove that the number of integers isn’t greater than the number of natural numbers
(Hint 1: Generally while comparing two sets, you make sure that every element in set 1 has a
corresponding partner in set 2. For example, say you are at an open house in school where each child has
to bring one parent along with him. To confirm that the number of children = number of adults, we check
whether each student has a corresponding parent and vice versa. Try to form a similar relation here)

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(Hint 2: For every natural odd number, subtracting one can form an even number. Hence, it can be
divided by 2 to get another number. Even numbers can be directly divided by 2 to get another number.
For example, (1-1)/2 = 0, 2/2 = 1, (3-1)/2 = 1, 4/2=2 etc. Link this to integers by introducing positive signs for
results obtained from odd natural numbers and negative sign for results obtained from even natural
numbers and so, get a corresponding integer for every natural number)
The results of the above activity teach us an important lesson – Never to meddle with the cardinality
(number of elements) of infinite sets!

Ordering: We can order any two numbers on this number line as follows: given two different numbers,
the number to the left is less than the number to the right. Similarly, the number to the right is greater than
the number to the left.
For example, -3 lies to the left of 2 on the line and so -3 is less than 2. Since 2 lies to the right of -3, 2 is
greater than -3. In the same way, 4 is greater than 1 and -4 is less than 1.

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

We use the symbol ‘<’ to write ‘less than’ and ‘>’ for ‘greater than’. So “-3 is less than 2” is written as -3 < 2
and “4 is greater than 1” is written as 4 > 1. This notation is also used when one (or both) of the numbers
is a variable quantity. For example, the statement “x is less than 9” is written as x < 9.

The table below gives statements expressing the different possible relations between two numbers, along
with their mathematical representation:

Statement (in plain words) Mathematical representation

4 is less than 12 4 < 12
x is greater than -5 x > -5
x is less than or equal to 6 x6
x is greater than or equal to -3 x  -3
y is equal to 5 y=5
y is not equal to 7 y7

Operations on Integers: We will study how to add, subtract, multiply and divide any two integers.

Examples:

Represent the below operations on the number lines given and describe the movement (left or right by x)
(a) 8 – 11 = –3
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) –5 + 6 = 1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(c) 7 + (–2) = 5
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(d) 5 – (–3) = 8
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rules:
1) To add two positive integers, find their sum and give this sum the positive sign.
2) To add two negative integers, find the sum of their absolute values, and give this sum a negative
sign.

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Number systems
3) To add integers with opposite sign, find the difference between their absolute values and give the
difference, the sign of integer having the greater absolute value.

Conclusion
• The sum of two positive integers is positive.
• The sum of two negative integers is negative.
• The sum of a positive integer and a negative integer
a) is positive, if the greater integer (absolute value) is positive and
b) is negative, if the greater integer (absolute value) is negative.

Multiplication of Integers:
To multiply 2 integers, first find the product of the two numbers and the sign of the product may be
assigned as follows
• If both integers are positive, the product is positive.
• If both integers are negative, the product is positive, because of (–) x (–) = (+)
• If one integer is positive, another negative, then the product is negative.

Division of Integers:
The division of 2 integers is the same as the division of other numbers, but the sign may be assigned as
below:
• If a positive integer is divided by a negative integer or a negative integer is divided by a positive
integer in both cases, the quotient is negative.
• If a negative integer is divided by a negative integer, or a positive integer is divided by a positive
integer, the quotient is positive.

Some important properties of numbers:

Consider the set of integers Z = {…-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 …}
Here the set {…-2, 0, 2, 4 …} is called set of even numbers, the set
{…-3, -1, 1, 3 …} are called a set of odd numbers. Even numbers are multiples of 2 i.e. they are exactly
divisible by 2. Whereas odd numbers are not divisible by 2.

Properties
• Sum (difference) of two even numbers is an even number.
• The product of two even numbers is an even number.
• Sum (difference) of two odd numbers is an even number.
• The product of two odd numbers is an odd number.
You may remember these properties using the following table.

Sum Even Odd

Even Even Odd
Odd Odd Even

Product Even Odd

Even Even Even
Odd Even Odd

We are very familiar with the division rule.

That is, dividend = (divisor x quotient) + remainder.
Euclid’s division lemma is based on this rule. We use this result to obtain the HCF of two numbers.

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Number systems

Euclid’s Division Lemma:

For any two positive integers, say x and y, there exist unique integers say q and r satisfying x = yq + r
where 0  r < y. In other words, for every dividend and divisor, there exists a unique quotient and
remainder.

Example Consider the integers 9 and 19

19 = 9 x 2 + 1
Example Consider the integers 6 and 24
24 = 6 x 4 + 0

Euclid’s Division Algorithm:

An algorithm is a set of rules or a technique that can be applied to solve certain types of problems and
obtain a result. Euclid’s Division Algorithm is used to find the greatest common divisor (GCD). Also
called the HCF – (highest common factor) of any given two numbers.

We can represent the gcd of two numbers, say x and y as gcd(x, y). Hence gcd(6, 9) = gcd(9, 6) = 3.

Before we get to the theorem, we learn a new notation. Say a number ‘a’, divides another number ‘b’. We
can write this mathematically as a | b. So, from now, whenever we say that a divides b, we can write a | b.

Theorem: If a and b are two positive integers such that a = bq + r, r  0 and a > b, then the gcd of a and b is
equal to the gcd of b and r.
i.e. gcd(a,b) = gcd(b,r)

Proof:
We will show that if a = bq + r, then an integer d is a common divisor of a and b if, and only if, d is a
common divisor of b and r.
Let d be a common divisor of a and b.
=> d|a and d|b
=> d|(a − bq) (As a common factor of 2 numbers a and bq is also a factor of their difference)
=> d|r (Since r = a – bq)
Thus if d is a common divisor of a and b it is also a common divisor of b and r. ..(1)

Now let d is a common divisor of b and r. Applying similar arguments as in the previous case,
=> d|b and d|r
=> d|(bq + r)
=> d|a.
Therefore, if d is a common divisor of b and r, d must be a common divisor of a and b.

Thus, the set of common divisors of a and b are the same as the set of common divisors of b and r.
The greatest number in the set of divisors of a and b is gcd(a, b). And in the set of divisors of b and r is
gcd(b, r). But since we have proved that the set of divisors of a and b is the same as the set of divisors of b
and r, the greatest number in both the sets are equal.

Hence, gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r)

Using this theorem, the algorithm for finding the gcd(a, b) are as follows:

Step 1: Find the remainder r when a (> b) is divided by b.

Step 2: If r = 0, then gcd(a, b) = b i.e. the divisor
Step 3: If r  0, then repeat process from step 1 to find gcd(b, r)
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Note (1): It is possible to find two integers ‘x’ and ‘y’ such that ax + by = gcd(a, b)

Note (2): LCM (Least common multiple) of two numbers a and b can be found by using the formula
LCM x HCF = a x b
Example: Find the HCF of 250 and 30
Solution: By using Euclid’s division algorithm, we get
250 = 30 x 8 + 10
Hence, gcd(250, 30) = gcd(30, 10)
Again by using Euclid’s division algorithm, we get
30 = 10 x 3 + 0
Here, we notice the remainder is zero and we cannot proceed further.
The divisor at this stage is 10.
The gcd(30, 10) is 10, and gcd(30, 10) = gcd(250, 30), and hence, gcd(250, 30) = 10.
The HCF of 250 and 30 is 10.
It can be verified by listing out all the factors of 250 and 30.

Example : Show that every positive even integer is of the form 2n and every positive odd integer is of the
form 2n + 1.
Solution : For any integer x and y = 2, x = 2n + r where n  0
But 0  r < 2
 r = 0 or 1
When r = 0, x = 2n.
x is a positive even integer.
When r = 1, x = 2n + 1.
x is a positive odd integer.

It is possible to find two integers ‘a’ and ‘b’ such that ax + by = H

Example : Find the HCF of 612 and 342 and express the HCF as a linear combination of 612 and 342.
Solution : 612 = 342 x 1 + 270
342 = 270 x 1 + 72
270 = 72 x 3 + 54
72 = 54 x 1 + 18
54 = 18 x 3 + 0

Therefore, HCF of 612 and 342 is equal to 18.

Now work backwards from the last but one equation in the following manner.
18 = 72 – 54 x 1
18 = 72 – [270 – 72 x 3] x 1 = 72 x 4 – 270 x 1
18 = [342 – 270 x 1] x 4 – 270 x 1 = 342 x 4 – 270 x 5
18 = 342 x 4 – [612 – 342] x 5 = 612 x (-5) + 342 x (9)
a = -5 and b = 9

Also, note that this a and b are not unique. We can find more combinations of a and b in the following
manner by adding and subtracting the product of the given two numbers.
18 = 612 x (-5) + 342 x 9 + 612 x 342 – 612 x 342
18 = 612 x (337) + 342 x (-603)

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Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (FTA) :
Any natural number, n > 1, can be factorised into prime factors and these expansions are unique up to the
order in which the prime(s) occur. Let’s see below what this means.

Note: In general, a = p1 x p2 x p3…pn where p1, p2, p3 …… pn are primes in ascending order.

Question
Let n = 27 ⋅ 3𝑎 ⋅ 116 also n = 2𝑏 ⋅ 35 ⋅ 11𝑐 then find a, b, c.

Canonical Prime Factorisation (CPF) of n 𝜖 N:

Let n = 𝑝1 𝑛1 𝑝2 𝑛2 𝑝3 𝑛3 .... 𝑝𝑘−1 𝑛𝑘−1 𝑝𝑘 𝑛𝑘

(i) 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 … 𝑝𝑘−1 , 𝑝𝑘 are distinct primes.
(ii) 𝑝1 < 𝑝2 < 𝑝3 < ⋯ < 𝑝𝑘
(iii) 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , 𝑛3 … , 𝑛𝑘−1 , 𝑛𝑘 are natural numbers.

If prime factorisation of n satisfies above conditions (i), (ii), (iii)

then it is said to be canonical prime factorisation of n.

Theorem 1: if n is a perfect square then the index of all primes in the canonical prime factorisation of n is a
multiple of 2. In other words, let n = b2 and n = 𝑝1 𝑛1 𝑝2 𝑛2 𝑝3 𝑛3 .... 𝑝𝑘−1 𝑛𝑘−1 𝑝𝑘 𝑛𝑘 , then each of
𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , 𝑛3 … , 𝑛𝑘−1 , 𝑛𝑘 is a multiple of 2. Can you form a similar theorem if n is a perfect cube or a perfect
fourth power? That is, if (i) n = b2 (ii) n = b4
What will be the general theorem?

Question
Prove the above theorem for perfect squares and cube for n = 46656.

(Hint 1: Express n as 64 x 729)

(Hint 2: Express 64 and 729 as some powers of 2 or/and 3)

Let us now try to generalize Theorem 1.

Theorem 2: let 𝑛 ∈ ℕ be a perfect 𝑚th power.

Then the index of each prime number occurring in CPF of 𝑛 is multiple of 𝑚.
Proof: It is given that 𝑛 ∈ ℕ is a perfect 𝑚th power.
Hence by definition, there exists 𝑏 ∈ ℕ, such that 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑚 .

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
Let 𝑏 = 𝑝1 1 𝑝2 2 𝑝3 3 … 𝑝𝑘 𝑘 be the CPF of 𝑏
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑚
∴ 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑚 = (𝑝1 1 𝑝2 2 𝑝3 3 … 𝑝𝑘 𝑘 )
𝑏 𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 𝑏 𝑚
∴ = (𝑝1 1 ) ( 𝑝2 2 ) (𝑝3 3 ) … ( 𝑝𝑘 𝑘 )
𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑏
∴ = 𝑝1 1 𝑝2 2 𝑝3 3 … 𝑝𝑘 𝑘

Hence the theorem is proved.

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Converse: Let n, m ∈ N. If the index of each prime occurring in
the CPF of n is a multiple of m then n is a perfect mth Power.
Proof: Let n = 𝑝1 𝑛1 𝑝2 𝑛2 𝑝3 𝑛3 .... 𝑝𝑘−1 𝑛𝑘−1 𝑝𝑘 𝑛𝑘 be CPF of n.
It is given that each 𝑛𝑖 is a multiple of m.
Hence there exist natural numbers 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , ... 𝑏𝑘−1 , 𝑏𝑘 such that
𝑛1 = 𝑚𝑏1, 𝑛2 = 𝑚𝑏2 , ... , 𝑛𝑘 = 𝑚𝑏𝑘 .
𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑏
∴ n = 𝑝1 1 𝑝2 2 𝑝3 3 … 𝑝𝑘 𝑘
𝑏 𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 𝑏 𝑚
= (𝑝1 1 ) ( 𝑝2 2 ) (𝑝3 3 ) … ( 𝑝𝑘 𝑘 )
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑚
= (𝑝1 1 𝑝2 2 𝑝3 3 … 𝑝𝑘 𝑘 )

Hence the converse is proved.

Example :
Let n = 260 730 1120
(i) Is n a perfect square? Why?
(ii) Is n a perfect cube? Justify your answer.
(iii) Is n a perfect fifth power? How will you justify your answer?
In the above example, we note that out of the three primes in the CPF of n, 11 is such that its index is not a
multiple of 3. So we concluded that n is not a perfect third power or a perfect cube of any natural number.
So can we formulate a general criterion to decide when a given number is not a perfect mth power?

Negative of Perfect mth power:

Let n = 𝑝1 𝑛1 𝑝2 𝑛2 𝑝3 𝑛3 .... 𝑝𝑘−1 𝑛𝑘−1 𝑝𝑘 𝑛𝑘 be the CPF of n.
What can deduce, if n is not perfect mth power?
Above theorem and its converse leads us to,

Theorem 3: 𝑛 is not perfect 𝑚th power if and only if there exists a prime 𝑝 in the CPF of 𝑛 whose index is
not a multiple of 𝑚.

Why is 1 not considered as a prime?

It is because, if 1 were considered to be considered as a prime, then it violates the Fundamental Theorem
of Arithmetic.
Consider the natural number 45. 45 can be factorised as 3 x 3 x 5 or 3 x 5 x 3 or 5 x 3 x 3 which is the same.
Hence the prime factors are 3, 3, 5. But if 1 were to be considered a prime,
45 = 3 x 3 x 5 x 1
=3x3x5x1x1
=3x3x5x1x1x1
So basically, the prime factors of 45 can be a set containing 3, 3, 5 and any number of 1s, violating the rule
that each number has a unique factorisation.
Hence, mathematicians decided to exclude 1 from the list of prime numbers.
Example: Write 1800 as product of prime factors.
Solution 2 | 1800
2 | 900
2 | 450
3 | 225
3 | 75
5 | 25
5
1800 = 23 x 32 x 52
Let us see the applications of fundamental theorem.
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Group Activity: To find out more about prime factorization:

Required Materials: About 20 square-shaped paper-cut outs having the same side length (Say 3 cm)
Now, the task is to form larger rectangles (Note that even a square is a rectangle) made by arranging the
smaller squares. Each time, take only a particular number of unit squares ‘n’ and try to form as many
rectangles as possible. Let one of the members of the group note down the number of such rectangles
possible out of n unit squares. Start with n = 1, and keep increasing n by 1 while recording the number of
rectangles possible.

Try to take values for all n up to 20. Initially, it seems easy but as you proceed, it becomes very tedious,
right? Well, is there a way to do this easily without having to use the unit squares? Let us find out. Have a
look at the possibilities for the height of the rectangles for n=4. They are 1, 2, and 4. What about n=6? 1, 2, 3
and 6. Notice that for each trial, the heights are all the factors of the number n. So you can simplify the
work of finding the number of rectangles by finding the number of factors of n.
Now, make a chart showing the number of rectangles i.e. the number of factors for every n up to 30 or so.
The chart is similar to the one shown in the figure below.

What do you notice in the chart here? Have a look at how many numbers have the answer as 1. Only n=1.
It is because 1 has only 1 factor i.e. itself. Next, notice the numbers which have only 2 possible rectangles.
They are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, etc. What is your guess? Do you notice all of them are prime numbers? Next, notice
the values of n which can form 3 rectangles. They are 4, 9, 25, etc. If you notice carefully, these are the
squares of prime numbers. Now, look at the numbers which can form 4 possible rectangles. They are 6, 15,
35, etc. Find out the similarity between 6, 15 and 35. (Hint: Factorise them) Discuss in your group and find
out the reasons for these observations.

Example 1: Find all positive integral divisors of 26.

Answer: 1, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26.

Example 2 : p is a prime. Find all positive integral divisors of p5.

Answer : 1, p1, p2, p3, p4, p5.

Example 3 : Find all positive integral divisors of 53 74.

Answer : The required divisors are:
5070, 5170, 5270, 5370,
5071, 5171, 5271, 5371,
5072, 5172, 5272, 5372,
57,
0 3 57,
1 3 57,
2 3 5373,
5074, 5174, 5274, 5374,

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Example 4: p1,p2 are distinct primes. Find all positive integral divisors of 𝑝1 3 𝑝2 4
Answer: The required divisors are:
p10 p 20 , p11 p 20 , p12 p 20 , p13 p 20 ,
p10 p 12 , p11 p 12 , p12 p 12 , p13 p 12 ,
p10 p 22 , p11 p 22 , p12 p 22 , p13 p 22 ,
p10 p 23 , p11 p 23 , p12 p 23 , p13 p 23 ,
p10 p 24 , p11 p 24 , p12 p 24 , p13 p 24 ,
We now give a formal definition of a divisor of a natural number.

Definition: Let n, d be natural numbers. We say that d is a divisor of n if and only if there exists a natural
number q such that n = dq. In other words, we note that d is a divisor of n if and only if n is a multiple of
d.

Example : Given n = 26 38 72, which of the following numbers are divisors of n?

b = 26 38 72, d = 24 30 72, e = 20 30 72, f = 25 31 73.

Theorem: Let n, d ∈ N. let CPF of n, d be respectively n = 𝑝1 𝑛1 𝑝2 𝑛2 .... 𝑝𝑘 𝑛𝑘 and d = 𝑝1 𝑑1 𝑝2 𝑑2 ... 𝑝𝑘 𝑑𝑘 ,

then d is a divisor of n, if and only if, d1 ≤ n1, d2 ≤ n2 ,..., dk ≤ nk.
Proof: Part (I) : Let d be a divisor of n.
Hence by definition, there exists q ∈ N such that n = dq. (*)
Hence fundamental theorem of arithmetic (FTA) implies that we can take CPF of q = 𝑝1 𝑞1 𝑝2 𝑞2 ... 𝑝𝑘 𝑞𝑘
By uniqueness of FTA, We equate the corresponding powers of different primes.
We obtain n1 = d1 + q1 , n2 = d2 + q2 , ... , nk = dk + qk
As q1, q2, ..., qk ≥ 0 we obtain d1 ≤ n1, d2 ≤ n2 , ... , dk ≤ nk.
Part (II) : Let d1 ≤ n1, d2 ≤ n2 , ... , dk ≤ nk (1)
Let q1 = n1 - d1, q2 = n2 - d2, ..., qk = nk - dk. (2)
(1) implies that each of q1, q2, ...., qk ≥ 0.

Hence q = 𝑝1 𝑞1 𝑝2 𝑞2 ... 𝑝𝑘 𝑞𝑘 is a natural number.

Consider dq = (𝑝1 𝑑1 𝑝2 𝑑2 ... 𝑝𝑘 𝑑𝑘 ) (𝑝1 𝑞1 𝑝2 𝑞2 ... 𝑝𝑘 𝑞𝑘 )
= 𝑝1 (𝑑1 + 𝑞1 ) 𝑝2 (𝑑2 + 𝑞2 )... 𝑝𝑘 (𝑑𝑘 + 𝑞𝑘 )
= 𝑝1 𝑛1 𝑝2 𝑛2 ... 𝑝𝑘 𝑛𝑘 by (2).
= n.
Hence by definition, d is a divisor of n.

Now take the number 32. We know that 32 = 25. Can you find out the factors of 32? Yes! They are 1, 2, 22,
23, 24, and 25 which is a total of 6 factors.
Next, take the number 36. We have 36 = 22 x 32. The factors of 36 are 1, 2, 22, 3, 32, 2x3, 22x3, 2x32 and 22x32
which is a total of 9 factors.
Now, let us look at an alternate approach to find the number of factors of a number rather than listing
them. Take the number 12. We notice 12 = 22 x 31.
Let us try to visualize this. Assume that you have two 2’s and one 3’s in a basket. This basket is in reality,
the number 12. There is another basket which you can call the ‘factor’. Now, your job is to fill this basket
by any number of 2’s and 3’s from your own basket. So, you can fill the basket with either zero, one or
two 2’s and either zero or one 3’s. There are three ways of filling 2’s and two ways of filling 3’s into the
‘factor’ basket. The total number of ways to do this is 6.
In other words, a factor of 12 is of the form 2a x 3b, where ‘a’ can be anything from {0, 1, 2} i.e. 3
possibilities and ‘b’ can be anything from {0, 1} i.e. 2 possibilities. So the number of factors of 12 is actually

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Number systems
the number of combinations of (a, b) which can be (0,0), (0,1), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 0) and (2, 1), a total of 3 x 2 =
6 factors. This turns out to be true, as the number 12 has 6 factors which are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12. Now, we
generalize this for any number.

How to find the number of factors of a given number ‘n’ without listing all of them?
Step 1: Find out the prime factorization of the number n.
Let this be n = (p1)a x (p2)b x (p3)c… and so on.
Step 2: Calculate the number X = (a+1) x (b+1) x (c+1) .... and so on. Now the calculated number ‘X’ is the
total number of factors of the number ‘n’

Example: Find out the number of factors of 60

Solution: 60 = 22 x 31 x 51
X = (2+1) x (1+1) x (1+1)
=3x2x2
= 12
(Verify this answer by listing down all the factors of 60)

Question
Let a = 𝑝1 𝑎1 𝑝2 𝑎2 .... 𝑝𝑘 𝑎𝑘 , b = 𝑝1 𝑏1 𝑝2 𝑏2 .... 𝑝𝑘 𝑏𝑘 , c = 𝑝1 𝑐1 𝑝2 𝑐2 .... 𝑝𝑘 𝑐𝑘 be Canonical Prime Factorisation of a, b,
c respectively.
Let m1 = min {a1, b1, c1}, m2 = min {a2, b2, c2} , ... , mk = min {ak, bk, ck}
Let M1 = max {a1, b1, c1}, M2 = max {a2,b2,c2} , ... , MK = max {ak, bk, ck}

Then prove that gcd(a ,b, c) = 𝑝1 𝑚1 𝑝2 𝑚2 .... 𝑝𝑘 𝑚𝑘 and lcm(a, b, c) = 𝑝1 𝑀1 𝑝2 𝑀 .... 𝑝𝑘 𝑀𝑘

(Hint 1: gcd(a, b, c) is a divisor of a, b and c. And a, b and c are all divisors of lcm(a, b, c). )

(Hint 2: Take a few examples with actual numbers. Try proving the same for 2 numbers first and then
move onto 3 numbers. Maybe try thinking what would happen if you have m1 = min{ a1, b1, c1 } + 1. Or m2
= max{ a1, b1, c1 } - 1. Try assuming things similar to these and bring a contradiction. Complete the proof
and show it to your teacher.)

Example: Find the HCF and LCM of 48 and 56 by the prime factorization method.
Solution: 48 = 24 x 31
56 = 23 x 71
HCF = 23 x 30 x 70 = 23 (The product of common prime factors with lesser index)
LCM = 2 x 3 x 71 (product of common prime factors with greater index).
4 1

Example: Find the HCF and LCM of 36, 48 and 60 by prime factorization method.
Solution: 36 = 22 x 32
48 = 24 x 31
60 = 22 x 31 x 51
HCF = 22 x 31 = 12
LCM = 24 x 32 x 51 = 720

Example: Two bells toll at intervals of 24 minutes and 36 minutes respectively. If they toll together at
9 am, after how many minutes do they toll together again, at the earliest?
Solution: The required time is LCM of 24 and 36.
24 = 23 x 3
36 = 22 x 32
 LCM of 24 and 36 is 23 x 32 = 72
So, they will toll together after 72 minutes.

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Theorem: If p divides x3, then p divides x, where x is a positive integer and p is a prime number.
Proof: Let x = p1 p2 ……pn, where p1, p2, p3, …., pn are primes, not necessarily distinct.
=> x 3 = p13 p23 ........ pn3
Given that p divides x3.
By fundamental theorem, p is one of the primes of x3.
By the uniqueness of the fundamental theorem, the distinct primes of x3 are the same as the distinct
primes of x.
 p divides x
Hence proved.

Theorem: There are infinitely many positive primes.

Proof: Let us assume that there is a finite number of positive prime numbers. Label all of the prime
numbers as p1 ,p2,....pn in the ascending order. Any prime number that you encounter must be a part of
this list.
Now, let us define a number P as,
P = p1 p2 .... pn + 1
From the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, there exists at least one prime number that divides P.
But, P is one more than the product of all prime numbers. Hence, the remainder when P is divided by any
prime = 1.
Hence, there exists no prime number (less than pn) which divides P. P > pn is a new prime number
contradicting our assumption.
Thus, there are infinitely many positive primes.

How does one find that a given number is prime or not?

To determine if n is prime:
1. Find the biggest perfect square 𝑘 2≤ n.
2. Write out all the primes less than or equal to k.
3. Test if n is divisible by each of said primes on your list.
• If n is divisible by any of the primes, n is not prime.
• If n is divisible by none of the primes, n is prime.

Problem: Is 49354923545684 divisible by 8?

This is a huge number so it might take a while for you to divide and find out whether the remainder is
zero or not. Although, some of you might know some shortcuts!
Divide the number formed by the last three digits. As 684 is not divisible by 8, so the given number is also
not divisible by 8.
For those of you who used the shortcut, you mean to say that 674856745489684 is also not divisible by 8?
Do you know why this trick works? How are you sure without proving it? Let us not be superstitious
even in mathematics by believing whatever we hear and try to know for sure whether something is true
or not.

How does one proceed to prove such a result?

Step 1: First set up a good notation.
Step 2: Formulate the result using this notation.
Step 3: Understand the significance of the last three digits.

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Test of divisibility by 8:
Let x, y, z be any of the digits from 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Let K denote a whole number.
Consider the natural number n given by n = Kxyz. n is divisible by 8 if and only if xyz is divisible by 8.

Understanding the Notation: In the context of the problem, we have K = 49354923545, x = 6, y = 8, z = 4.

Giving n = Kxyz = (49354923545)684.

(Think! Why have we said that K is a whole number?)

Let us now separate the last three digits of n. Note that the place value of K is 1000.
Hence we can write n = Kxyz = K × (1000) + xyz.
n = K x (125 x 8) + xyz
= (K x 125) x 8 + xyz
As the first term is a multiple of 8, it leaves remainder 0 when divided by 8.
Hence n and xyz leave the same remainder when divided by 8. In particular, we have proved that
n is divisible by 8 if and only if xyz is divisible by 8.

Bonus 1: Do you notice that we have in reality proved a much stronger result?
n and xyz leave the same remainder when divided by 8.
If xyz leaves remainder 1 when divided by 8 then n also will leave exactly remainder 1 when divided by 8
etc. These are altogether 8 results. We call this the complete test of divisibility by 8.

Bonus 2: Does the above proof include the proof of, Test of divisibility of one more number?
Indeed, n and xyz leave the same remainder when divided by 125.
We have n and xyz leave the same remainder when divided by d where d is a divisor of 1000.
So, the secret of the last three digits is deciphered.

Question
State and prove the test of divisibility by 16.
(Hint: Look at the last four digits)
Now, for your convenience, we have provided here the divisibility tests for all numbers from 2 to 11.

Test for divisibility by 2: If the last digit is even, it is divisible by 2.

Proof : Consider the number abcde = a(10000) + b(1000) + c(100) + d(10) + e. So, if e is divisible by 2 then
abcde will be divisible by 2. [All other digits are associated with multiples of 10.]

Test for divisibility by 3: If the sum of the digits of the number is divisible by 3, then the number is
divisible by 3.
Proof : Consider the number abcde = a(10000) + b(1000) + c(100) + d(10) + e
= a(9999+1) + b(999+1) + c(99+1) + d(9+1) + e = (9999a + 999b + 99c +9d) + a + b + c + d + e.
So if a + b + c + d + e is divisible by 3 then abcde will be divisible by 3.
Example: 321492 is divisible by 3 as the sum of the digits = 3+2+1+4+9+2 = 21 is divisible by 3.

Test for divisibility by 4: If the number formed by the last two digits is divisible by 4, then the original
number is also divisible by 4.
Hint: Same as proof for divisibility by 8.
Example: 82432 is divisible by 4 as the last two digits, 32 is divisible by 4.

Test for divisibility by 5: If the last digit is 0 or 5 then the number is divisible by 5.
Prove it yourself.

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Number systems
Test for divisibility by 6: The number must be divisible by 2 as well as 3.
Prove it yourself.
Example: 210 is divisible by 6 as it divisible by 2 as well as 3 (2+1+6 = 9 which is divisible by 3)

Test for divisibility by 7: Double the last digit and subtract it from the remaining number. If the result is
divisible by 7, then so was the original number. Apply this rule repeatedly as required.
Example: 2401 is divisible by 7 by steps as follows:
240 – 2 x 1 = 240 – 2 = 238.
23 – 8 x 2 = 23 – 16 = 7 which is divisible by 7.
Proof :
Let N be the number that we want to divide by 7. Let b be the unit’s digit and a be the rest of the digit.
Then N = 10a + b.
If a - 2b is divisible by 7, then we can find a natural number k such that a - 2b = 7k (Can you see why?).
Multiply both sides by 10, we have 10a - 20b = 70k. Adding b on both sides, we have 10a - 20b + b= 70k +
b. Now, 10a + b = 70k + 21b. Notice that the left-hand side of our equation is N and the right-hand side can
be divided by 7. Therefore, 10a + b = N is divisible by 7. That proves our first statement that If a - 2b is
divisible by 7, N is divisible by 7.
Test for divisibility by 8: The number formed by the last three digits should be divisible by 8.
Test for divisibility by 9: The sum of all the digits of the number should be divisible by 9. Example: 963 is
divisible by 9 as 9+6+3=18 is divisible by 9.
Prove it yourself. (Hint: Same as divisibility by 3)
Test for divisibility by 10: The last digit must be 0.
Test for divisibility by 11: A number N is divisible by 11 if the alternating sum of the digits is divisible by
11.
Proof: Suppose we have a 3-digit number that is expressed in the form: 100a+10b+c we then can transpose
this into: 99a + a + 11b – b + c and that equals: (99a+11b)+(a-b+c) which equals 11(9a+b)+(a-b+c)
Since the first addend, 11(9a+b) will always be divisible by 11, we just need to make sure that (a-b+c) is
divisible by 11.

You can use this for any number. Here it is again, with an even-numbered digit number:
1000a + 100b + 10c + d
1001a – a + 99b + b + 11c – c + d
(1001a + 99b + 11c) - (a – b + c – d)
11(91a + 9b + c) - (a – b + c – d)
So, you just need to check (a – b + c – d) for divisibility with 11.
Example: 1331 is divisible by 11 as 133 – 1 = 132 which is again divisible by 11 as 13 – 2 = 11.
Note: Do not confuse the test for divisibility by 7 and 11. Test for 7 involves subtracting twice the last digit
and Test for 11 involves subtracting the last digit once.

Question
Find the smallest number to be divisible by all numbers from 1 to 10.
(Hint: You can use the knowledge you have gained in the fundamental theorem of arithmetic or Euclid’s
division algorithm)

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Number systems

Group Activity: To be more comfortable applying the rules of divisibility

Materials Required: 3 dice.
The activity may involve several trials depending on time constraints. Each trial, a random student in the
class will be asked to roll 3 dice. The numbers appearing on all three dice will be noted down by all the
groups. The first task of each group is to list down all possible numbers that can be formed by those three
digits. (For example, if the numbers appearing on the 3 dice are 2, 5, 4 then the possible numbers are 245,
254, 425, 452, 542 and 524)
The next task is to find out, for each number, if it has any factor between 2 and 11 (Both included). All
groups will be given a time limit to solve for each trial (About 4 - 5 minutes) and submit all their answers
on a sheet of paper. The teacher corrects the submissions by each group, and for every correct factor, the
group gets +2 points and for every wrong factor, the group loses 1 point. A bonus of +10 can be added for
finding out all factors between 2 and 11 for a given number.
Cumulative Scores for all trials are calculated and the group having the highest cumulative score wins!

Rational Numbers:
p
Numbers that can be written in the form of (q  0), where p, q are integers, are called Rational numbers.
q
Terminating decimal numbers: These are decimal values that have only a finite number of non-zero digits
after the decimal point. Ex: 0.25
Non-terminating Recurring decimal numbers: These are decimal values that have an infinite number of
non-zero digits after the decimal point and also a repeating block of digits.
Ex: 0.25252525.....

Note: Every terminating decimal and non-terminating repeating decimal can be expressed in the form
p
(q  0) .
q

Group Activity: To explore the different types of rational numbers, i.e. terminating
and non-terminating repeating.
Draw a table on a sheet of paper with eleven rows and eleven columns. In the first row and column, fill in
the numbers from 1 to 10 starting from the second cell as shown below

Now for all remaining cells, take p as the row number and q as the column number and calculate the
decimal value of p/q. For example, a cell in row 2 and column 3 corresponds to 2/3 = 0.666666...
This is a non-terminating recurring decimal. For all terminal decimals, fill the cell with ‘T’ and all non-
terminating recurring decimals with ‘N’.
Do you notice a pattern in the table of Ts and Ns? Is it dependent on their column number/row number?
Discuss.
1 2 3 4 5 ...
1
2
3
4
5
...

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Number systems
p
From the above activity, we notice that every terminating decimal can be written in the form of (q  0),
q
where p and q are co-primes and q is of the form 2mx 5n (m and n are whole numbers).
Let us write this result formally.

Theorem:
p
(a) Let ‘x’ be a terminating decimal. Then ‘x’ can be expressed as (q  0), where p and q are co-primes,
q
and the prime factorization of q is of the form 2m x 5n
27 27
Example (i) 0.27 = = 2
100 2  5 2

2 2  589 589
(ii) 2.356 = 3 =
2  53 2  53

20325 3×52 ×271 3×271

(iii) 2.0325 = = =
10000 24 ×54 24 ×52

𝑝 𝑝
(b) If 𝑞 is a rational number and 𝑞 is not of the form 2m x 5n (m and n  W), then 𝑞 has a non-terminating
repeating decimal expansion.
Example Which of the following rational numbers are terminating decimals?
17 25 68 125
1. 3 2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 3
2 5 3 2 3
2 5 7
2 2
3  72
17
Solution Clearly 3 2 is the only terminating decimal and the remaining are non-terminating
2 5
decimals.

Converting recurring decimals to fractions:

Let N be the number, and let n be the number of digits in the repeating unit
Step 1: Set N equal to its value
Step 2: Multiply both sides by 10n
Step 3: Subtract N from both sides
Step 4: Solve the resultant equation and get the value of x
Example: N = 0.236236236236....
1000 × 𝑁 = 236.236236236236....
(1000 × 𝑁) − 𝑁 = 236
999N = 236
236
Hence, N =
999
Irrational Numbers:
So now, we start thinking if there more numbers apart from all the rational numbers. Is it possible that
𝑝
every number in this universe is of the form 𝑞 (𝑞 ≠ 0) where p, q are integers?
The answer is No! There exist numbers that are not rational i.e. irrational. Irrational numbers are numbers
𝑝
which cannot be written in the form 𝑞 where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are integers and 𝑞 ≠ 0. They have non-terminating
and non-recurring decimal values.

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Number systems
Example: π, 2 , 3, 6 , 7 , 8, 10, 0.101001000....... etc

Hippassus of Metapontum, a Greek philosopher of the Pythagorean school of thought, is widely regarded
as the first person to recognize the existence of irrational numbers. Supposedly, he tried to use his
teacher's famous theorem a2 + b2 = c2 to find the length of the diagonal of a unit square. But the length of
the diagonal which he found could not be expressed as a ratio of 2 integers! The other Pythagoreans
believed that every number in this world can be expressed as a ratio of 2 co-prime integers. What
happened next has been the subject of speculation for centuries. In short, Hippassus may have died
because of his discovery.

So, what did happen to Hippassus? No one will probably ever know for sure, but below are some better-
known stories.
• Some believe that the Pythagoreans were so horrified by the idea of irrational numbers that they
threw Hippassus overboard on a sea voyage and vowed to keep the existence of irrational
numbers a secret.
• After Hippassus discovered irrational numbers, the Pythagoreans banished him, and the gods
were so disgusted by his discovery that they destroyed his boat on the high seas.
• Hippassus discovered irrational numbers, and then died on an ocean voyage as the result of a
natural accident. Nonetheless, his colleagues were still so displeased with his discovery that they
wished they had been the ones to throw him overboard.

Another possibility is that none of the stories above are true, and they are tales invented to exaggerate and
highlight an important event in the history of mathematics!

However, if Hippassus did discover irrational numbers, it is not clear which method he used to do
so. Regardless of what happened, it is difficult to imagine a time when proving the existence of an
irrational number was a moral transgression.

One reason to think that positive rational numbers would form the basis for all things in the universe is
that there is an infinite amount of them. Intuitively, it might seem reasonable that an infinite amount of
numbers should be enough to describe anything that might exist. The number line is infinitely dense with
rational numbers. The existence of irrational numbers implies that despite this infinite density, there are
still holes in the number line that cannot be described as a ratio of two integers.

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Number systems
The Pythagoreans had probably manually measured the diagonal of a unit square before. They probably
regarded the measurement as an approximation that was close to a precise rational number that must be
the true length of the diagonal. Before Hippassus, they had no reason to suspect that there are numbers
that cannot exist as an integral ratio p/q.

Problem: Prove that 2 is irrational.

Proof: Let us assume that, 2 is not irrational.
So, 2 it is rational.
x
 2= where x, y are integers and y  0
y
Let x and y be co-primes.
Taking squares on both sides,
x2
2=
y2
 2y2 = x2 ………(1)
 2 divides x2
 2 divides x
for some integer z,
x = 2z ……………(2)
From (1) and (2)
2y2 = 4z2
 y2 = 2z2
 2 divides y2
 2 divides y
x and y have at least 2 as a common factor.
But it contradicts the fact that x and y are co-primes.
 2 is irrational.

Example: Show that 3 + 2 is irrational.

Solution: Let us assume that 3 + 2 is irrational.
p
3+ 2 = where p and q are integers
q
p
 2= −3
q
p − 3q
 2=
q
p − 3q
Since p and q are integers, is rational.
q
But 2 is irrational
It contradicts our assumption that 3 + 2 is rational.
 Our assumption is wrong
Hence 3 + 2 is irrational.

Activity: Constructing irrational distances.

Materials required: Geometry box, Calculator
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Number systems

This activity is based on the Pythagoras Theorem. Let us revise it.

Pythagoras Theorem states that the two sides a, b and the hypotenuse c of a right-angled triangle is
related by a2 + b2 = c2

Now take a sheet of paper and construct a right-angled triangle with equal sides of 1 unit length (say 1
inch or 3 cm depending on your choice) in the middle of the paper. Use set squares and compasses
wherever required. The length of the hypotenuse, by Pythagoras theorem, is √2
Then, extend a line with length 1 unit at right angles to the first hypotenuse as follows. This gives us
length √3 after we apply Pythagoras' Theorem to the new triangle.

Keep going this way to construct more numbers until you almost finish one revolution of a spiral. What is
the last number that you have constructed? If it was √17 then your construction was nearly perfect!

Now, measure all the distances and verify the values using your calculator. For example, √2 = 1.4 units
(Approximately). Verify this distance using your measuring scale.

This spiral is known as the ‘Wheel of Theodorus’, named after the discoverer Theodorus of Cyrene who
was a 5th century B.C. mathematician. He was born around 100 years after Pythagoras.
This wheel is also known as the ‘Pythagorean Snail’ owing to its shape.

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Number systems

Question
Think of other methods to construct numbers like √5, √10, √13 etc.
(Hint: Use numbers other than 1 and write the numbers in the form of a sum of 2, 3 or more squares)

Activity: Construction of 4th, 8th, 16th roots and so on:

Let us say that the number whose roots are to be found is x. Take a large sheet of paper and start the
construction.
Step 1: Now, draw a line segment of length 1 + x units (Choose the length of each unit to be large enough.
About 5 cm should be fine) marked so that AB has length 1 and BC had length x.
Step 2: Find the midpoint of the segment D.
Step 3: Construct a semicircle from A to C centered at D with radius AD.
Step 4: Construct at B a line perpendicular to AC and extend through the semicircle at point E.

Your move: Prove that ABE is similar to triangle CBE.

(Hint: The angle subtended by a diameter is 90 degrees)

Now AB/BE = BE/CB.

So, BE2 = AB. CB = 1.x = x.

BE = √x.

Now repeat steps 1 to 4 with the next BC as the current BE. You will obtain the square root of square root
of x i.e. the 4th root of x. Continue this way to construct further powers of x.

Remainder Theorem for numbers

We know that when a number M is divided by another number N, and if M > N, then the remainder is
calculated by subtracting the maximum possible multiple of N from M.
In the process the excess portion remained after subtraction is called remainder, the maximum multiple of
N is called quotient, and M and N are called dividend and divisor respectively.
Dividend = Quotient x Divisor + Remainder

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Number systems

Important points on the remainder

• The remainder is always less than the divisor.

• If the remainder is 0, then the divisor is called the factor of the dividend
• If the dividend is less than the divisor, then the remainder is dividend itself.

Remainder of the expression can be expressed as positive remainders and negative

remainders. Technically both positive and negative remainders are correct.
But remainders by definition are always non-negative. So final answer to be expressed in
positive value only. For simplification of solution take negative remainder and finally it is
to be convert into positive remainders.

Note:
• Add divisor to negative remainder then it will gives positive remainder
• Subtract positive remainder from divisor then it will gives negative remainder
Example : Find the remainder of the expression of 107 / 9
Positive remainder = +8
Negative remainder = -1
In this expression finding the negative remainder is very easy when compare to positive
remainder.
So take negative remainder “-1″ and add to it divisor ” 9″ then gives final answer = – 1 +
9 =8

The remainder of the expression will be the same as the remainder of the
expression

Where
A R is the remainder when “A” is divided by ” N”
B R is the remainder when “B” is divided by ” N”
C R is the remainder when “C” is divided by ” N”
D R is the remainder when “D” is divided by ” N”

Example : Find the remainder when 47 x 52 is divided by 6

Here remainder for 47/6 is -1 or 5 and 52/6 is -2 or 4
Case – 1 : -1 x -2 = 2/ 6 remainder = 2
Case – 2 : –1 x 4 = -4 / 6 remainder = – 4 + 6 (add divisor) = 2
Case - 3 : 5 x -2 = -10 / 6 remainder = – 4 + 6 (add divisor) = 2
Case – 4 : 5 x 4 = 20 / 6 remainder = 2

If we can express the expression in the form , the remainder will become 1
Example : Find the remainder when (321) 5 6 8 7 is divided by 8
321 can be expressed as [(8×40) + 1] so
remainder of the above example is (1) 5 6 8 7 = 1

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Number systems

If we can express the expression in the form , the remainder will become ( – 1 ) n
Example : Find the remainder when (146) 5 6 is divided by 7
146 can be expressed as [(7×21) – 1] so
Remainder of the above example is ( - 1) 5 6 = 1

Exercises:
1. What is the least value of x, so that 2x5472 is A. 61 B. 56
divisible by 9 C. 52 D. 65
A. 7 B. 8
C. 9 D. 3 11.A number N2 has 15 factors. How many factors
can N have?
2. What is the least value of k. So that 123k578 is
A. 5 or 7 factors B. 6 or 8 factors
divisible by 11.
C. 4 or 6 factors D. 9 or 8 factors
A. 8 B. 7
C. 5 D. 6
12. A set has exactly five consecutive positive
3. Find the number of different prime factors of
integers starting with 1. What is the percentage
2400
decrease in the average of the numbers when the
A.4 B. 2
greatest one of the numbers is removed from the
C. 3 D.5
set?
4. A boy was asked to find 7/9 of a number. But he A. 8.54 B. 12.56
divided the number by 7/9, Thus he got 32 more C. 15.25 D. 16.6
than the correct answer. Find the number.
A.61 B. 63 13. What is the correct arrangement of the
C. 62 D.54 5 7 13 16 3
fractions , , , , and in ascending order of
8 12 16 29 4
5. Find the greatest number that will divide 1657, magnitude.
and 2037 to leaves the remainder 6 and 5
respectively 16 7 5 3 13
A. < < < <
A.121 B. 123 29 12 8 4 16

C. 129 D.127 16 7 5 13 3
B. 29 < 12 < 8 < 16 < 4
6. Four bells first begin to toll together with
7 16 5 13 3
intervals of 5, 10, 15 and 20 sec. How many times C. 12 < 29
< 8 < 16 < 4
does they toll together in an hour? 16 5 7 3 13
D. < < < <
29 8 12 4 16
A.60 B. 59
C. 61 D.58
 1 
14. If x = (8 + 3 7 ) , what is the value  x − ?
8.If 1624 is divided by 17, the remainder is  x
A.1 B. 3 A. 13 B. 14
C. 4 D.8 C. 15 D. 16

9. If a three-digit number ‘abc’ has 3 factors, how

Additional Problems on Number system
many factors does the 6-digit number ‘abcabc’
1. Which is the following is divisible by 11.
have?
A. 4305 B. 4825
A. 16 factors B. 24 factors
C. 4805 D. 4905
C. 16 or 24 factors D. 20 factors
2. Find the sum of first 70 odd numbers
10. How many numbers are there less than 100 that
A.4900 B. 4970
cannot be written as a multiple of a perfect square
C. 4990 D.4980
greater than 1?

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Number systems
3. Find the sum of all odd number up to 250. C. 4 D.5
A.15345 B. 15645
C. 15625 D.15342 14. Find the least number which is exactly divisible
by 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18.
4. In a division, dividend is 689, division is 36 and A.5010 B. 5030
quotient is 19. Find the remainder. C. 5040 D.5020
A.4 B. 3
C. 2 D.5 15. Find the least number which when divided by
35, 45 and 55 leaves remainder 20, 30 and 40
5. Find the number of divisors of 248 other than respectively
unity and itself A.3450 B. 3250
A.3 B. 5 C. 3420 D.3410
C. 6 D.9
16. Find the greatest number of the five digits
6. How many digits are used to number a book which is exactly divisible by 16, 25, 28 and 32.
containing 300 pages. A.95200 B. 99550
A.694 B. 792 C. 999560 D.99200
C. 698 D.784
17. Find the least number of four digits which
7. When a number divided by 288, the remainder is when divided by 4, 5 and 6 leaving the remainder 2
47. Find the remainder when the same number is in each case.
divided by 24. A.1022 B. 1020
A.24 B. 21 C. 1032 D.1002
C. 23 D.25
18. Find the maximum power of 5 contained in 200!
8. Find the difference between largest and smallest = 200*199*198*197……3*2*1
number formed by the digits 0,1,2,3,5 A.40 B. 50
A.41375 B. 42975 C. 48 D.49
C. 42775 D.43565
19. Find the difference between the local value and
9. Find the L.C.M of 12, 25, 24 and 20. face value of 5 in the numeral 475240 is
A. 240 B. 600 A.4990 B. 4890
C. 320 D. 150 C. 4995 D.4885
10. Find the H.C.F of 300, 450, 525. 20. (1 - 2 + 3 - 4 + 5 - 6 ) =?
2 2 2 2 2 2

A.125 B. 50 A.11 B. -11

C. 75 D.25 C. 10 D.None of these

11. L.C.M of two numbers is 192 and their H.C.F is 21. (74 + 75 + 76 + 77 + .... + 149 + 150) =?
16. If one of them is 48. Find the other A.8624 B. 8634
A.32 B. 64 C. 8654 D.8644
C. 48 D.68
22. (112 + 122 + 132 + ........+ 252) =?
12. Two numbers are in the ratio 5:8 and their A. 7140 B. 6140
H.C.F is 4. Find the numbers. C. 5140 D.8654
A.25 and 40 B. 20 and 32
C. 30 and 48 D.15 and 24 23. If n is a natural number, then (n3 - n) is always
divisible by
13. Find the greatest number which divides 284, A.8 B. 6
678 and 1618 leaves the same remainder in each C.12 D. Can't be determined
case.
A.2 B. 3

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Number systems
24. If x is an even integer, then which of the 33. Find the number of divisors of 175.
following is a true statement? A.15 B. 12
A. x is a prime number C. 9 D.6
B. (x2 + 4) is an even integer
34. The number of divisors excluding 1 and itself
C. x is a Composite number
for the number 1540 is
D. (x2 - 1) is an even integer
A.22 B. 20
C. 18 D.16
25. Which of the following numbers is prime?
A. 441 B. 223 35. NUMBER THEORY – FACTORS
C. 357 D.153 The sum of the factors of a number is 124. What is
32. The difference between the squares of two the number?
consecutive odd integers is always divisible by A. Number lies between 40 and 50
A.5 B. 8 B. Number lies between 50 and 60
C. 3 D.None of these C. Number lies between 60 and 80
D. More than one such number exist
26. In a division sum, the divisor is 5 times the 36. How many factors of 25 * 36 * 52 are perfect
quotient and two times the remainder. If the squares?
remainder is 40, then the dividend is A.18 B. 24
A.1320 B. 1380 C. 36 D. 8
C. 1395 D.None of these
37.How many factors of 24 * 53 * 74 are odd
27. A Positive number which when added to 999 numbers?
given a sum which is greater than when it is A.100 B. 99
multiplied by 999. Which of the following could be C. 20 D. 24
the value of the positive integer? 38. How many factors of the number 28 * 36 * 54 *
A.5 B. 3 105 are multiples of 120?
C. 1 D.None of these A. 540 B. 660
C. 594 D. 792
28. An even number, a total of whose digits is 27, is
always divisible by 39. Number N = 26 * 55 * 76 * 107; how many factors
A.14 B. 9 of N are even numbers?
C. 7 D.None of these A.1183 B. 1200
29. What is the difference between the greatest and C. 1050 D. 840
the smallest five-digit numbers formed using the 40. Numbers A, B, C and D have 16, 28, 30 and 27
digits 7, 0, 3, 4 and 2 without repeating the digits? factors. Which of these could be a perfect cube?
A.53978 B. 53916 A. A and B B. B and C
C. 53961 D.None of these C. A, B and C D. B and D

30. The sum of the first 100 numbers, 1 to 100 is 41. Find the smallest number that has exactly 18
always divisible by factors.
A.2 B. 2 and 4 A. 180 B. 216
C. 2, 4 and 8 D.None of these C.240 D. None of these

31. Find the least value of 'a' so that 365a24 is 42. If a three-digit number ‘abc’ has 2 factors
divisible by 8. (where a, b, c are digits), how many factors does
A.9 B. 8 the 6- digit number ‘abcabc’ have?
C. 0 D.2 A.16 B. 24
C. 18 D. 30
32. Find the number of digits that are to be used in
numbering a book of 400 pages. 43. What is the smallest number that has exactly 12
A.1094 B. 1093 factors?
C. 1092 D.1099 A.211 B. 60
C. 120 D.144

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Number systems
44. A number, when divided by a divisor, leaves a
remainder of 24. When twice the original number is 57. What is the remainder when 91 + 92 + 93 + .... + 98
divided by the same divisor, the remainder is 11. is divided by 6?
What is the value of the divisor? A.3 B.2 C.0 D.5
A.13 B.59 C.35 D.37
58. If a and b are positive integers, and x=2×3×7×a,
45. The product of 4 consecutive even numbers is
and y=2×2×8×b, and the values of both x and y lie
always divisible by:
between 120 and 130 (not including the two), then a
A.600 B.768 C.864 D.384
–b=
46. What is the minimum number of square A.-2 B.-1 C.1 D.2
marbles required to tile a floor of length 5 metres 78
cm and width 3 metres 74 cm? 59. A number when divided by 342 gives a
A.176 B.187 C.540 D.748 remainder 47. When the same number is
47. Find the remainder when 289289 is divided by divided by 19, what would be the remainder?
8989? A.5 B.9 C.4 D.0
A.1 B.2 C.87 D.88
60. A bank issued credit card numbers and the
48. What is the remainder when 37 is divided by 8? corresponding PIN. Both are 3-digit numbers up to
A.1 B.2 C.3 D.5 996. Pinaki was the last to get the credit card and so
49. A boy writes all the numbers from 100 to 999. he had the last possible credit card number.
The number of zeroes that he uses is ‘a’, the He was afraid of forgetting his PIN. He wrote
number of 5’s that he uses is ‘b’ and the number of down the number 123 in his diary to remember his
8’s he uses is ‘c’ what is the value of b+c-ab+ca? PIN. He also wrote out the way to calculate 123:
A. 280 B. 380 C. 180 D. 80 "Multiply the card number by PIN. Divide the
product by 997. The remainder is 123".
50. When writing numbers from 1 to 10,000, how Once, Prafull saw his diary in which Pinaki wrote
many times is the digit 9 written? this number 123. Prafull did a lot of purchasing, as
A. 3200 B. 3600 C. 4000 D.4200 he now knows Pinaki's PIN. What is Pinaki's PIN?
51. Which digits should come in place of @ and # if A.874 B.875 C.876 D.877
the number 62684@# is divisible by both 8 and 5?
A.4.0 B.0.4 C.4.4 D.1.1
61. The least common multiple of two natural
52. How many keystrokes are needed to type numbers a and b, is 399.
numbers from 1 to 1000 on a standard keyboard? What is the minimum possible sum of the digits of
A.3001 B.2893 C.2704 D.2890 the number a (given a > b)?
A.1 B.3 C.5 D.7
53. How many natural numbers below 660 are
divisible by 5 and 11 but not by 3? 62. When 242 is divided by a certain divisor the
A.8 B.9 C.10 D.11 remainder obtained is 8. When 698 is divided by
the same divisor the remainder obtained is 9.
54. What is the maximum value of m such However, when the sum of the two numbers 242
that 7m divides 14! evenly? and 698 is divided by the divisor, the remainder
A.1 B.2 C.3 D.4 obtained is 4.
What is the value of the divisor?
55. Find the remainder when 3164 is divided by 162? A.11 B.17 C.13 D.23
A.0 B.9 C.11 D.81
63. Suppose n is an integer such that the sum of
56. Which one of the following is the minimum digits of n is 2, and 1010 < 𝑛 < 10𝑛 . The number of
value of the sum of two integers whose product is different values of n is:
36? A.8 B.9 C.10 D.11
A.37 B.20 C.15 D.12

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Number systems
64. What is the remainder when 72×82 is divided by 72. The positive integers m and n leave remainders
6? of 2 and 3, respectively, when divided by 6. Where
A.2 B.4 C.6 D.8 m > n. What is the remainder when m – n is
divided by 6?
65. Four digits of the number 29138576 are omitted A.2 B.3 C.5 D.6
so that the result is as large as possible. The largest 83. How many zeroes are there in 2000^10?
omitted digit is: A. 10 B. 30 C. 20 D. 15
A.5 B.6 C.7 D.8

66. If a person makes a row of toys of 20 each, there

would be 15 toys left. If they made to stand in rows
of 25 each, there would be 20 toys left, if they made
to stand in rows of 38 each, there would be 33 toys
left and if they are made to stand in rows of 40
each, there would be 35 toys left.
What is the minimum number of toys the person
has?
A. 1,255 B.3,805 C.7,595 D.3,795

67. For what value of 'n' will the remainder

of 351n351n and 352n352n be the same when
divided by 7?
A.2 B.3 C.6 D.4

68. pqr is a three-digit natural number so

that pqr=p!+q!+r!
What is the value of (q+r)p?
A.1296 B.3125 C.19683 D.9

69. a,b,c,d, and e are five consecutive numbers in

increasing order of size. Deleting one of the five
numbers from the set decreased the sum of the
remaining numbers in the set by 20%.
Which one of the following numbers were deleted?
A. a B. b C. c D. d E. e

70. A chain smoker had spent all the money he had.

He had no money to buy his cigarettes. Hence, he
resorted to join the stubs and to smoke them.
He needed 4 stubs to make a single cigarette. If he
got a pack of 10 cigarettes as a gift, then how many
cigarettes could he smoke in all?
A.10 B.11 C.12 D.13

71. 2ab5 is a four-digit number divisible by 25. If

the number formed from the two digits ab is a
multiple of 13, then ab =
A.10 B.25 C.52 D.65

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